SURFACE HARD ROCK MINE DESIGN

SUBMITTED TO:Sir Sohail Manzoor Tarar

SUBMITTED BY:M. Zeeshan
2011-MIN-60

Department of Mining Engineering

UET Lahore
1

Contents: Introduction

04

Acknowledgments

04

Executive summary

04

Chapter #1 Surface Mining methods

06

1.1 Mechanical extraction methods

06

1.2 Aqueous Extraction methods

09

Chapter#2 Open-pit surface mining methods:2.1 Introduction

2.2 Strategic planning

11
11
13

2.3 Block model

14

2.4 Pit geometry

15

2.5 Mining & Process cost estimation

17

2.6 Developing reclamation principles

18

2.7 Site layout and equipment selection

18

2.8 Ramp design

21

Chapter#3Quarrying
3.1 Who may apply for planning permission of quarry?

24

3.2 Quarry design

25

3.3 Introduction of quarry

26

Chapter#4 Strip mining

4.1 Surface coal mining

28
2

4.2 Production cost and stripping cost analysis

29

4.3 Strip mining

30

4.4 Strip mine layout

33

Chapter#5 Auger analysis

5.1 Introduction

36

5.2 History

36

5.3 Process

37

5.4 Design

38

5.5 Equipment

38

Chapter#6 Placer Mining

6.1 Introduction

39

6.2 History

39

6.3 Process

39

6.4 Types of placer mining

42

Chapter#7 Solution mining

7.1 In-situ leach mining method

46

Comparison tables(All methods)

50

Conclusion

50

Tables

51

References

53

Introduction:A well-accepted principle is that the wealth of a nation comes from the earth. In the world of
mining, a corollary to this is that If it cant be grown, it must be mined. Surface mining
techniques are the principal means used to extract minerals from the earth. Surface mining is the
exploitation method in which minerals are mined from the surface. It seems to be the most
commonly used mining method in the world. Two types of methods may be used in surface
mining: mechanical extraction and aqueous extraction.
Hard rock surface mining produces most of the metal ores and construction rock
aggregates mined from shallow deposits using explosives in rock fragmentation and trucks for
the mine haulage. It is a mining system of interdependently functioning parameters of mining
design in rock drilling, blasting, haulage and primary crushing [1, 2]. Most of these parameters
have several variants which are applicable and most of them exhibiting variable levels of
conflicting effect on the costs per tons of the rock mined in drilling, blasting, hauling and
primary crushing in any class of rock mass parameters. The desired effectiveness of such a
system could only be achieved from the selection of mining design parameters which are most fit
in given class of rock mass parameters and well marched in accordance to their functional and/
production capabilities to deliver the minimum overall cost per tonne of the rock mined.
The most cost effective parameters of the system could be established based on the
mathematical model of the cumulative influence of rock mass and mining design variations on
the overall cost per ton of the rock mined in drilling, blasting, hauling and primary crushing.

Acknowledgment:By the grace of almighty Allah with the help of my mentors, I have completed my report
writing project .During writing this report Sir Sohail Manzoor has given support and some new
concepts its not possible without his sincere guidance and help. In my daily life I am blessed
with good friends who always morally supported me in every new task. At the end I am thankful
to my parents and teachers.

Executive summary:In the first chapter just give the intro about surface extraction techniques, then in chapter 2
detail discuss the open pit mining designing, development and cost estimation. Then discuss
quarrying, quarry is basically just like open pit mining but its approach is different. In Pakistan
4

lime stone quarries are very familiar. Then open cast mining discusses specially reference to coal
mining. Open cast mining is also called strip mining, in strips coal will mined out from multiple
seams. Auger mining is totally based on auger equipments.Basically that is the application of
auger equipment. Dredging is the technique in which we sort out valuable mineral with the help
of water and if we applied heavy hydraulic pressure then we also mined out mineral. Solution
mining is the most common aqueous extraction method; especially in-situ leaching method is
very familiar method of solution mining.

Chapter#1-Surface mining methods:1.1 Mechanical Extraction methods:The mechanical extraction involves mechanical processes to obtain minerals from the earth.
There are four mechanical extraction methods: (1) open pit mining, (2) quarrying (of dimension
stone), (3) open cast mining, and (4) auger mining
1.1.1Open pit mining:This is the traditional cone-shaped excavation (although it can be any shape, depending
on the size and shape of the ore body) that is used when the ore body is typically pipe-shaped,
vein-type, steeply dipping stratified or irregular. Although it is most often associated with
metallic ore bodies, e.g. Palabora copper, Mamatwan and Sishen iron-ore, it can be used for any
deposit that suits the geometry most typically diamond pipes Venetia, Koffiefontein and
Finsch.
The excavation is normally by rope- or hydraulic shovels with trucks carrying both ore
and waste. Drill and blast is most often used, which makes the process cyclic. Waste is dumped
outside the mined-out area since no room is available within the pit. Waste is placed as close to
the edge of the pit as possible, to minimize transport costs. Figure 1.1 illustrates the terminology
used in the pit design. [3]

1.1.2 Quarrying:Mining of dimension stone or aggregate is considered to be quarry mining. This term is
commonly limited to production of dimension stone only. Quarries produce prismatic blocks of
rock such as marble, granite, limestone, sandstone, slate, etc. Quarries have benches with vertical
faces whose height may range from a few meters to 60 meters. The overall depth of a quarry may
reach 300 m. Material is removed selectively using time-consuming and expensive methods for
freeing the blocks from the surrounding rock [4].
Quarrying involves four major operations: overburden removal and cutting, splitting, and
handling stone (Fig.3). Overburden is loosened by ripping or blasting and then removed by
dragline, scraper, or front-end loaders. Hydraulic monitors can be used to clean the deposit.
An opening cut or slot is made across the quarry width after the surface has been cleared.
This slot makes an additional free face which facilitates removal of subsequent blocks until, for
example, the first lift, running across the whole width and length of the quarry, has been
removed [5].

1.1.3 Open Cast Mining:Surface mining in which reclamation is carried out simultaneously with extraction may
be classified as either area mining or contour mining. Area mining is often called open cast or
strip (furrow) mining. This type of surface mining is used on a large scale, which results in low
unit cost, high productivity, high recovery, and greater safety than that of underground mining.
Contour (or collar) mining, is applied to excavate a narrow zone following the outcrop of a coal
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seam in mountainous conditions. Haul back, box-cut, and block-cut mining are methods used in
contour mining [6]. The defining characteristic of both area and contour mining is that
overburden, removed to make the mineral accessible, is immediately placed in the previously
mined area [7].
Area mining usually operates in parallel, deep trenches called furrows or strips that may
be 1 km or more long (Fig.4). A deep trench is formed with material removed from the
undisturbed area on the high wall side. This material is placed in the open pit at the angle of
repose forming a spoil ridge. The width of the open pit may reach 23 to 46 m, the height of the
high wall may be up to 61 m, and the height of the spoil ridge may be up to 76 m. High wall
angles may vary from 50 to vertical. Spoil-pile angles may change from 30 to 45 measured
from the horizontal. Angles steeper than the angle of repose for most materials, which is 37, can
be acquired by compacting soil under its self-weight then excavating the material once again to
an over steepened condition. It has occurred that over steepened spoil, can be highly durable [7].

1.1.4 Auger Mining:Auger mining is the term for method used to recover coal from thin seams, 0.6 to 2.4 m
thick, beyond a high wall formed using conventional open cast or strip mining (area mining or
contour mining), or from seams which deep trenches make available as shown in fig 5. To
excavate coal, openings are bored into the seam beneath the overburden. Where conventional
8

surface or underground methods cannot be economically or technically used, this method is

applied [8].
An auger consists of three parts: (1) cutter head, (2) auger flight(s), and (3) prime mover.
They are mechanically connected and make an integral power train. The coal is cut and fractured
with the cutter head, which is a barrel-shaped device. The auger flight is a screw conveyor
transporting the coal to the surface, which is in form of a spiral wound about a drill stem.

1.1 Aqueous Extraction:Aqueous extraction involves water or liquid medium to extract minerals from earth. There
are two extraction methods 1) Placer mining 2) Solution mining
The aqueous extraction methods must be provided with the access to water or an aqueous
mixture during mining and processing. They recover the valuable mineral by jetting, slurring,
melting or dissolving.
1.1.1 Placer Mining:Placer mining is used to mine mineral deposits that are not consolidated, such as sand,
gravel or alluvium in which a valuable heavy mineral exists freely. Valuable heavy minerals
such as diamonds, native gold, native platinum, and titanium can be found in placer form. There
are possible two methods for placer mining: hydraulicking and dredging.
Hydraulicking (hydraulic mining) uses a high-pressure stream of water to undercut and
force an exposed bank to fall down. Dredging utilizes floating vessels from which the ore
minerals are extracted mechanically or hydraulically. Since the waste material is usually lighter
than the valuable heavy mineral to be extracted, this mineral can be removed from water-base
slurry by concentration in both methods.
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1.1.2 Solution Mining:Solution mining employing surface or in situ techniques is used for deposits of minerals
that can be excavated by dissolution as well as by melting, leaching, or slurring. The two
methods are similar. Surface leaching employs heap or dump leaching of mineral values; copper,
gold, and uranium are the examples. In situ mining uses water to dissolve, melt or slurry the
minerals as shown in fig(5). Barren solution is introduced down one set of wells and the loaded
solution returns to the surface through concentric or another set of wells. This mining method is
mainly used with sulphur, evaporate, or water-soluble minerals. In situ leaching utilizes chemical
or bacteriological reagents, usually mixed with water to selectively dissolve the valuable
minerals. Drill holes are used to inject and recover the solution [9].

