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THE SCIENCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
It
*>
THE
Normal G-eammae:
ANALYTIC AND SYNTHETIC.
Illustrated by Diagrams.
By Stephen
AUTHOR OF
Claek, A.
"W.
M.,
FIRST LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR," "ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE,"

"GRAMMATIC CHART OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE," " KEY TO ENGLISH
GRAMMAR AND MODEL EXERCISES."
>l
"The character of
its
Language determines
the
mental vigor of a nation."

LONGINTJS.
A. S.
BARNES
&
NEW YORK AND

1870.
COMPANY,
CHICAGO.
TE i-tM
C43
4
ENGLISH GRAMMAR AS A SCIENCE.

ENGLISH GEAMMAR AS AN ART.
CLARK'S
ENGLISH GrEAMMAES A^D ANALYSIS.
Clark's First Lessons in English
By
Grammar.
Designed
Grammar.
W. Clark, A. M., Principal of Cortland Academy.
and Introductory
for Beginners,
S.
to
the Practical
ISmo, half bound.
Clark's New English Grammar.

in which Words, Phrases, and Sentences
A Key
to
trated
Grammar,
Grammar,
Clark9s
the Sentences for Analysis
Clark's
Practical
are Classified according
and their various Relations to each other

by a Complete System of Diagrams. 12mo, cloth.
to their Offices
trated
illus-
containing Diagrams of
and Parsing found
Normal Grammar Analytic and
in the
all
Grammar.
Synthetic.
Illus-
by Diagrams.
Clark's Analysis of the English Language

with a
Complete Classification of Sentences and Phrases, according to
their Grammatic Structure.
Designed as a Sequel to the Eng12mo, half bound.
lish Grammar.
Clark's
Grammatie
Chart.
Exhibiting the Analysis of
Sentences, the Analysis of Phrases, the Classification and Medication of Words.
Mounted.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year
By
S.
1870,
W. CLARK,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at "Washington.
PREFACE.
" The character of its Language determines the mental vigor
of a nation." Not less true is it that the purity of his language
determines the social standing of the man. If " speech is the body
of thought," the conquest of correct speech is second in importance
only to that of accuracy of thought. If Language is the " bridge
that spans the chasm between the intellectual world and the phys-
ical"
by which thoughts and emotions become audible and visible
by which sounds and sights create thought and feeling, then the
study of Language ought to claim the earliest attention of the child.
And
indeed it does. The child learns language before he learns

anything else. In the use of his mother tongue, he learns the art
before he can study the science, and that child is fortunate whose
early life is spent in the society of those who speak his vernacular
in its purity. Accuracy and elegance in speech lind their natural
counterparts in accuracy and elegance of thought, and in purity of
emotion.
While Grammar is an imitative Art, it is also a mental Science.
For the acquisition of the science a Text-Book is demanded.
good text-book should so present the Science as to secure the Art
should so exhibit the Laws of Language as to furnish the pupil a
sure test of the correctness of his expression should so develop the
varied structure of sentences and of phrases, as to enable the scholar
to
make such
selection
of
them
as will
most
clearly, forcibly,
and
elegantly express his thoughts and emotions as to enable him to

command the language. Its method should be so clear, concise,
and natural as to make the study of Grammar attractive. Only
such system and
method can
long
command
position in our
schools.
Twenty-five years have passed since the Author wrote his first
During all those years, he has person-
work on English Grammar.
PEEFACE.
ally tested his system and method in the school-room. His "First
Lessons in English Grammar," his " Practical Grammar,"
and his "Analyses of the English Language," have found
their way into extensive use in every State in the Union.

Their
gratifying success with the public has prompted the Author to
new effort.
The many and
this
varied criticisms of these books by intelligent,

independent Teachers who have used them, the Author's extended,
careful study of the science, his full recognition of the errors and
defects of his previous works, justify the preparation of the Normal
Grammar, which based on the same system and methods of his
former works claims to be an improvement on them all.
The System of Diagrams given in the Author's former works, has
been retained, to which important additions and improvements
have been made.
The Author's views as to the importance of Diagrams, are
corroborated by the decided approval of nearly all Teachers
who have used them. Their concurrent testimony settles the
question of their
The following
utility.
from responses of different Teachers, are

given as specimens of many
" Your Diagrams have aroused an enthusiasm in our juvenile
Grammar classes that has never been seen before."
" They map out a sentence admirably."
" They add much to the excitement of a lively recitation."
" Object Lessons in Grammar are beautifully exhibited in the
use of Diagrams."
" Our little Architects delight in constructing sentences according to given models. Blank Diagrams drawn on the black board,
are copied and filled with appropriate original sentences thus
securing good English compositions in sentences made to order."
"Diagrams open the eyes of our pupils to new facts in the
structure of sentences which many students would not otherwise
extracts
discover."
Those portions of the Author's former works that have stood

