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Conventionalmaterialinlocalbuildingconstructioncheaper(materialsand
construction)

ARTUseofjudgementbasedon:experience,designpractice,construction
practice
(PartofthedesignersofBurjKhalifawerealsoinvolvedinthedesignofPetronas
TwinTowersandTaipei101)

SCIENCEsystematicmethodsofstudybasedon(a)structuralmechanics,(b)
materialbehavior,(c)sourceandeffectsofactions

BurjKhalifaprimarystructureisreinforcedconcrete.192piles;eachpileis1.5

metrediameterx43mlong,buriedmorethan50m

Notes:
1.Computations(Science)serveonlyasaguidetodesigndecisionsto
verifythatthestructurewillbehaveasintended
2.Designproblemsareinherentlyindeterminatesuchthatseveral
alternativesolutionsarepossible
3.Actualbehaviorofstructuresareverycomplex
a. Knowledgeisfarfromcomplete(uncertaintiesandrandomvariables)
b. Simplifyingassumptionsarerequired
c. Physicalmodellingservesasverification

SAFE(STRENGTH)structureshouldnotposeanydangerofinjuryorfatality
(occupants,passers,andoccupantsofadjacentstructures

ECONOMICAL

SERVICEABILITYstructuresaredesignedtoavoidconditionswhichmayinterfere
withnormaloperationsorfunctionsofthedifferentcomponents(e.g.excessive
deflections/drift,vibration,andcracking)

Structuraldesigngivenitscomplicatednature,designersfindawaytoadaptasystem
thatwillgovernthestandardsofstructuraldesignbuildingcodes

Specificationsdesignrequirementwithrespectto[Strength]material,design
loadings,loadcombinations,designmethods,strengthevaluationand
[Serviceability]requirements
e.g.sidestory:HyattTerraces,BaguioCity

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Ultimateconditionswhichmakethestructureunsafeduetothecollapseofany
partoforthewholestructure

lossofequilibrium(slidingortipping),rupture(collapse),progressivecollapse
(collision,explosion,9/11attack),formationofamechanism(plastichinges),
instability(buckling),fatigue

Serviceabilityconditionswhichmakethestructureunusableduetothe
disruptionofthefunctionaluseofpartoforthewholestructure

Deflections(fear,additionalloads,transferofforces),crackwidths(leakage,
corrosionordeterioration),vibrations(MMDAbridge,occupantcomfort)

Q:Howdowenowtranslatethesetheoriesmathematically?
A:Afterknowingthelimitstates,we'llnowproceedtodesignourstructure
basedontheselimitstates

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LimitStatesDesignadesignprocedurewhereinthestructureorstructural
membersarearrangedandproportionedsuchthatnoapplicablelimitstateis
exceededwhensubjectedtoallappropriateloadcombinations
Basicprocess
Determineallpotentialorsignificantlimitstates
Determineacceptablelevelsofsafetyagainsttheoccurrenceofeachlimit
states
Design/proportionstructure/memberstoprovidetherequiredsafety
Example:designofmonorail(ultimate,serviceability)

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Fromthelawofstatics,wecanprovidethebendingmomentdiagram.This
meansthatatpoint(x)alongthebeam,thereisaninternalbendingmoment
equivalenttothevaluesonthebendingmomentdiagram.Thisbendingmoment
isconsideredas"loadeffect"

Otherloadeffectsincludeshearforce,axialforce,deflectionandvibration

Inbothexamples,thememberwillsupporttheloadssafely,ifateverysection,the
strengthofthemember(resistance)exceedstheloadeffects

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Remarks:
1.QandRarerandomvariables
Inreality,themostonecanlearnistheprobabilityofthestrengthofthe
testspecimentakingcertainvalue
Randomvariableisavariablethatcannotbepredictedbutisgovernedby
probabilisticrules(withprobabilitydistribution,PDFe.g.Gaussian)
2.Variabilityinstrengthandloading
3.Incontrast,randomvariablevs.deterministicvariable(seeslides)
4.Toaddressvariability,weintroducesafetyfactorsShouldbesuchthat
thereisonlya"small"probabilityofthestructurebeingunsafe

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Note:otherdesignprocedureistheWorkingStressDesign(ES13?CE156?)
Asthenamesuggest,proportioningorfactoringinordertoavoidpossible
overloads

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1. Requiredstrength(factor*loadeffects)canbeacquiredfromthegiven
loading(externalloads),whilethedesignstrength(factor*nominal
strength)canbeacquiredfromthespecifiedconcreteandsteel
strengthsanddimensionsshownonthedrawings
2. Loadfactorsandstrengthfactorprovidesminimummarginofsafety

Safeandunsafecombinationsofloadsandresistance(Note:replaceSwithQfor
ourclassnotation)
therefore
Ifwehaveloadeffect withresistance ,wenotethat
failure(comparewith , )
Ingeneral,foragivenloadeffectS,asweincreasethevalueofR,weare
moreintheSafeZone

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Safetymargin,probabilityoffailureandsafetyindex
,havingnormaldistribution
Safetymargin,
Ifthesafetymarginiszero,wesaythatthematerialfail.Thereforetheshaded
portion(whichoccupies )istheprobabilityoffailure
Notingthatwehavethevalueofthemeanvalue, andstandarddeviation
,weintroducethesafetyindex,
Asweincreasethemeanvalue(meaning,Rincreases),wealsoincreasethe
valueofsafetyindex.Ifforexample,
3.5,fromthetableofnormal
distribution,willresulttoaprobabilityoffailureequalto1/9090orroughly1
inevery10,000structuralmembersdesignedonanygiven and value
satisfying equalto3.5
Loadfactorsandstrengthfactorwereselectedinconsiderationofthesafety
index
Q:ifweapplynumericalfactorstoRandQ,whichquantitywouldbe
reducedandwhichquantitywouldbeamplified?

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Now,ifwearetalkingaboutloadeffects,forcertaininrealstructurestherewill
bedifferenttypeofloadswhichwillconstitutesucheffects(e.g.Wind,
Earthquake,Soil,etc.).Moreover,sincewewilldealwithloadfactors,itwould
bethenlogicaltoconsidertheeffectofeachtypeofloadsandapply
appropriateloadfactor.Ontopofthat,wewanttodesignfortheultimateload
orthemaximumrequiredstrengthinconsiderationofdifferenttypeofloads
appliedonourstructure.Hence:loadcombination(NSCP203.3.1andNSCP
409.3.1)

Askiftheyalreadyknowabouttheearthquakeandwindloads

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Remarks:
Thesymbol andsubscript areusedtorefertothesumofthefactoredloads
representingtherequiredstrengthormaybeexpressedintermsoftheload
effects, , , withtheircorrespondingloads
Reasonsforspecifyingloadfactors
Magnitudemayvaryfromcalculated
Deadmembersize,dimensions,materialdensitiesandestimates
forcomponentsystems(utilities,ceilings,walls)
Livestatisticallydetermined
Uncertaintiesindistribution
Uncertaintiesarisingindeterminationofloadeffects
Assumptions/variationsinmaterialandsectionproperties(linear
analysis)
Modellingsimplification
Degreeofcracking(nonlinear)
Changeinuseoroccupancy

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