10

CHAPTER#2-OPEN PIT SURFACE MINING METHOD:2.1 Introduction:The exploitation of large, low-grade ore deposits via open pit mining methods began in
earnest at the start of the twentieth century, pioneered in the large copper porphyry deposits of
the American Southwest. Lower costs as compared to underground mining, better safety
conditions, and improved mining and processing technologies enabling the exploitation of low
grade ore deposits have resulted in the widespread adoption of surface mining techniques. The
rapid proliferation of computer technology in the second half of the twentieth century has further
spurred the growth of the open pit mining industry. The use of computers to aid in the analysis,
design, and operation of open pit mines has been critical in the safe and profitable exploitation of
increasingly lower grade and deeper deposits via surface mining methods. Maximizing the net
present value of a project is the usual objective of mine planning. Achieving this objective
through the optimization of the planning process has been the subject of significant research and
development over the last fifty years, and new developments continue in the field.
Despite advances in the available algorithms, procedures, and software in surface mine
planning, the role of the human planner is still paramount. It is particularly important for the
mine planner to have a holistic understanding of mine planning as the different planning
activities are highly interdependent. A decision at any stage of activity will not only influence
future work, but may also demand revisiting and revising earlier evaluations. For example, the
bench height in mining is typically the same as the block height used for the block model. The
bench height is a key constraint in the selection of loading equipment, but anticipated loading
equipment, based on deposit size, may be a constraint in the selection of block height. Thus one
of the first decisions made in the planning process, the block size, is dependent on a loader size
constraint that is itself constrained by the original decision of the block size. Nearly every
decision in the planning process involves a similar chicken or egg dilemma. This requires that
the planners have a comprehensive understanding of the potential implications of their decisions
on later stages of the project, as well as understanding of whether their decisions at any given
stage of planning require revisiting earlier analysis.
Hence, the application of experience and judgment in selecting planning inputs is
considered to be as important to producing improved results as the software or optimization
algorithms themselves [10][11].
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The results of optimization activities undertaken during planning are limited by the
quality of the inputs to the optimization study. In mining, uncertainty exists due to limited
geologic sampling that results in an imperfect understanding of the ore body under consideration,
the need to forecast future commodity prices and currency exchange rates, and the need to make
assumptions regarding capital and operating costs, amongst other inputs. Often planning and
design decisions are made on the basis of limited study, and there is still a strong reliance on
simple approaches, and in some cases heavy reliance on rules of thumb, in some critical planning
activities [12][13][14].
2.1.1 Basic terminology:1. Ultimate pit depth:This is the maximum depth of the mine that it will reach at the end of its life. This is
decided by economic reasons and a breakeven point is decided beyond which it is not economic
to continue production. As this depends on economic conditions, a mine closed in 1980s can
become economic now, as happened in case of Copper Mountain Project.
2. Bench Height:The bench height is usually decided by the economic reach of the mining equipment used
in the mine. As a thumb rule, a bench height is equal to the economic bucket height of an
excavator (like shovel or loader) plus 3 m. The thickness of the ore body and its dip and the
thickness overburden also play a deciding role in the bench height. As mentioned in Coal
Trading, the bench height depends up on:
a) Deposit character and geology: selectivity
b) Production strategy: ore/waste ratios, blending requirements, no. of working faces,
operating/capital costs, etc.
c) Slope stability considerations
d) Equipment set / equipment specific optimum geometry
3. Bench Slope:Bench Slope is decided by the geo-technical conditions of the overburden and the ore
body. Usually this slope is a result of the inherent geology of the rock bench. It is usually
between 75 and 80 degrees.
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4. Overall pit slope:This is also decided by the geo-technical stability of the rocks in the mine, bench height
and bench slope. Overall pit slope is always less than the bench slope. Overall pit slope vary
between 40 and 60 degrees, the most common values being 45 degrees.
5. Bench Width:This is usually decided based on the space required for the operation of the equipment on
it.
6. Haul Road Width & Slope:This depends on the operating parameters of the trucks and other hauling equipment used
in the mine. It is always wider than the bench width.
7. Bench Length:The length of the bench depends on the production rate. A bench will be longer for higher
production rate. Usually, blasting at one bench is done not more than once a week. The extent of
the ore body also has a deciding role here. Bench height is commonly between 30 and 50 feet,
although they may occur up to 100 feet or more. A rule of thumb in open pits: the bench height
should be approximate the height of the point sheave of a shovel to be used in the operation.
8- Deferred reclamation:Deferring reclamation is introduced to ensure the access to work areas during the whole
production life. If excavation advances to greater depths, backfilling the upper levels will either
block the haulage or damage work areas at the base of the slope?
2.2. Strategic planning:Strategic planning establishes the potential project value on the basis of:
1. identifying what material is to be mined through pit limit analysis (deciding the shape and
extent of the final pit);
2. defining the optimal mining sequence (determining the order in which to mine the
material);
3. defining the destination for each parcel of rock mined (identifying if material is waste or
ore, and the process stream if ore); and,
4. Establishing the rate at which the deposit should be mined and processed (selecting the
production rate or mine life).

13

Strategic planning should also consider the environmental and waste handling impacts
associated with mine development to ensure that adequate baseline and technical studies are
initiated to support future planning work and regulatory approval.
Strategic mine planning requires, at a minimum, a definition of the objective(s) of the study,
a block model containing information on block characteristics (grade(s), density, process
recovery, etc.), an understanding of geotechnical constraints (allowable pit slopes), and estimates
of commodity sale prices, mining and process operating costs, and capital costs.
2.3The Block Model:The block model, or for stratified, layered deposits the gridded seam model [15], is the
basis of modern open pit mine planning. A block model is a regularized, three dimensional array
of blocks (or voxels) used to represent the properties and characteristics of the ore body (Figure
2.2). The raster representation of the ore body is beneficial to analysis using computerized
techniques and has resulted in the development of a variety of algorithms and software packages
that use the discretization of the ore body into a block model as their basis.
The block size is determined to a large extent by the deposit type. For mine planning
purposes the block size should correspond to a reasonable mining increment, such as a shift or
days production for a piece of loading equipment. This is termed the selective mining unit
(SMU). The height of the block normally corresponds to the mining bench height.
The need for greater selectivity during mining (the ability to mine waste separate from
ore) typically indicates a smaller bench height and smaller or more selective equipment to reduce
dilution and mining loss. In deposits where selectivity is not an issue, a larger mining bench may
be used. Smaller block sizes are
to

be

avoided

as

they

Fig 2.2 Block model

significantly increase model size

and processing time for deposit
analysis, as well as increasing the
block estimation error.
Any number of attributes
may be associated with the
blocks. Properties such as rock
type, density, material grade (%
14

metal for most base metal and g/t for precious metal deposits), and deleterious element
concentration (typically ppm) are populated to the blocks. Other properties such as the ore type,
resource classification, expected process recovery, classification of the block as potentially acid
generating (PAG) or potentially acid neutralizing (PAN), etc. may be assigned to the blocks
during mine planning on the basis of other studies. The properties of the deposit at each block
location are populated from the geologic model and by geostatistical (e.g. kriging, simulation) or
conventional (e.g. inverse distance weighting, polygonal) estimation methods.
Estimation of block properties represents one of the largest sources of technical risk in
mine planning. Uncertainty with respect to ore grade and tones can have a critical, and often
negative, impact on the economic success of a mine. Although the values vary with deposit and
mine type, the literature suggests that between 20% and 73% of mines which failed to meet
economic performance expectations identify problems with reserve estimates as a key
contributor to failure [16][17][18].
2.4 Pit Geometry:Geotechnical constraints define pit geometry, establishing what the shape, and, to the
extent that the constraints influence waste stripping requirements, the size of the ultimate pit will
be [19].
2.4.1 Pit Wall Criterion:Determination of the stable bench face height and slope, catch bench or safety bench
width, the inter-ramp slope angle (slope angle between roads) and the overall slope angle
(average pit slope angle) are important design considerations and can have a significant influence
on the mine plan.
In determining pit slope geometry consideration is given to the rock type, including its
friction angle and cohesive strength, the orientation of the pit wall relative to any discontinuities
in the rock mass, and groundwater conditions. The final slope height and potential groundwater
drawdown via dewatering wells are also considered.
Pit geometry will be impacted by the addition of haul ramps during detailed design (see
Figure 2.3). The pit wall criteria may guide the placement of haul ramps, especially in mines
where one wall or portion of the pit has a much shallower maximum allowable slope; the
introduction of the ramp to that wall may help achieve the shallower slope while reducing the
impact of increased waste stripping associated with ramp incorporation elsewhere. It is prudent
15

to ensure that locating the mine ramp on a wall with a shallow allowable slope does not place the
ramp in jeopardy due to expected poor stability conditions.

