Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
1. Compare prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes

-no membrane bound nucleus

-have distinct nucleus

hereditary material suspended in a portion of

cytoplasm ( nucleoid/nuclear region )

membrane-bounded nucleus

devoid mitochondria and organelles

contain mitocondria and organelles

eg: i.mycoplasma,
ii.ricketsia,
iii. Chlamydia,
iv.blue-green algae

eg: i.algae,
protozoa,
slime moulds,

ii.
iii.
iv.fungi

Chapter 2
BACTERIAL STRUCTURE
1) Compare :
Gram +ve
Peptidoglycan
layer

i.As many as40 sheets

ii.50% of cell wall material

Teichoic acid

i.Teichoic acid and cell wall

associated protein are major
surface antigen

Outer
membrane

Absent

Periplasmic
space

Absent

Gram ve
i.Thin, 1-2 sheets
ii. 5-10% of cell wall
material
Absent
Outer surface is composed
of molecules of
lipopolysaccharide (LPS).
i.Lipid A of LPS forms the
endotoxin,
ii.while polysaccharides are
major surface antigen
Space between cytoplasmic
and outer membrane
containing i.peptidoglycan
layer
ii.gel-like solution of protein

2)

a) The composition of Gram positive and Gram negative cell wall

Gram positive
-i.peptidoglycan
ii. teichoic acid

Gram negative
-i.peptidoglycan,
iiouter membrane and
iii.periplasmic space

b) Mycoplasm and L-forms of bacteria

Mycoplasm

L-form of bacteria

-exist without cell wall

-wall deficient or defective bacteria

c) Flagella and fimbriae (pili)

Flagella

pili

-consist of protein called flagellin which are

highly antigenic

-composed of structural protein subunits called

pilins

-function: for movement of bacteria

-function: adherence and conjugation

d)Short pili and sex pilus

Short pili

sex pili

-enable bacteria to attach to host surfaces and

establish infection

-involved in transfer of DNA between bacteria

by process of conjugation

Chapter 3
BACTERIAL GROWTH
Obligate Aerobes
Oxygen
requirement
Example

Require oxygen for growth

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Obligate Anaerobes
Require complete absence of
oxygen
Bacteroides fragilis

Chapter 4
BACTERIOPHAGES
Chapter 5
BACTERIAL GENETICS
1. Compare:
Replication
Copy number
Size

a.Relaxed Plasmids
Absence of protein
30-50 copies/cell
Small

Stringent Plasmids
Acquired protein synthesis
1-5 copies.cell
Large

Size

b.Conjugative Plasmids
Large

Non-conjugative Plasmids
Usually small

Copy number
F factors
Transfer among
bacteria
Host bacteria
Conjugation

1-2
Present
By conjugation
Common in Gram-ve bacilli
Can conjugate

c.Insertion sequence
Simplest type of transposable elements
Encode enzyme necessary for :
a) Recombination (transposition)
b) The control of frequency of
transposition

>30
Absent
By the help of conjugative
plasmid
Common in Gram+ve cocci
Cannot conjugate

Transposons
Complex transposable elements
Encode specific genes, flanked by two IS
elements.

Chapter 6
BACTERIAL VARIATIONS
1) a. Compare between phenotypic and genotypic variation.

Phenotypic variation

Genotypic variation

i.It occurs in respond to changes in the

environmental condition
ii.without change in the genetic
constitution

It occurs as a result of a change in the

underlying genetic constitution

Reversible

irreversible

Not-heritable

Heritable

Example:
a. L-forms bacteria
b. Loss of flagella upon exposure to
phenol

It occurs through:
a. Mutation
b. Gene transfer:
Transformation
Transduction
Conjugation

b.Compare between generalized and specialized transduction

Generalized transduction

Type of phage

Replication cycle Lytic cycle

The transfer

Lytic phage

Any piece of bacteria

DNA(chromosomal or

Specialized
transduction
Temperate phage
Lysogenic cycle
A specific piece of DNA
adjacent to the site of the

DNA fragment

plasmid)

insertion of the phage.