the test of intelligent criticism, and have been generally approved,
have been retained in this work. Such new matter and illustrahave been added
seemed to demand.
tions
Rochester, N.
as the
advanced condition of the science
Y., July, 1870.
CONTENTS.,
PART
I.
PAGB
Language Spoken,
Written
Grammar General,
....
Particular
Elements of Language Letters, Words,

tences
.....
9
IO
Phrases, SenIO
Forms, Classes, Uses

Words Classes
Phrases Elements of Phrases, Classes
Sentences Elements of Sentences
....
Letters
II
The
17
20
28
Subject, the Predicate, the Object
30
Adjunct Elements
33
Exercises in Analysis
36
Diagrams, Rules
39
Classification of Sentences
4i
and Transitive
42
Intransitive
Simple,
Compound, Mixed
43
Principal and Auxiliary
45
Substantive, Adjective, Adverbial
47
PART
II.
etymology of words.
Words Classes
Their Structure
"
NOUNS
Radical,
68
68
Simple
DerivationPrefix, Suffix
Compound
Adjunct
Their Uses Nouns Common, Proper
Modifications Gender
"
Person, Number
Basts,
Case
"
Subjective, Objective
Possessive, Independent
69
69
74
j6
79
86
87
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Pronouns Classes
92
Personal
Declension
93
94
97
98
Relative
Interrogative
Adjective
Adjectives Classes
102
Qualifying
103
SpecifyingPure, Numeral, Possessive

Verbal
Transitive, Intransitive .
Modifications
106
Verbs Classes
"
"
"
"
in
and
Finite
Infinite
112
Transitive and Intransitive

Principal and Auxiliary
.
Regular and Irregular

Modifications Voice
"
Mode
126
131
....
Irregular
150
158
Modifications
161
List
Conjunctions List
Exclamations
Words of Euphony
113
114
116
121
Tense
Conjugation Regular
Adverbs Classes
113
117
Participles
Prepositions
104
105
165
.
170
173
174
PART
III.
SYNTAX.
General Principles and Facts

Sentences Grammatical Distinctions
Rhetorical Distinctions
Syntax of the Subject
Syntax of the Predicate
Syntax of the Object

Syntax of Pronouns
Independent Case
.
186
186
188
194
206
233
247
263
CONTENTS.
Sentences -Adjuncts
PAGE
Logical,
....
....
....
Grammatical
Syntax of Adjectives
Syntax of Adverbs
Syntax of Participles
Syntax of the Infinitive
Syntax of Prepositions
Syntax of Conjunctions
Exclamations and Words of Euphony
.
PART
268
270
287
294
300
303
308
312
IV.
PROSODY.
Pauses
Rhetorical,
The
The
The
The
Grammatical
Comma Rules
Semicolon Rules
Colon Rules
Period Rules
315
317
317
318
314
Grammatical and Rhetorical

.319
Apostrophe
319
Quotation Hyphen Bracket Parenthesis
Reference Brace
320
Caret Dieresis Index Accent Emphasis 321
Composition Prose and Verse
322
Poetry Lyric
322
Dramatic Epic Didactic
323
Pastoral Elegiac Epigram Sonnet
324
Versification Blank, Rhyme
324
Verse
325
Trochaic Iambic Pyrrhic Spondaic Dactyl
AnapestAmphibrachTribrach
.326
Figures Grammatical Rhetorical Aphaeresis Prosthesis Apocope
329
Paragoge Synaeresis Diaeresis Syncope
Tmesis Ellipsis
330
Signs
....
....
.
Figures
CONTENTS.
Pleonasm Syllipsis Enallage Hyperbaton

Simile Metaphor Allegory
Personification Irony Hyperbole Antithesis
Metonomy Synechdoche
Apostrophe Interrogation Exclamation
Vision Paralepsis Climax Anti-Climax
Alliteration
.
PAGE
331
332
2>2>3
CLARK'S QRm
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PUBLISHED BY
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CO -NEW YORK.
PART
I.
THE ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE.
Definition
Language
1.
is
any means of commu-
nicating thought, feeling, or purpose.

Obs.
1.
1.
Thoughts and feelings are indicated

By
2.
By
by gestures, and by
Natural Language.
certain expressions of the features,
other physical
acts.
This
articulate sounds, or
is
called
by written
characters.
This
is
called Artificial Language.
2.
Natural language is common to all intelligent beings,
understood by all without previous instruction. Smiling,
frowning, laughing, weeping, are instances of natural language.
Obs.
and
is
Obs.
made
3.
Artificial
language
to indicate thoughts
erally,
each nation has
Principle.
its
is
invented by men.
by mutual
or
common
Sounds
consent.
are
Gen-
peculiar language.
Artificial Language
is
Spoken and Written.