Figure 2.3: Impact of a haul ramp on the overall slope angle (Kennedy B., 1990)
Pit analysis provides an indication of the location of the final pit wall, and the progression
of mining through pushbacks to achieve that wall. Pit analysis identifies the blocks to be mined;
it does not provide a mine design.
The pits identified by pit analysis must be transformed into mineable designs by the planning
team. The tasks involved in this are:

smoothing the pit limit to a mineable geometry;

imposing bench design on the pit limit; and,

Developing ramps with which to enter/exit the pit.

Creating a functional mine design is a task for the human planner and is accomplished using
a GMP program. In most cases creating a functional design and the introduction of ramps will
have a small impact on the overall pit slope, resulting in a shallower wall. With experience or
calculation it is possible to modify the wall slope constraints used during pit analysis to account
for the presence of ramps and if the variation from the maximum allowable slope is more than a
few degrees the pit limit analysis should be rerun.
The mine design is constrained by geotechnical criteria for the pit walls. The criteria
normally specified for a given bench height are: maximum bench face angle, maximum inter
ramp slope, maximum overall slope, and minimum catch bench width (Figure 2.4)
16

Figure 2.4: Bench design criteria

2.5 Mining and Process Cost Estimation:Mining and processing operating costs represent a second class of variables that must be
estimated in order to carry out a pit limit analysis. Unlike commodity price forecasts the
estimation of these costs does typically fall to the planning team.
There are a variety of methods that can be used in the estimation of operating costs. In the
early stages of the planning process, when little is known about the ultimate size, scale, and
depth of the potential pit, a high degree of engineering judgment must be applied to select an
appropriate set of costs for initial evaluation. As planning progresses and the scale of the mine is
better understood these costs are re-evaluated. The ultimate size of the mine and the production
rate are dependent on the operating costs, and the operating costs are dependent on the
production rate and size (particularly depth) of the mine; cost estimation is part of the iterative
and circular analysis that defines mine planning.
Operating costs may be estimated on the basis of cost models, by benchmarking similar
operations, by developing costs from first principles, or in the case of short range planning and
LRP for an active mine on the basis of historic costs[20][21][22][23][24]. These models provide
a very general approach to cost estimation and are not appropriate for planning. The Mining Cost
Service and the Mine and Mill Equipment Costs Estimators Guide are potential sources of cost
estimating data. Commercial software-based models exist which provide detailed engineering
estimates of operating costs. Mining companies and consulting firms often develop their own
cost models in-house on the basis of experience and detailed cost databases. Whatever the model
17

used, it is important that the planner be able to apply sound engineering judgment in the selection
and adjustment of costs to reflect the unique conditions at the mine under study.
2.6 Developing reclamation Principles:The consideration accorded to waste handling and reclamation planning during strategic
planning is normally limited. Although some high strip ratio mines may be challenged to
physically locate their waste within their property boundaries, most metal mining plans are not
waste-bound. At the early stages of planning, the assumption that adequate waste dump and
tailings impoundment space will be available is often made. Although detailed planning may not
take place it is prudent at this stage to identify:

the site closure objectives;

any materials of concern within the ore body from an environmental perspective for
further study;

Preliminary structure designs or construction methods, including locations of tailings and

mined waste storage facilities so site investigations can commence.

A valid estimate of the costs associated with both mining and tailings waste handling should
be developed. These costs may have a significant impact on the economic and political
attractiveness of a project.
2.7 Site layout:Mine planners will not be the only group involved in site layout but mine planning will
play a defining role. Site layout begins with detailed topographic maps. The property boundary is
mapped. Existing infrastructure and right-of-ways (roads and highways, power lines, pipelines,
etc.) are identified as are constraints relating to cultural resources, surface and ground water, and
final land use requirements. In some cases it might be financially attractive to pay for the
relocation of roadways or other infrastructure to accommodate mining. If relevant this should be
assessed.
Once the site constraints are identified the initial pit, pushbacks, and final pit should be
mapped. The pit outlines will guide infrastructure placement.
The location of the ramp entry/exit point is normally the starting point in locating miningrelated infrastructure and features. In a typical metal mine uphill travel by haul trucks will
represent the greatest portion of fuel used. A review of equipment performance curves shows the
speed of ultra-class haul trucks travelling up 8 to 10% ramp slopes experiencing rolling
18

resistances of 2-4% travel at a maximum of 15 km/h [25].Under normal circumstances the uphill
haul will represent the longest time component of the trucks cycle time (the load-haul-dumpreturn time). It is therefore desirable to minimize the uphill haul out of the pit. The more
significant the topographic relief in the area of the mine, the more desirable it is likely to be to
locate the ramp exits from the pit at the lowest elevations possible (this should, of course, be
subject to analysis once the layout is complete).
Once the pit access point is established the location of the crusher and mill, waste dumps,
and tailings impoundments may be determined (this is important as in the later pushbacks of a
large open pit multiple access points and ramps may be planned). Elevation is an important
consideration here too, and in mines with high stripping ratios waste dump location should be
considered more important than the location of the crusher and mill. Uphill hauls on the dumps
are no more desirable than in the mining pit. The use of a shallower slope, or larger flatter dumps
versus smaller, steeper dumps, should be assessed. In some cases the increase in haul distance
may be more than offset by an increase in the maximum speed attained by the truck.
Sufficient drilling to eliminate the possibility of ore should exist in the areas of proposed
waste storage facilities. If sufficient drilling does not exist a campaign should be commenced to
ensure facility placement does not result in the sterilization of ore. The best-case pit limit should
also be considered at this stage. A desire for short haul distances may result in waste dumps or
other infrastructure being located outside of the final pit wall but inside the best-case pit. In the
event that future conditions were favorable to mining of the best case pit a decision may need to
be made regarding moving the infrastructure. The trade-off between reduced haul distances and
expenses in the short term should be evaluated against the potential loss of value in the long term
by quantifying the potential for future ore sterilization.
Once the key mining infrastructure is located ancillary facilities such as the maintenance
shops, truck muster points, offices, etc. can be located. Mine access roads, light vehicle roads,
dewatering ditches and pipe networks, and tailings pipeline routes, should be laid out.
The final site design should be subject to a hydrologic or watershed analysis.
Understanding the impact of changes to the topography on surface water flow is important,
especially in areas of high rainfall where erosion may be a concern.
2.7.1. Equipment Selection:Two criteria normally govern equipment selection:
19

excavation equipment must provide selectivity and mobility suitable to the ore body;
and,

Haulage equipment should be selected with a focus on reducing the total cost per tonne of
material moved.

2.7.1.1 Loader Selection and sizing:The loader is normally the first piece of equipment specified in detailed planning. It is
normally advantageous to have more than one loader so that ore and waste mining activities can
take place concurrently and that production does not cease when one loader is unavailable due to
maintenance or breakdown. The loader type should be selected first: front-end rubber tired
(wheel) loader, hydraulic excavator, or electric (rope) shovel.
Factors considered in loader selection and sizing include: the bench or muck pile height,
the degree of selectivity required in mining, the degree of mobility required from the excavators,
the expected mine life, the capacity required to meet the production rate, the availability of
electric power vs. diesel fuel, the operating cost of the equipment,[26].Surface Mining [27]also
provides a good description of the considerations in equipment selection and sizing.
Bench height should be a limiting factor in loader selection. From a safety perspective, if
not from a regulatory perspective, the height of the bench or muck pile should be limited to a
height that will allow the safe operation of the loader without risk to the operator in the case of
rock fall from the face. In Ontario, the regulations prescribe a maximum vertical height of the
working face of no more than 1.5m above the maximum reach of the equipment where earth,
clay, sand, or gravel is being removed. In the surface mining of rock the vertical bench height is
limited to 25m, but the regulations do not prescribe a maximum height above the loaders height
[28].In British Columbia, the mining face is limited to no more than 2m above the maximum
reach of the loader (point sheave height for rope shovels). Exceptions are made in cases where
multiple-benching is conducted under authorization by the chief mine inspector or in free
running material where the slope is limited to 60 or 30m in length [29].
In high production mines it is normal to have a mixed loading fleet and rope, hydraulic,
and wheel loaders may all be employed. It is common to see large capacity, lower operating cost
rope shovels used in waste stripping with more selective and mobile hydraulic shovels used in
ore mining. In some cases a different bench height may be used in ore and waste mining to
further aid ore selectivity and reduce mining loss and mill feed dilution.
20

The number of loaders required is determined once the mining schedule has been
finalized.
2.7.1.2 Haul Truck selection:Haul trucks may represent up to 50% of the operating cost associated with mining
[26].Selection of haul trucks should therefore be considered with an objective of minimizing
operating cost.
The haul truck is matched to the selected loader(s). Loading geometry (dump height) will
limit available options. It is good practice to select a truck that requires between three and five
passes (or loaded buckets) of the excavator to reach capacity. Current truck capacities range from
under 100t to 360t.
2.7.1.3 Ancillary equipments:A wide range of equipment is needed to support a load-haul operation. This includes but is
not limited to:

drilling equipment to prepare patterns for blasting;

blast hole loading equipment;

bulldozers for shovel pit cleanup, dump support and maintenance, slope trimming,
stockpile maintenance, establishing temporary access ramps, etc.;

motor graders for ramp construction and maintenance, snow removal, etc.;

backhoes for ditching and miscellaneous tasks;

lube and refueling trucks; and,

Service vehicles for in-pit maintenance activities including welders trucks, boom trucks,
etc.