Single-base mutation

Frame-shift mutation

a.occur:
replacement of a single
nucleotide in the coding
sequence.
b.Eg:
1.Same sense(Silent)
mutation-same amino acid
2.Missense mutationdifferent amino acid is
produced

a.Occur:
insertion or deletion of
single nucleotide to coding
sequence
b.Eg:
a. insertion of
transportable elements

Chapter 7
GENETIC

RECOMBINATION
Chapter 8
ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
Chapter 9
DISINFECTION AND STERILIZATIOn
Chapter 10
BACTERIAL PATHOGENESIS
2.Compare:
a)pathogenicity and virulence
pathogenicity=i.A qualitative description of a species of bacteria
ii.denoting ability to produce disease
virulence=A quantitative character (degree of pathogenicity) of a strain belonging to pathogenic species
b)exotoxins and endotoxins
Endotoxins
Integral part of the cell wall of Gram
ve organisms during cell
disintegration
Coding genes Encoded by
Encoded by genes on the
chromosomes,plasmids,bacteriophages chromosomes
or PAI
exampes
C. diphteriae (phage)
E. coli
Cl. tetani (plasmid)
Meningococcal endotoxins
source

Exotoxins
Secreted by living oraganisms both
Gram +ve(mainly) and Gram -ve

B. pertussis (chromosomes)
H. pylori (PAI)
nature
protein
antigenicity
Highly antigenic
Heat stability Unstable to temp. above 60 c
detoxification Can be converted into toxoid
Specificity
Every toxin has specific action
toxicity

high

Lipopolysaccharide (lipid A)
Poorly antigenic
Stable to temp. above 60 c
Can not
Same generalized effect,all give
fever and shock (non specific action)
low

Chapter 11
OVERVIEW OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
1.Compare:
A)innate& acquired immunity
Innate

Acquired

Presence

Since birth

Onset of action

Immediately after infection

Main cells

B&T lymphocytes

Memory

Granulocytes, monocytes /
macrophages, NK cells
Absent

Efficiency

Less efficient

Specificity

Non specific:
Present in all individuals, against all
microorganisms
Interact with acquired immunity
through: e.g.-antigen presentation

More efficient and improves

with each exposure
Specific:
Occur in a given person,
Against a particular pathogen
Interact with innate immunity
through: e.g.- opsonization

Interaction

B)T&B cell receptor

B cell receptor

Following exposure to
pathogens
Relatively delayed

Present

T cell receptor

It is an antibody molecule

It is a dipeptide molecule

Has 2 antigen recognition site

1 antigen recognition site

Can be active even after detachment

Cannot be active after detachment-always

need cell surface receptor
Recognize the antigen only when
presented by antigen presenting cells

Can recognize the antigen directly

Chapter 12
INNATE IMMUNITY
4. Compare:
Innate immunity

Acquired immunity

Presence

Since birth

Following exposure o pathogens

Onset of action

Immediately after infection

Relatively delayed

Main cells

Granulocytes
Monocytes/macrophage
NK cells

B & T lymphocytes

Memory

Absent

Present

Effeciency

Less efficient

More efficient and improves with each

exposure

Specificity

Non-specific :
Present in all individuals against
all microorganisms

Specific :
Occurs in given person,against a
particular pathogen

Interaction

Interact with acquired immunity

through :
- Antigen presentation

Interact with innate immunity through :

-Opsonization

Chapter 13
ANTIGENS
1

Chapter 14
T-CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY
2) Compare: endogenous and exogenous pathogens

Examples

Cytosolic endogenous
All viruses,few bacteria

Degraded in
Peptides bind to
Presented to
result

cytoplasm
MHC I
CD8
Cytotoxic killing of presenting

Vesicular exogenous
-intracellular bacteria
-extracellular bacteria and their
products when internalized
Vesicles
MHC II
CD4
-Secretion of cytokines by CD4

cell by CD8

Ability to respond
quickly and efficiently
when encounter
antigen an target
cells
Can be trigger to act
without need costimulation

-help macrophages.B cells and

others

Effector T cells

Nave T cells

Yes

No

Yes

No

b) Ordinary antigen and superantigen

Ordinary Antigen

Superantigen

Processing inside
APCs

Yes

No

Presentation by MHC
molecules

Yes

No

Site of binding to
MHC molecule

Peptide-binding cleft

Outside peptide-binding
cleft

Binding to TCR

Variable portion of
and chains

Variable portion of
chain

Very specific

Not very specific

Stimulated

Supressed

Development of
memory

Yes

No

Result of T cell
stimulation

Usually beneficial to
host

Usually harmful to host

Specificity of TCR to
it
Acquired immune
response

c) NK cells and Tc cells

Tc cells

NK cells

MHC restriction

Resticted to MHC I

No restriction

Antigen specificity

Specific to certain
antigen

Not specific

Mechanism of killing

Direct killing
Direct killing

Antigen dependant
cellular cytotoxity
(ADDC)