Def.
2.
Spoken Language consists in vocal sounds,
indicative of thought, of feeling, or of purpose.
Def.
3.
Written Language
characters, so arranged
consists in artificial
and combined
as,
consent, to represent thought or emotion.

1*
by common

ENGLISH GRAMMAEPART
10
I.
It is customary to give to every science a name, by which

be distinguished from other sciences accordingly, people
have agreed to call the science which treats of Language
Kem.
it
may
GRAMMAR.
Def. 4. Grammar
the Art of using it.
is
the Science of Language, and
1. There are certain General Principles of Grammar which

common to all languages.Hence the term General Grammar.
Obs.
are
Obs. 2. But each particular language has some idioms and

forms of construction peculiar to itself. Hence the term Particu-
lar Grammar.
Rem.
Eveiy Particular Grammar should include
all
the princi-
Grammar.
ples of General
Def. 5. English Grammar is the Science of the

English language, and the Art of using it.
Eem.
The articulate sounds of language are indicated by Letters.
Def. 6. A Letter is a character used to indicate a

sound, or to modify the sound of another letter.
Examples. J.
Eem.
in hat, hate, hall, hart.
Letters are combined to form words.
Def.
7.
Word
is
a Letter, or a combination of
Letters, used as the sign of an idea.

Examples. Godmysteriousstood slowly Ah .'by and.
Rem.
Words are combined to form Phrases and Sentences.
Def.
8.
Phrase*
is
a combination of words, not
constituting an entire proposition, but performing a

distinct office in the structure of a Sentence or of an-
other Phrase.
The term Phrase is used in this work, not in its popular, but in its technical
The common use of the term is vague and indefinite applying to any
collection of words. In its technical sense, it means only such a combination
*
sense.
of words as perform a distinct office in the structure of a Sentence or of another

Phrase.
LETTERSFORMS CLASSES.
Examples.
11
At midnight, in his guarded tent,

The Turk was dreaming of
the
hour
When
Greece, her knee in suppliance bent,

Should tremble at his power.
A Sentence
Def. 9.
combined
Examples.
as to assert
is an assemblage of words, so
an entire proposition.
1.
Night approaches.
2.
Day
3.
William
4.
Socrates was a philosopher.
is
departing.
is sleeping.
5.
Virtue secures happiness.
6:
John and George have arrived.

God created the heaven and the
7.
earth.
LETTERS.
POEMS, CLASSES, USES.
Rem. Vocal Sounds
are the elements of spoken words.

Letters are the elements of written or printed words*
The
Obs.
Sounds.
a,
English language employs forty-one Elementary

These sounds are represented by twenty-six Letters
Bb,Cc,Dd,Ee, Ff, G g, Hh, Ii, Jj,
k, L I, Mm, JST n,
Oo,Pp, Qq,Rr,Ss, T
Rem.
These Letters
t,
K
V% Ww X x, Ty,Zz.
Uu,
thus arranged are called the English Al-
phabet.
Letters differ
n
\ !
(
î r
/~ ^
in their offices.
Rem. Most of the Letters used in our language were derived

from the Latin, and are called Roman Letters. We also use a variety called Italic, another called (JUlb
and
QEnglis!), another called
many
forms of PEtirni^nifa!) Lttrs a These

various styles of Letters have each two forms Capital Letters and
Small, or Lower-case Letters.
Script,
also
Roman letters are
Obs. 1.
language.
in
most common use
in the English
* Orthoepy and Orthography are usually learned from the spelling-book.

For the convenience of those classes that need to review these branches, a
few pages of the Grammar are devoted to a concise discussion of the forms, the
s,
and the
uses of letters.
"
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART L
12
used in words of special importance, and some-
Italic Letters arc
times in Sentences.
Rem.
tors to
In the
Sacred Scriptures, words supplied by the translacomplete the construction of Sentences according to the
English idiom, are printed in
lb
Italics.
(Ertglist) Letters are used for variety or
in
ornament
title-pages, etc.
Obs.
2.
The small, or " lower-case," Letters are used in forming
most Words, and constitute the appropriate form of letters now

used in printed works with the following Exceptions, wiiich
provide for the use of
Capital Letters.
A word
should begin with a capital
When
When
letter,
word of a distinct proposition.

Name, or a word immediately
derived from a Proper Name.
1.
2.
the
it is
it
is
first
a Proper
Examples. BostonWilliamAmericanVermonter.
3.
When
it is
name
or appellation of the
Supreme
Being.
Examples. God Saviour Holy Spirit Lord Omnipotent.
4.
When
the
it is
Example." Twinkle,
first
word of
twinkle,
a line of poetry.
little star,
How I wonder what you
are
Up
above the world so high,

Like a diamond in the sky."
5.
When
office,
is
it
a principal
and sometimes when
tance, or used technically.