Just as the selection of haul trucks follows from the selection of the loading equipment,
ancillary equipment is dependent on the loaders and trucks selected. Bulldozers must be
appropriately sized to be able to handle the volumes of waste delivered to the dump, drilling
equipment must be sized to the anticipated blast hole length and diameter, motor graders should
be sufficiently large to work haul roads with a minimum number of passes, etc. [30]
2.8 Ramp design:In conjunction with introducing bench geometry the planner drafts the haul ramps. The
haul ramp normally consists of the running surface, a safety berm on the outside edge of the
ramp, and often a ditch on the inside edge. Allowance may also be made for running dewatering
21

pipe or electric cables on the inside edge although in some mines the safety berm may provide
double duty and Ramp grades in hard rock open pits are normally in the 8-10% range.
A ramp running surface width of 3.5 times the width of the widest haul truck is suggested
for two-way traffic .This factor provides for one-half the truck widths clearance on either side of
the haul truck. In British Columbia a minimum of 3 times the truck width is specified in the
regulations [31].If a future increase in the size of equipment is planned, adequate width to
support the increased truck size should be considered for any long-life ramps. In addition to the
width of the running surface, allowance should be made for required berms and ditches when
designing the pit be used for these.
The safety berm on the outside edge of the ramp is only intended to deflect a haul truck
that has strayed too far to the edge of the ramp. The size of berm required to stop an out of
control haul truck from going over the ramp edge is prohibitive. The height of the berm should
be at least equal to the axle height of the largest haul truck. Best practice and regulatory
guidelines vary from [32] to of the diameter of the largest truck tire. The safety berm should
be continuous, with allowances or cut-outs made for drainage of the ramp and removal of debris.
Particular attention should be paid to the berm at corners and intersections; the height of the
berm may block the view of light vehicle occupants and hide light vehicles from the truck
operators view.
Median berms are used in some locations, particularly the US Southwest and Australia. A
ramp design should allow additional width for median berms if they are to be used. A median
berm is a series of discontinuous berms that run down the middle of the haul road. Median berms
are intended to be used by haul trucks that have lost braking capacity to slow or arrest their
motion. The berm is made of loose unconsolidated material (e.g. sand, gravel).
At a break in the median berm. At the entry to the berm (the up-ramp portion) the berm is
lower than the axle height of the haul truck. As the berm extends down-ramp the height of the
berm increases so that it is higher than the axle of the truck, slowing or stopping the truck driving
over the top. There are no hard guidelines for the width of the berm other than it should be
narrower than the distance between the inside edges of the rear haul truck tires.
Median berms are not a practical alternative in areas with cold or wet climates. Freezing
conditions in the winter would result in freezing of the median berm and likely result in injury to
a driver attempting to use one and significant damage to the truck. In areas with regular or high
22

rainfall the fine material in the berms is washed out resulting in the need for frequent
maintenance of both the berm and the ramp.
Ramps may be of two types: a spiral ramp or a switchback ramp. A spiral ramp
progresses downwards following the pit wall over the full 360 of the pit. A switchback ramp
progresses downwards but does not use the full 360 of the pit. Instead it turns back on itself,
possibly multiple times in a deeper pit. The switchback itself should be designed at a flat grade,
not at the grade of the ramp, so that the inside wheel is not subjected to greater forces than the
outside wheel. The need to provide flattened corners increases the total ramp length, and the
impact of the ramp on the overall pit slope. Truck speeds, already below 15 km/h for ultra-class
haul trucks under regular ramp conditions, are reduced in the corner.

23

Chapter#3 Quarrying:3.1 Who may apply for planning permission?

Anyone can apply for planning permission whether they have a legal interest in the land
or not.
3.1.1 What are the essential elements of a planning application?
While there is no prescribed form for planning applications, it is best to use the forms
provided by the Planning Authority from which permission is being sought. Further general
information may be found via the Planning Portal [37] these forms will seek to establish basic
information about the development proposed. It is good practice to provide additional
information in support of the application in the form of plans and drawings and a supporting
statement describing the proposals in detail. Many Planning Authorities provide checklists and
examples to assist applicants and some links are provided in the bibliography in Part IV and
examples are given in Part V. If a Planning Authority considers that insufficient information has
been provided to it for the purpose of evaluating and determining the application, it can require
further information to be made available before commencing the process. Any detail or proposal
that is provided with a planning application (or subsequently in the course of the consultation
and determination stages) becomes part of the planning permission if the application is granted
unless it has been amended or superseded by requirements of the planning permission
(conditions) or specifically withdrawn from the proposal. Thus, a phased working and restoration
scheme that is approved as part of a planning application becomes the approved scheme of
working and restoration against which the planning permission will be monitored in the future by
the Planning Authority.
3.1.2 What are the main relevant Acts of Parliament?

Town and Country Planning Act 1990

Planning and Compensation Act 1991

The Environment Act 1995

Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004[38-44 for detail reading]

3.2 Quarry design:The key to good quarry design is:

o well defined objectives;

24

o thorough data collection;

o comprehensive evaluation of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and constraints;
o the weighting of these results;
o the generation of balanced, unbiased options;
o the on-going environmental testing of options;
o the on-going testing of working options that affect safety and efficiency;
o continuous design iteration and re-testing of options; and
o The inclusion of restoration and after-use objectives from the beginning.
3.3.1 DESIGN OF THE OPERATION AND ITS RESTORATION:The design of the operation itself and its restoration involves the design team in six principal
stages leading to the start of quarry operations.
I.
II.

Establishment of a design brief a set of business, operational and other objectives

Conceptual design, option selection and feasibility study including initial resource
evaluation and identification of working and restoration options, and leading to a
refinement of the design brief.

III.

Detailed design of the final void and restoration scheme, assessment of its
environmental impact, mitigation and benefits, and updates to the initial resource
evaluation based on measurement of the detailed design and more detailed 3D geological
models.

IV.

Detailed design of phased working and restoration scheme demonstrating that the
quarry can be worked and restored efficiently, safely (complying with the Quarries
Regulations) and without causing environmental harm. Refinements to the stage iii
design and the resource evaluation may result from this stage.

V.

Preparation and submission of documents for the Planning Application and

accompanying Environmental Statement (ES) if required. Preparation of evidence to, and
participation in, a Planning Appeal if necessary.

VI.

Pre-production requirements for operational and business plans, safety and contract
documentation, implementation of planning conditions, environmental monitoring and
management systems etc.

25

3.4 Introduction of quarry:A rather simple but useful definition of a quarry is a factory that converts solid bedrock
into crushed stone. Quarries can be either of the common pit type or, in mountainous terrain, the
hillside type. Pit type quarries are opened up below the level of surrounding terrain and accessed
by means of ramps. The excavation is often split into several benches depending on the minable
depth of the deposit. When the terrain is rough and bulldozers cannot provide a flat floor, a tophammer construction type drill rig can be used to establish the first bench. Once the first bench is
prepared, production drilling is preferably carried out using DTH- or COPROD techniques.
The excavated rock is crushed, screened, washed and separated into different size
fractions, for subsequent sale and use. The amount of fines should be kept to a minimum. Not all
types of rock are suitable as raw material for crushed stone. The material must have certain
strength and hardness characteristics and the individual pieces should have a defined shape with
a rough surface. Igneous rock such as granite and basalt as well as metamorphic rock such as
gneiss are well suited for these purposes. Soft sedimentary rock and materials which break into
flat, flaky pieces are generally unacceptable. The final products are used as raw material for
chemical plants (such as limestone for cement manufacturing, the paper and steel industries),
building products, and for concrete aggregates, highway construction, or other civil engineering
projects.
Quarries are often run by operators who sell their products to nearby contractors and road
administrators. Because the products are generally of relatively low value, they are transport cost
sensitive. Hence, wherever possible, quarries are discreetly located as close as feasible to the
market. Special measures are requi-red to minimize adverse environmental impacts such as noise
from drilling, vibrations from blasting, and dust from crushing and screening to the neighboring
areas. [46]
Quarries have benches with vertical faces whose height may range from a few meters to
60 meters. The overall depth of a quarry may reach 300 m. Material is removed selectively using
time-consuming and expensive methods for freeing the blocks from the surrounding rock [4].
Each stone quarry is unique and requires its own unit operations. The upper surface and
key slot give two free faces (the top and front of a prismatic block). Three additional faces are
made to determine the ends and the back. These faces can be created by line drilling with
pneumatic hammers mounted on a quarry bar. Soft formations may be cut with wire saws,
26

carbide tipped chain saws, or circular saw blades impregnated with diamond or other abrasive
materials (Fig.3.1). Hard formations can be cut with diamond line saw (Fig.3.2). Hard
formations, which contain minerals with contrasting thermal expansion properties, can be cut by
means of a flame jet known as the Browning torch. This method is the best one for granite. Other
formations can be cut with a high-pressure water jet or diamond line saw [47].