Chapter 15
CYTOKINES

Chapter 16
THE HUMORAL IMMUNE RESPONSE
4.Compare
Thymus dependent
1)Requires second signal from t
cell
2)Activation of t cell
Small antigen
IgM then IgG production,can
change to other isotype with same
immunological specificity
Memory cell is produced
Fast
IgG
Single basic unit (monomer)

Thymus independent
1)No need of second signal from t cell
2)no t help

T cell
antigen

Large antigen
Bacteria pathogen
IgM only,no class switching

Ig
Memory
cell
Duration

Memory cell absent

Fast and earlier
IgM

i.5 bassic unit(pentamer)

ii.held together by disulphide bond n a
single J(joining) chain

75 % circulating Igs in blood

8-10% circulating Igs in blood

Major antibody of the secondary immune

respone

Major antibody of the primary immune

respone

Only Igs which can cross placental barrier

Cannot cross placental barrier

Biological activities:

Biological activities:

Neutralization
Opsonization
Complement activation
ADCC

Agglutination
Complement activation
IgM found on the surface of B cell
forming BCR

Primary response

Secondary response

Long (7-10 days)

Short(few hours to gew

days)

Low

High(10 times greater)

Duration

Short (antibody declines

rapidly)

Long (month)

Ig class

Predominantly IgM

Predominantly IgG

Absent

Present

Induction(lag)period
Antibody level

Memory cell

Chapter 17
COMPLEMENT
1) Compare :
a) The classical and alternative complement pathways.
b) The 3 complement pathways.
Type of pathway
Type of immuniti
lectin
Initiation

Classical pathway
Acquired(specific)

Lectin pathway
Innate(non-specific)

Alternative pathway
Innate(non-specific)

Antigen-antibody
complex

Lectin bindind to
pathogen surface

Role of antibody

Needed for
initiation (activation
of C1)
No role

No role

Microbial
components (e.g.
endotoxin)
No role

No role

Have a role

No role

Has a role

No role

C1,4,2,3,5,6,7,8,9

C4,2,3,5,6,7,8,9

C3,5,6,7,8,9

Role of faotor B,D

and properdin
Role of mannosebinding lectin
The involved
component

Chapter 18
IMMUNITY TO MICROBES
3.Compare:
a)Type 1 IFN with antibobies in immunity against viruses
Type 1 IFN

Antibodies

Act early in viral infection

Act at a later stage in viral infection

Again intracellular viruses

Again extracellular viruses

Not specific agains certain viruses

Specific in action

b)active and passive acquired immunity

Active

Passive

Role of immune system

Important role

No role

Mechanism

Stimulate B/t cell

MHC1 Onset of protection

Found on surface of all nucleated cell
Duration of protection
Composed of 2 polypeptide chain
Memory cell
( i.alpha chain
ii.beta-2 microglobulin chain )
Examples
Locus : HLA-A,
HLA-B, HLA-C

Transfer of ready made

antibobies/lymphocytes
MHC@
Delayed
immediate
Found on surface of the professional
Longer
Shorter
antigen presenting cell.
Composed of 2 glycoprotein chain
yes
no
i.alpha chain
ii.beta chain )
i.Natural
infection HLA-DQ, HLA-DR
i.maternally acquired
Locus : HLA-DP,
ii.Acive immunization
antibodies
with vaccines
ii.passive immunization
with antitoxin serum

c)immunity to extracellular and intracellular bacteria

Immunity to Extracellular bacteria

Immunity to Intracellular bacteria

Innate
immunity

i.Process start with phagocytosis

then degradation
ii.Activation of complement by
alternative pathway

i.Only phagocytosis no
degradation(bacterial resistance)
ii.NK cell produce IFN then
activate macrophage

Acquired
immunity

i.Humoral immunity play role

ii.Both Th1 and Th2 play role

i.Humoral immunity no role

ii.Only Th1 play role

Chapter 19
TUMOR IMMUNOLOGY
Chapter 20
HYPERSENSITIVITY
Chapter 21
TRANSPLANTATION IMMUNOLOGY
Chapter 22
Tolerance and Autoimmunity
Chapter 23
IMMUNODEFICIENCY DISEASES
Chapter 24
ANTIGEN-ANTIBODY REACTION

a. Coombss Test:
Function: To detect non-agglutinating antibodies.
Direct
Differences
Indirect
Red cell of newbornsSample
Serum of Rh ve mother sensitize
erythroblastosis fetalis
with Rh antigen
Hemolytic anemia patients
Method
1-Patients RBC washed
2-Add anti human globulin to cell
suspension
Positive result

1-Serum + Rh +ve + group O red

cells => incubated
2-Washing
3-Add anti-human globulin
Agglutination Positive result