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Introduction
Birka, often considered Swedens first town, had a
strategic location on the island Bjorko, 25 km west of
modern-day Stockholm (Ambrosiani, 2012). Archaeological excavations of Birka have unearthed numerous
objects from distant places, testifying to Birkas
importance as a trading center during the Viking Age
(A.D. 7931066) (cf. Hagg, 83; Jansson, 85a, 88;
Duczko, 97; Ambrosiani and Gustin, 2003; Sindbk
2012; Ambrosiani, 2013). One of the most significant
finds is an Arabic-style finger ring (Fig. 1), found by
archaeologist Hjalmar Stolpe during the 18721895
excavations of the Birka grave fields. This ring is now
housed at the Swedish History Museum in Stockholm,
where the inventory catalogue describes it as being of
gilded silver, set with a violet amethyst inscribed with
the word Allah in Arabic Kufic writing. Even though a
few rings of similar design have been encountered at
Birka and other archaeological sites (Jansson, 88), this
is the only Viking Age ring with an Arabic inscription
found in Scandinavia, which affords it a unique status.
However, a proper technical analysis of the ring has so
far not been carried out, and its material composition has
been questioned. It was recently decided that a replica of
the ring should be made, and this provided us with an
opportunity to examine the ring using non-destructive
methods. Here, we present the results of this investigation, which mainly is based on SEMEDS imaging
and elemental analysis.
Fig 1. Photographs of the studied ring, by Ragnar Saage and by Christer Ahlin at the Swedish History Museum. Black line is 1 cm.
Materials
Methods
The ring was examined with a standard optical
stereomicroscope (E. Leitz GmbH) as well as with a
table-top Hitachi TM-3000 scanning electron microscope (SEM), operating at 15 kV and equipped for
elemental analysis (SEMEDS). The SEM investigation
was done without coating the object, using high vacuum
(10 5 Torr) for the metal surface analysis, and low
vacuum (10 3 Torr) for the analysis of the stone (to
avoid charge build-up). SEM-EDS data was recorded
for five minutes at each measured point. Multiple
photographs of the ring, taken from different angles with
a digital SLR camera (Canon EOS 600D), were stitched
together into a 3D model using the Agisoft PhotoScan
software (Agisoft LLC, Russia).
Results
Photographs of the ring are shown in Fig. 1, and a 3D
model of the ring is shown in Fig. S8. Digital 3D models
Warmlander et al.: Analysis of an Arabic finger ring from Viking Age Birka, Sweden
Fig 2. SEM images of details of the ring (recorded by S.W.). Upper left: Shank surface covered with file marks. Upper right: Close-up of
dendritic microstructure revealed by interdendritic corrosion, showing that the alloy was not manipulated after casting. Lower left: File
marks are present also on the prongs, indicating that the filing was done before the stone was set. Lower right: Organic material is present in
the crevices under the stone, which is typical for archaeological objects.
Fig 3. SEM-EDS spectrum for the ring surface. Data was recorded without sample-coating for five minutes at 15 kV, using a table-top
Hitachi TM-3000 SEM. The resulting elemental composition is shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1 Elemental composition of the ring surface, analyzed with SEM-EDS (cf. Fig. 3). The results are interpreted as a 94.5/5.5 Ag/Cu
alloy displaying AgS and AgCl2 corrosion. Al, Na, P, Si, and Mg are typical earth elements, and are commonly found on the surface of
archaeologically excavated objects.
Element
AN
Series
C norm. [wt.%]
C Atom. [at.%]
C Error [%]
Silver
Chlorine
Copper
Sulfur
Aluminium
Sodium
Phosphorus
Silicon
Magnesium
Total:
47 L-series
17 K-series
29 K-series
16 K-series
13 K-series
11 K-series
15 K-series
14 K-series
12 K-series
222622
28205
2187
11877
4283
1718
4183
1816
983
81.42
5.96
2.79
2.41
1.22
0.94
0.92
0.43
0.36
96.46
84.42
6.18
2.89
2.49
1.27
0.97
0.95
0.45
0.37
100.00
63.54
14.15
3.70
6.32
3.81
3.44
2.50
1.30
1.25
100.00
2.6
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
Warmlander et al.: Analysis of an Arabic finger ring from Viking Age Birka, Sweden
Acknowledgments
We thank Charlotte Hedenstierna-Jonson, Gunnar
Andersson, and Kent Andersson at the Swedish History
Museum in Stockholm for helping us to access the
museum collections. Kjell Jansson at Stockholm
University helped with the SEM analysis, while Roman
Kovalev, Sabrina B. Sholts, and an anonymous reviewer
provided helpful comments on the manuscript. Court
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