Fig.3.1. Marble opencast equipped with modern machines for breaking stone blocks

Fig.3.2. Cutting with a diamond line sawing machine

27

Chapter#4 Open cast/Strip mining:4.1 Surface coal mining:The greater proportion of the worlds mineral needs are at present provided by surface
mining methods, more or less 60% of the worlds mineral needs without including coal and
lignite. When coal and lignite production is also included, the total amount rises to above 70%.
Approximately 200 surface mines worldwide have a production capacity of over 3mtpa ore (the
commodity mined to produce the income or revenue) per annum, whilst some 140 mines produce
in excess of 10Mtpa per annum. Depending on the amount of waste (the rock or overburden
removed to expose and exploit the ore) that has to be stripped, the total tonnage can often exceed
70Mt (waste and ore) per annum.
In 2002, opencast mines provided 50 percent of the run-of-mine production of coal in
South Africa. The seven largest collieries with an output of more than 10 Mt/a), produced 122
Mt of saleable coal. Six large mines (output of more than 5 Mt/a), produced 42 Mt, nine
medium-sized mines (output of more than 2 Mt/a) produced 31 Mt, 11 smaller mines (output
more than 2 Mt/a) produced 15 Mt and the 21 smallest mines (output of less than 1 Mt) produced
9Mt.
The predisposition to surface strip mining methods has increased over the last three
decades and will continue to increase in the foreseeable future, while underground mining in
general will still stay more labor intensive and the number of mines will remain essentially
constant. Other factors that make surface strip mining methods more favorable over underground
mining methods are:

Higher productivity run of mine (ROM coal produced from the pit before
beneficiation) tons of coal or volume of overburden per man year. Average
figures are typically 10kt/man-year coal produced (minimum 4 000 and maximum
13 k) and 19kBCM/man-year overburden

Lower capital cost per ton of ore mined typically R70/ROM ton per annum

Lower operating cost per ton of ore mined

The possible exposure of lower grade reserves (because of lower operating cost
per ton mined hence lower grades become profitable)

Improved geological certainty of reserves

Less limitation on size and weight of machines and associated higher efficiencies.
28

Typically this could be equated to approximately 600kBCM/stripping equipment,

or typically about 12MBCM per annum for a large dragline

Increased recovery of ore support pillars are unnecessary

Improved safety - loose material can be seen and removed or avoided, and crews
can be readily observed at work by supervisors

Larger reserve areas available for mining (at higher annual production rates).[53]

4.2 Production Cost and stripping ratio analysis:Surface mining of coal is conducted in a relatively simple sequence of operations (or subsystems) which includes:1) Preparing the surface, 2) Drilling, 3) blasting, 4) overburden removal, 5) loading the
deposit, 6) haulage of the mined deposit, and 7) rehabilitation.
In simple terms, the basic production cost at a surface mine comprises of:

The unit costs associated with excavating one unit of ore (A) and its transport to the
processing plant. Ore is the source of income.

A similar unit cost for the waste material (B). The minimizing of this cost element in
most surface strip coal mines becomes very important because it can reduce the
profitability of the mine (because of the effect of stripping ratio). Waste mining does not
generate any income for the mine it is solely an expenditure item.
Stripping ratio is defines as:Stripping ratio(S) = Units waste: Units ore
And is calculated in similar units for ore and waste (e.g. t:t or m3:m3 or BCM:BCM

(Bank Cubic Meter the volume of ore or waste in situ before it is mined)). Take note that the
stripping ratio can change because of different material densities. In a certain coal strip mine, a
stripping ratio of 6:1 (t waste mined per t ore recovered) will be equivalent to 3:1 (m3 waste per
m3 ore) if the density of waste is 2t/m3 and that of coal (ore) is 1t/m3. It is also common practice
in strip coal mines to refer to a stripping ratio at BCM: ROM ton, in which case the stripping
ratio would be 3:1. In either case, it is important to refer to the units of the stripping ratio in
addition to its value.
The removal of overburden, or stripping, is generally regarded as the most significant
component of surface coal mining costs. Variations in stripping ratio affect the scale of the
29

equipment and the efficiency of its operation as far as overburden handling is concerned, while
procedures for handling, preparing and marketing coal, and costs associated with these three
steps are, in comparison, fixed from mine to mine. The stripping ratio does not necessarily
remain constant over the lifetime of the mine but can change according to production schedules,
geology of the overburden and/or coal seam, etc. The current or instantaneous stripping ratio is
usually indicated by S. In the case of surface strip coal mining, the variability of the stripping
ratio can be due to increasing overburden or coal seam thickness.
4.3 Strip mining:Also referred to as opencast mining, the method constitutes the selective extraction of
overburden, interburden and the coal deposit, and is used for mining relatively shallow and low
angle of dip tabular deposits. A unique attribute of strip mining operations is the systematic
sequence in which the various mining activities are performed.
The utilization of strip mining techniques has long been accepted by the international
coal mining industry as both an effective and efficient method of coal recovery and as a costeffective alternative to underground methods. One of this methods primary advantages over
underground mining is the cost-effective high-percentage extraction of coal seams too shallow
for underground methods, together with, in ideal conditions, total extraction of the in-situ coal
seam. Other advantages of strip mining include the generally lower working costs and higher
productivity. For these reasons it can be anticipated that strip mines will be an integral part of the
international and domestic coal mining industry for many years to come.
Strip mining is ideally applied where the surface of the ground and the ore body itself are
relatively horizontal and not too deep under the surface, and a wide area is available to be mined
in a series of strips or cuts. Typical examples of this type of mining are the larger tonnage coal
mining operations in Mpumalanga.
Favorable conditions are:

Relatively thin overburden (0-50m maximum otherwise stripping ratio and cost of
stripping can become too high although the exact limit would depend on the BESR as
discussed previously).

Regular and constant surface topography and coal layers (not more than 20 variation
from horizontal on the coal seam topography can vary more since pre-stripping can be
used to level it but this is expensive to apply).
30

Extensive area of reserves (to give adequate life of mine (LOM) and to cover all capital
loan repayments typically more than 20 years life at 4-14mt per annum production).

Walking draglines have been for many years the most popular machine for overburden
excavation in this type of mining due to their flexibility, utility and availability, but more
importantly, their low operating costs for waste mining (R/t or R/BCM). The dragline is a typical
combined cyclic excavator and material carrier since it both excavates material and dumps it
directly (without the use of trucks or conveyor belts). The dragline sits above the waste or
overburden strip block, usually 50m or so wide, on the high wall side and excavates the material
in front of itself to uncover the top of the coal seam, and then dumps the overburden on the lowwall or spoil side of the strip, as shown in Figures 4.1 and 4.2 which also shows the terminology
used. Figure 4.3 and 4.4 illustrate the typical method of strip mining, showing in addition to the
dragline overburden stripping unit, coal loading and hauling using spoil-side (low-wall) ramp
roads (Figure 4.3) and low- and high-wall ramp roads in Figure 4.4.[54][55][56]

4.1 Walking dragline for strip

mining overburden

4.3 Strip mining with dragline (on

overburden)

shovel (below, loading coal) and lowwall (spoil-side) access ramp

road

31

4.2
Basic
strip
mining

4.4 Strip mining lay out

In a dragline operation, two long walls are formed in the initial box- cut. One of these, the
low wall, remains and is eventually covered by spoil. The other, the high wall, is progressively
excavated and occupies a new position with each strip. The maximum high wall height is usually
of the order of 45-50m, with a variable depth of chopping or prestripping above the dragline
working level.
For maximum productivity, a long strip is required (ideally over 2km in length) to reduce
excessive dead-heading time and to accommodate the various in- and ex-pit activities (shown
in Figure 4.5) and floor stocks or buffers (the amount of production stock available between
mining cycle activities typically drilled, blasted, exposed, coal-on-floor, drilled coal and
blasted coal). Whilst longer pits increase the floor stocks or buffers and facilitate easier unit
operations, they also increase the risks of time dependent slope failure in both the high wall and
the (waste) low-wall, may be more prone to spontaneous combustion problems and take up large
surface areas that can cause rehabilitation and transport problems.
If mixing of coal is important (to meet sales specifications) then long strip lengths are
also problematic in terms of the active mining fronts available for blending the coal. Where high
32

wall or low-wall stability is problematic, it becomes necessary to monitor the stability of the pit
extensively.[49][51]

4.5 Coaling operations in the strip

4.4 Strip mine layout:The fundamental objective of any commercial mining operation is the extraction of the
mineral deposit at the lowest overall cost in order to maximize profits and resource utilization. In
strip mining the selection of cut parameters, both in terms of direction and width, contributes
significantly to the overall efficiency and profitability of the operation. The initial decision to be
taken, following selection of the method itself, is with regard to the location of the first strip (the
box-cut) and cut direction.
4.4.1 BOX CUT ORIENTATION AND DIRECTION OF ADVANCE:-

Box-cut orientation is frequently determined with due consideration to excavation

volumes and strip ratios, costs, economic returns, property boundaries, transport gradients or pit
drainage and important geotechnical constraints. The selected cut direction usually has a major
influence on the high wall stability, as its choice can cause particular joint sets, shear planes or
faults to be favorably or unfavorably orientated in terms of slope stability.
Ignoring geotechnical constraints may temporarily produce large economic returns, but
the complex interrelation of lithology, structures, weathering elements; ground water and slope
geometry invariably result in geotechnical hazards causing losses of coal production which
ultimately reduce the overall profitability of the mining operation.
The primary cut directions generally considered in a gently dipping coal deposit(fig 4.6):1. Parallel to the coal outcrop limit or strike, advancing in a down- dip direction.
33

2. Parallel to the strike of the coal deposit, advancing in an up-dip direction.

3. Parallel to the dip of the coal deposit, advancing along strike.
4. Oblique cuts.

Fig.4.6 Principle box cut orientation for strip mining

4.4.2 Bench Layout and working face length:Normally, efficient equipment use requires continuous operations with as little
deadheading as possible between one block or cut and the next (equipment walks from end of
current cut to start of next). For dragline operations, a three month period is a desirable minimum
time for continuous excavation without excessive lost time due to deadheading.
At 5 million ton ROM production per year, an area of 125 ha of coal is uncovered and
mined each year for a 3m thick seam (using a coal density of 1,33t/m3). For a 60 m wide pit, this
represents a total yearly face length of 20km. Based on a 3 month strip cycle time, a site face
length of at least (20x3/12) or approximately 5km is therefore required.
As in-pit operations become more complex (for instance, multiple seams or partings), the
required working area must increase if production rates are to be maintained. This is readily
achieved in a multiseam (shovel/truck) terrace operation by arranging the bench layout for
simultaneous excavation of seams. In a dragline operation, only sequential excavation of seams
within the pit can be undertaken and to exacerbate the situation, pit widths cannot normally be
increased to provide more working room. High production rates in complex multiseam dragline
operations are therefore only achievable if long cut lengths can be opened up.
Typically at least 1.5 km to 2 km of cut length per million tons of ROM coal per annum
is required in a complex mining situation. For a dragline operation at 5Mtpa, a minimum cut
length of 7.5 km to 10 km is therefore required; or the same effect could be achieved in a
shovel/truck operation by opening up 3 benches (in 3 seams) over a total length of 2.5 km to 3
34

km.
4.4.3 PIT WIDTH AND COAL HAULING RAMP ACCESS:The pit (or block) width is usually determined from dragline size selection, based on the
reach and operating radius required and is usually made in the planning stage with little or no
leeway for change once mining starts. The variations in coal exposure rate as compared with the
required coal mining rate is especially important in strip mining, where depths of overburden
above the coal vary widely along the length of the cut, since coal exposure rate will vary and cut
width variation (to balance exposure rates) is not a viable option.
A wide pit, of say 50m, is less congested and easier to operate as regards coal loading and
hauling than a narrow pit of say 25m width.
One of the primary considerations is an efficient coal hauling operation. For a single
seam dragline operation haul trucks do not have to pass the stripping equipment in the cut. Other
less important factors might be the possible location of sumps, dewatering pumps and catering
for coal drilling and blasting operations.
On the low-wall side, the average distance between ramps is important, as is the presence
or absence of access at the end of the cut. In general a distance of approximately 1000m 1500m
between ramps is satisfactory. Ramps cause overburden storage loss and this loss is only
recovered in about 1000m pit length without narrowing the cut width. Also it is usually found
advantageous wherever possible to have access at one or both ends of the cut.
Figures 4.7 illustrate the strip layout associated with these ramp options. [51][53-56]

35

Chapter#5 Auger Mining:5.1 Introduction:Auger mining is a surface mining technique used to recover additional coal from a seam
located behind a high wall produced either by stripping or open-pit mining. Auger mining is
especially employed when contour strip mining has been exhausted and the removal of
overburden to access additional coal no longer becomes economically feasible. Auger mining
can also be utilized in underground mining when faulty or poor roof conditions are present or
other problems preclude the use of other underground mining techniques.[57] A gasoline or
diesel engine powered auger drill specially equipped with a cutter head and flights of varying
lengths is used to extract the coal from a seam. [58]

Auger Mining
5.2 History:The recovery of coal using auger drills in surface mining and underground mining has
been in practice since before World War II. The first attempts in the U.S. at mining with auger
drills occurred in the coalfields of West Virginia in 1945. The auger drills used in auger mining
back then were largely adaptations of horizontal rock drills. [59]
After the 1940s, the development of auger drill technology increased incrementally,
peaking in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1985, a 425 horsepower diesel engine surface auger drill was
introduced which could penetrate a coal seam to a depth of 164 feet (50 m), producing 450 tons
of coal per day. In 1987, the formation of Brynet Development Corp. led to the launch of an
intensive coal auger development program that saw an increase in auger drill power, as well as
smaller-diameter cutter heads that could cut across all coal types.[60]

36

5.3 Process:Auger mining is a low-cost method of recovering coal from horizontal or slightly pitched
seams exposed through geological erosion. The practice of auger mining is reserved primarily for
extracting coal at depths of up to 1,000 feet (305 m). [61]
Auger drills mounted with cutter heads cut and fractures through both overburden and
coal, operating very similar to a drill machine. The cutting action of the auger drill differs from
other types of coal cutting machines such as continuous miners in that the machine tends to
exploit the lower tensile strength of coal rather than trying to over compensate for its high
compressive strength. Therefore, auger drills are able to generate a greater amount of power in
cutting coal than a continuous miner. The power of the machine as well as diameter of the cutter
head is the two features that govern an auger drills performance. The greater the power of the
machine, the greater the depth of coal seam into which it is able to bore down, producing a
higher rate of coal. [62]
Augers drills used in auger mining can range from 60 to 200 feet (18 to 61 m) in length to
two to seven feet (0.6 to 2.1 m) in diameter.[63] The cutter head on the auger bores a number of
openings into the seam, similar to how a wood drill produces wood shavings. The coal is then
extracted and transported up to the surface via the spiral action of flights. [64] Additional auger
lengths or flights can then be added as the cutter head penetrates and drives deeper down into the
bored hole. [65]As the depth of the bored hole is extended, coal production is most likely to
decrease. The auger drill will continue to penetrate into a high wall until the maximum torque of
an auger is reached, usually at a depth of 492 feet (150 m).[66] Once the coal arrives at the
surface, it is lifted up to a dump truck for hauling by a conveyor or front end loader.
More recent developments in auger drill technology have led to the introduction of a new
type of auger drilling machine called the thin-seam miner (TSM). As a modification of the
surface auger miner, the thin seam miner is actually a type of continuous miner that can cut an
entry up to eight feet (2.4 m) wide and up to five feet (1.5 m) high into a coal seam situated
under a high wall in surface mines.[67]
Auger mining with drills is a specialized skill and can be accomplished with a team of at
least three people. [68] One of the drawbacks is that once the cutter head enters the coal seam,
the operator is unable to view the cutting action directly and must rely more on a sense of feel for
the machine to determine potential problems. [69]
37

Auger Mining
5.4 Design:

Direction

The direction of auger mining is usually perpendicular to the wall being augered, although
this may vary. For example in steeply dipping areas holes may be drilled on an angle to the
wall to reduce the apparent grade.

Distance

Wherever possible the auger mining is to proceed as far as possible to maximize resource
utilization but at times physical restraints, such as previous auger mining, lease boundaries or
geological anomalies may shorten the length of penetration.

Grade

The proposed grade of auger mining is to be estimated using both survey and borehole
information. The auger will have a grade scale in the cabin, which reads in inches. A
conversion chart from degrees to the scale is also to be located on the auger. The first few
holes are to be monitored and the grade altered if necessary to maximize penetration
distance.

Hole spacing and pattern layout.

A Geotechnical investigation is to be carried out prior to auger mining taking place. This
investigation will result in both hole spacing and pattern layout being determined for any
particular area. [70]
5.5 Equipment used:Auger surface miner ,Continuous miner ,Conveyor ,Dump truck ,Front end loader ,Rock drill
Thin-seam miner

38

Chapter#6 Placer Mining

6.1 Introduction:Placer mining is the mining of alluvial deposits for minerals. This may be done by openpit (also called open-cast mining) or by various surface excavating equipment or tunneling
equipment.
Placer mining is frequently used for precious metal deposits (particularly gold)
and gemstones, both of which are often found in alluvial depositsdeposits of sand and gravel
in modern or ancient stream beds, or occasionally glacial deposits. The metal or gemstones,
having been moved by stream flow from an original source such as a vein, is typically only a
minuscule portion of the total deposit. Since gems and heavy metals like gold are considerably
more dense than sand, they tend to accumulate at the base of placer deposits.
The containing material may be too loose to safely mine by tunneling, though it is
possible where the ground is permanently frozen. Where water under pressure is available, it
may be used to mine, move, and separate the precious material from the deposit, a method
known as hydraulic, hydraulic sluicing or hydraulicking.
6.2 History:Placers supplied most of the gold for a large part of the ancient world. Hydraulic mining
methods such as hushing were used widely by the Romans across their empire, but especially in
the gold fields of northern Spain after its conquest by Augustus in 25 BC. One of the largest sites
was at Las Mdulas, where seven 30 mile long aqueducts were used to work the alluvial gold
deposits through the first century AD. (Inclusions of platinum-group metals in a very large
proportion of gold items indicate that the gold was largely derived from placer or alluvial
deposits. Platinum group metals are seldom found with gold in hard rock reef or vein deposits.)
In North America, placer mining was famous in the context of several gold rushes,
particularly the California Gold Rush and the Colorado Gold Rush, the Fraser Canyon Gold
Rush and the Klondike Gold Rush.
6.3 Process:Placer deposits are concentrations of heavy minerals that form when minerals are
washed, by weather or flooding, down slope into streams. The minerals settle in areas where the
river current stalls and can no longer contain the minerals. Placer mining is a collection of
39

mining methods that use water to separate valuable ore from the surrounding sediment. Placer
mining literally began as a flash in the pan, flecks of gold awash in a slurry of sediment,
recovered by miners using a skilled hand with only a pan the size of a dinner plate and river
water.[71]
There have been many technological advances in placer mining in Alaska since then.
Today miners process much larger quantities of ore-rich material using methods like dredging
and sluicing. Placer mining continues to be a robust and key industry, provides hundreds of jobs,
and feeds ongoing exploration efforts and population and community growth across the state.
6.3.1 Small scale placer mining:Anyone may prospect, explore and mine placer gold in stream channels in BC using only
a shovel and a gold pan. This is considered to be Recreational_Hand_Panning. Gold is found in
places where the water slows down enough for it to settle out - behind boulders, in and behind
gravel bars and just around the inside of bends in the creek.
Small picks or other tools can be used to recover nuggets from cracks in bedrock - this is
called "sniping". Large picks or bars may be used to move boulders and loosen hard material. In
BC, other than the in the Fraser River, this kind of work must be done more than 10 meters from
the stream and be on a placer claim.
Gold can be separated from gold-bearing material by gold panning or by using a small
sluice box.
Prospectors look for gold deposits that might be mined on a larger scale for profit, even if
they wouldn't be able to do the mining. The idea is to find gold and acquire one or more placer
claims (the right to mine this gold). These claims might then be sold or the prospector might
mine them (with or without help), or try to put together a deal with other miners or a mining
company.
"Exploring" means investigating an area (usually a placer claim owned by the explorer)
to determine where gold might be mined or where more expensive exploring (ex. drilling or
digging trenches with an excavator) might be worth doing. It can be part of prospecting - the idea
isn't to recover gold but to determine where a gold deposit can (or might) be worth mining.

40

Small-scale mining generally means digging by hand in channels or up on benches where

the creek flowed long ago. Benches and abandoned channels are frequently covered by
vegetation and often buried under material from up the sides of the valley.
Abandoned channels on the bottom of a valley may not be attractive because any gold is
probably below the water table. The exception would be where there are visible boulders or
gravel bars, meaning gold deposits may be at or close to the surface.
Old (often buried) gold deposits on benches can be very rich, even for a single person
using a shovel. There are stories of people pulling hundreds or thousands of ounces of gold from
a single bench deposit. If done by hand, this can take years, and of course, these deposits aren't
found very often. If the valley was carved by the stream, benches can sometimes be found high
above the present level of the stream, where it flowed long ago.
6.3.2 Medium Scale Placer Mining:Medium-scale placer mining generally involves the use of powered machinery to
excavate and handle materials. A wash plant processes excavated material to recover the gold. A
medium-scale operation might be carried out by one person, but two or more are probably more
common.
After gold has been found in apparently paying quantities, the basic tasks or steps of
medium-scale placer mining are:
Obtaining Permits In BC, you need permits if you intend to:

use powered digging equipment

draw water with a pump larger than 1.5 inches

cut down trees

Exploration - This generally involves either drilling or digging test pits or trenches to
determine where mining should be done. Some of this work may involve Site
Preparation, described below.

Site Preparation - This can involve cutting trees, building trails or roads for access,
stripping and setting aside topsoil for later reclamation and other surface excavation to
prepare the site for mining. It generally also involves setting up equipment, digging one
or more settling ponds and setting up pumps.[72]

Excavation

Processing
41

Reclamation

Selling Placer Gold

6.4 Types of Placer Mining:6.4.1 Dredging Mining:Dredging is a mining method that is often used to bring up underwater mineral deposits.
Although dredging is usually used to clear or enlarge waterways for boats, dredging can also
recover significant amounts of underwater minerals quite efficiently and inexpensively.
Dredging is widely used in oil refining. [73]
6.4.2 Hydraulic mining/Hydraulicking:6.4.2.1 Introduction:Hydraulic mining or hydraulicking is the alluvial mining of gold in deep-set placer
deposits using the force of high-pressure water jets to break up the face of a gravel bank or cliff.
Hydraulic mining is also treated as a variation of ground sluicing since loosened debris and water
gets washed down through a channel or ditch into sluices. Hydraulic mining was first used in the
1880s by miners during the California Gold Rush but was eventually abandoned in North
America due in part to the devastating environmental damage it caused. Today, it is still used in
some parts of the world in gold mining but the application has also been adapted for use in
excavation in building projects, with the sediment being recycled for land reclamation and
landscaping.[74]

42

6.4.2.2 History:The Roman Empire was the first to use an early version of hydraulic mining in the
recovery of gold known as "hushing." Hushing involved using big tanks of water built and set up
on a hilltop to flush an area with a large concentration of water in order to reveal veins of ore.
The method was mostly effective on steep slopes to produce a maximum force of water and was
deplored in conjunction with another technique called fire-setting. Used in open-pit mines, firesetting involved heating up the rock with fire and then dousing it with water. The drastic change
in temperature caused the rock to fracture. [75] The Romans were ingenious in the mining of
gold and developed sluices and an early version of the Long Tom. They even mined underground
and introduced waterwheels to mining.[76] The principle of hushing was then modified and it
evolved into hydraulic mining, using narrow hoses and pipes to generate high-pressure jets of
water powerful enough to clear away entire hillsides.
6.4.2.3 Developments in Hydraulic Mining:The first application of hydraulic mining took place in 1853 and is credited to Edward E.
Mattson, a miner with American Hill in Nevada. The hose Mattson used was made of rawhide
and the nozzle was carved out of wood.[78] Hoses proved to be extremely resourceful means of
washing away tons of boulders, gravel, and dirt. Their use resulted in saving a lot of labor tied up
in diggingin some cases, about two hundred menwith picks and shovels working a bank.
[79]
Water was diverted into ditches or wooden flumes placed at a higher elevation and
gravity did the rest. Hoses underwent technological developments and improvements. The
material of the hose was replaced with canvas and the nozzle was replaced by iron. [80]
Companies paid close attention to overall design and hose specification, manufacturing hoses
that had more flexibility and a greater range of movement. Some of the product names were the
Hoskinss Dictator and the Hoskins Little Giant. The most powerful hydraulic hose developed,
however, was the Monitor, made by Craig Co. [81]
6.4.2.4 The Monitor:The Monitor was the premiere hose used in hydraulic mining during the California Gold
Rush and its power was unprecedented. The Monitor featured a heavy iron pipe that blasted
water compressed inside a nozzle with a force of up to 5,000 pounds (2,268 kg). [82]It was
likened to a huge cannon that could blow a mountain to smithereens and leave a huge crater. The
43

force of water ejected from the Monitor was also known to be capable of killing a man if struck
by it. Some documented accounts recall men being killed by the sheer force of the Monitors jet
stream as far as 200 feet (61 m) away. [83] Monitors were soon used in mining operations 24
hours a day. At night, mines would be lit up with strong lights or locomotive headlights so work
could be carried out around the clock. The need for mass volumes of water in hydraulic mining
was also colossal. At one mine called the North Bloomfield Mine, sixty million gallons (227
million L) of water were required for daily operations. [84]
6.4.2.5 Hydraulic Mining Becomes Big Business:Hydraulic mining also changed the infrastructure of the mining industry. As the use of
hoses spread to subsequent operations on different claims, partnerships were quickly formed.
Water supply also emerged as a big business and a number of companies were developed to tap
and sell local water supplies and dig larger networks of ditches and canals. Smaller claims run by
individual owner-operators soon got overtaken by capital interests and wage labor. Some smaller
operations lost their claims because they could not afford their water bills. Even ditch companies
felt the effects, with some seeking bankruptcy when competition moved in and offered better
prices on water ditch systems.
Hard rock tunnels were also being constructed to carry away the large amounts of washed
debris from the mine, caused by hydraulic operations. The debris was unloaded in nearby rivers
and ravines. Water needs became so great that hundreds of miles of ditch systems and the
construction of mountain reservoirs were needed to keep operations going. Claims were
consolidated and stock companies formed to address capital needs. The industry eventually
became consolidated into about two-dozen companies controlling the best claims, with hundreds
of smaller mines remaining throughout the Sierra Nevada area. [85]
6.4.2.5 The Sawyer Injunction:
The use of hydraulic mining was cut short in California due to its catastrophic effects on
the environment. When the debris was cut away from the mountain and hillsides, it was dumped
and washed away in rivers and creeks. By 1891 hydraulic mining in the Sierra Nevada area led to
the depositing of about 211 million cubic yards (161 million m3) of debris into the Yuba,
American, and Bear rivers alone. [86] This was equal to all the soil excavated in the Panama
Canal eight times over.[87] The debris clogged up rivers, buried streams, threatened the
livelihood of fish habitats, and spread into riverside farmland, ruining many farms. The impact of
44

hydraulic mining on the environment led to a series of local and federal lawsuits including a
debate over its use in the California State Legislature. In 1884 a federal circuit judge by the name
of Lorenzo Sawyer issued an injunction against the mining industry in the discharging of its
debris. Many hydraulic mining operations shut down afterwards, not only because of the
injunction, but also because the cost of hydraulic mining grew to be too high. The industry
petered out, with only a few hydraulic mining operations still remaining by the 1960s. On the
plus side, hydraulic mining technology was adapted for use in other applications such as
irrigation and hydropower. [88]
6.4.2.5 Modern hydraulic mining properties: High Pressures 28 40 bar, as required by material
Jet concentrates pressure tight impact area
High densities 45 60% in say gold, 30 40% in coal
Densities relatively constant
Track mounted, remote controlled
High Pressure Pump Station constant location
Water delivered by steel and flexible HP lines
Process water, sea water acceptable no grit
Minimal evaporation losses
Slurry can flow distances depending on size
Slurry pump station minimal moves

High production per unit = low costs

45

Chapter#7 Solution Mining:7.1 In-Situ leach mining method (ISL method):In situ leach (ISL) mining is defined as, the extraction of uranium from the host
sandstone by chemical solutions and the recovery of uranium at the surface. ISL extraction is
conducted by injecting a suitable leach solution into the ore zone below the water table;
oxidizing, complexing, and mobilizing the uranium; recovering the pregnant solutions through
production wells; and, finally, pumping the uranium bearing solution to the surface for further
processing. Acid leach technology employs an acid based leaching system. Dilute sulfuric acid is
normally used.

7.1.1 ISL terminology:

Acid capacity: the ability of rock to react with a certain amount of acid (usually
Sulphuric), employed for leaching. It is expressed in relative units (acid mass per ore
mass) or in per cent. The neutralizing power of a base expressed as the number of
hydroxyl ions available per molecule.

Acid content of solution:-free acid concentration in the solution in g/cub.dm.

Acid flooding of well field (ore blocks):-preparation of the ore for in situ leaching by
displacing the underground water contained in the pores within the rock with an acid
leaching solution.

Acid leaching:- the use of acidic solutions (usually Sulphuric acid) in leaching projects.
Normally restricted to ore with a low carbonate (<2%) content.
46

Alkaline leaching:-the leaching of useful components from ores, using carbonate and/or
bicarbonate solutions.

Aquiclude geological formation that, although porous and capable of absorbing water,
does not transmit it

Channeling of solutions:-formation of pore canals of higher permeability due to

migration of fine grained fraction of solid particles within a subsurface zone. Often
caused by a pressure gradient exceeding the formation fracture pressure or by gas
migrating as an independent phase (bubbles).

Clogging or plugging:-blockage of the effective porosity by chemical precipitates

(chemical plugging) or fine particles (suspension) introduced into an aquifer (mechanical
plugging), or by has produced from chemical reactions or by reduced hydrostatic pressure
(gas blockage), which partially or totally fill the pore space within an aquifer.

Diffusion leaching:-the leaching of components, mainly involving diffusion processes

for mass transfer.

Drilling fluid (mud):-a water- or air-based fluid used in the water-well drilling operation
to remove cuttings from the hole, to clean and cool the bit, to reduce friction between the
drill string and the sides of the hole, and to seal the borehole.

Dynamic level the subterranean water level lowered by pumping or rose as the result of

injecting fluid into an aquifer; expressed in meters.

Effective thickness: - the useful thickness of a productive aquifer (including the

permeable ore bodies and enclosing rocks), where the major (80 90%) mass movement
is taking place as solution flow. The effective thickness is equal to, or less than, the total
aquifer thickness.

7.1.2 History of ISL:In situ leach (ISL) uranium mining technology was developed independently in both the
USSR and USA in the early 1960s. The method was conceived for extracting uranium from roll
front (infiltration) sandstone type deposits located in water saturated permeable rocks that were
not suitable for conventional mining. It was developed in both countries using similar
engineering and technological approaches. However, the Soviets adopted the acid leach system,
while the US specialists employed an alkaline, primarily carbonate based system. In following
years the acid ISL technology was also applied in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, the German
47

Democratic Republic and China. By 1998 and 1999 new acid leach projects were being
developed in Australia.
The importance of ISL technology has increased to the level that it contributed 13 to 15%
of world uranium production through much of the 1990s. In the late 1990s 65% or more of the
ISL production was recovered using acid technology. Because of the potential for economic, as
well as environmental advantages of properly planned and operated projects, the use of ISL
technology is projected to significantly increase in the future..
7.1.3 Merits of ISL:

A higher degree of uranium recovery from ore (7090%);

Favorable leaching kinetics (at 80% recovery the number of pore volumes of leach
solution circulated is 34, compared to 1012 for carbonate solutions);

A comparatively short leaching period of 25 years for acid (depending on the well field
size, ore permeability, well pattern, etc.);

possibility of recovering byproducts;

limited seepage beyond the leach field limit due to the formation of low permeable
chemical precipitates that block flow

addition of oxidants is not required due to widespread presence of iron oxide in the
recycled solutions;

possibility of selfrestoration (or self-attenuation) of the remaining leach solution due to

selfcleaning or recirculation of the contaminated solutions through adjacent barren
rocks.

7.1.3.1 Disadvantages of acid process:

acid consumption in carbonatebearing ores (i.e. C02 content over 1.52.0%) increases
chemical costs and may make the process noneconomic;

the risk of pore plugging (i.e. by chemical and gas bubbles);

increased concentration of dissolved solids in recycled leach solutions (to 1525 g/L);

Mandatory use of corrosionresistant materials and equipment, and; comparatively high

reagent cost.[89]

7.1.3.2 Reactant composition and leach investigation:

See chart see 1-A

Ph values used in leaching see 2-A

48

Characterization of gases used in leaching see 3-A

Principle stages of leach investigation 4-A

7.1.4 Effective ISL system:The following requirements are necessary for the effective operation of ISL wells:

The location of wells and their performance should provide maximum

recovery of uranium with minimum loss of leach solution.

The wells must be designed and operated to provide maximum possible

efficiency depending on site conditions.

The wells should provide for monitoring the underground movement of

the solutions.

The operation life of the wells should not be shorter than the operation
duration of the well pattern necessary for the well field life.

The choice of the number of wells and evaluation of production cost

should depend on economic feasibility regarding the ISL operation of the
deposit in order to obtain reasonable production cost of the recovered
metal.

The wells should be designed in such a way to allow high operating

performance using standard equipment and instruments.

The wells must be used in a way minimizing environmental impacts.

7.1.6 SELECTION OF THE OPTIMAL DESIGN ISL WELL PATTERNS:Based on calculations carried out from modelling linear well systems with various
distances between the rows, one can draw the following conclusions which allow choosing the
best design for leaching:
(1) The maximum distance between the injection and recovery wells vary from 10 to 80 meters
(the most prevalent from 30 to 50 m). With a short flow distance, channeling caused by fines
migration can develop and the solutions will thus partially by-pass the ore body. In addition the
capital cost of wells also drastically increases. With longer distances, the time for leaching
elementary cells increases drastically, the flow rate drops, the acid consumption increases due to
interaction with barren rock (including the increased mass of the horizon involved in the
processing) and the operating cost increases substantially.
49

(2) A short distance between the well rows improves the hydrodynamic interaction of the
recovery and injection wells, increases flow rates, and makes the process more vigorous, thus
shortening the leaching time.
(3) A smaller well pattern network can be advantageous:

in shallow deposits (less than 100 m deep), where the cost of drilling and well equipment
is not high in relation to the total costs for ISL;

in rock of high capacity for acid, especially with high carbonate content, where acid
consumption decreases during a shorter contact time;

in order to reduce the downwards loss of solutions when placing screens in the ore
interval with great thickness of flooded barren rock as well as in absence of reliable
confinement of aquifer;

With deep piezometric level (low water table) of productive aquifer, not allowing flow
rates high enough for airlifts.

Comparison tables: Comparison of Deposit Conditions Favorable to Surface Methods[4] 5-A

Comparison of Advantages and Disadvantages of Surface Methods[4] 6-A

Conclusion:This report writing project given me new insights and motivation and at the end I have
learned some new concepts in the field of surface mining.
In my opinion, this was useful and gain full report thorough out my academic carrier. I
have learned and understand the mining of coal through surface mining (Open cast/strip mining).
.Before writing this report I was not familiar with the word auger, hydraulicking, in situ leaching
but at the end of this report, I can say confidently that I have given through concepts and
understanding of all these process. The credit of this outcome goes to Sir Sohail Manzoor Tarar.
The five most important criteria in choosing the best mining method and equipment are
(1) Type of deposit, seam or disseminated. (2) Geometry of the deposit and terrain. (3) Total
material movement per time period. (4) Projected project life. (5) Geographic location. Other less
vital factors are (1) Climatic conditions and altitude. (2) Availability and cost of skilled work
force. (3) Environmental restrictions. (4) Slope stability and groundwater. (5) Investment risk
and available capital funding. (6) Blasting restrictions. (7) Method of waste rock disposal,

50

external or backfilling. (8) Availability of support services and infrastructure. (9) Availability of
electric power vs. local cost of diesel fuel. Those are the main concluded point of that report.
Tables list:1-A

2-A

51

3-A

4-A

52

5-A

6-A

53

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