Examples. 1. " Willard's History
2.
3.
word
it is
in a title of a
word of
of the United States.
6.
When
1 '
1 '
commences a
it
2.
impor-
" Burke on the Sublime and Beautiful.

" The Subject of a Verb should not take the place of the
ject."
Examples. 1.
book or
special
direct quotation.
"
The footman, in his usual phrase,

Comes up with 'Madam, dinner stays.' "
" Woe to him that saithunto the wood, Awake.'
*
Ob
'
13
LETTERS.
7.
When
constitutes the
it
Pronoun "I"
or the
Ex-
clamation " 0."

Example.
" O, I have loved in youth's fair vernal morn,

To spread
8.
When
" Sure I Fame's trumpet hear.
Examples. 1.
"Here
2.
9.
The
When
When
When
2.
3.
Strife
word
entire
1.
imagination's wildest wing."
Common Noun
it is
it is
it
fully personified.
' Cowley.
and Faction rule the day."
usually printed in capitals
is
the
it is
title
of a book or of a chapter.
a word of special importance.

a Proper
is
Name
subscribed to
document.
E1P The teacher is advised to write Sentences on the Blackboard

containing errors in the use of Capital Letters, and require the
Pupils to correct them.
Obs. 1. Letters are of various sizes, and have their corresponding appropriate names. The varieties of type in most common use
are the following
Great Primer,
Brevier,
Minion,
-q.
-^ 1Ca
Nonpareil,
>
Small Pica,
Long
Agate,
Pear1,
Primer,
Diamond,
Bourgeois,
Obs.
2.
The
bhiw.
Sounds of the English

Lan&
guage are distinguished

00
A
Obs.
3.
..
Vocal
as
Sounds
are produced
Siibvocals, and
Subvoca
<
\
Aspirates.
by the vibrations of
air in
the throat.
Kem.
The English language has

A represents Jive ;
"
E
two ;
Obs.
m,
fifteen vocal
heard in
"
three ; "
told, not,
"
three ; "
true, trust, full.
who.
Subvocal Sounds represented by the
n, ng,
r,
th, v,
w,
z,
of which
as in she, shed.
"
bind, bit.
two ;
4.
sounds
die, at, air, art, all.
"
1,
as
zh,
and
y are
letters b, d, g, j,
vocal sounds partly sup-
ENGLISH GBAMMABPART L
14
pressed or modified by the tongue, the palate, the teeth, or the lips..
They are, therefore, distinguished as Linguals, Palatals, Dentals,
and Labials.
Obs.
5.
whare
Aspirates represented by
f,
h, k, p,
s, t,
th, sh, ch,
and
only whispers, produced by forcing breath through the

organs of speech without vocalizing it.
Obs. 6. The Letters of the Alphabet are distinguished as

Obs.
7.
The Vowels represent
els are a, e,
Obs.
8.
i,
o, u,
The
and sometimes
j
\
Vowels and
Consonants.
The Vow-
pure Yocal sounds.
w and y.
Consonants represent Subvocal sounds and Aspi-
rates.
The Consonants
are b,
c, d,
f,
g, h, j, k,
m,
1,
n, p, q,
r, s, t,
v,
w,
x, y, z.
W and y sometimes represent Vocals, and are then Vowels.

Semivowels and
t
Rem.
Consonants are distinguished
as
r>
i,
ivr
Obs.
Semivowels
9.
(f,
h,
j, 1,
m,
n, r,
may represent sounds without the

Mutes (b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g
soft)
without the aid of a Vowel.

lables stop the voice.
Mutes
v, x, z,
s,
and c and g
aid of a vowel.
hard) can not be sounded
at the
end of words or
syl-
Cap, hat, back, bad, cab.
Rem. L, m, n, and r, are called Liquids, because the sounds

represented by them, flow readily into similar or other sounds.
Rem.
Letters
differ in the variety
of their representation.
1.
Generally a Letter represents a peculiar sound.
2.
Some
Examples. A
3.
Letters represent
in fate, far,
Sometimes
Examples. A and
4.
fall,
fat.
in do, go, on.
different Letters represent the

in slay, they
Sometimes a Letter
is
and
same sound.
c in case, face.
used that does not represent any
sound.
Examples. E
in time
in
hynm,
kilft.
Letters thus used are said to be Silent.

Silent Letters are used
1.
2.
But,
more than one sound.
To modify the sounds of other Letters and

To denote the origin or definition of the word.
;
15
LETTERS.
Obs. 10. One Letter often represents the sound of another Letter.
Examples.E
athey
for
e for
uher;
for
u sir.
Letter x always represents either the Letter z or the
Rem. The
letters k and s.
Examples. Xenophon
two
tax
taks
inflexible
Letter is said to be
Obs. 11.
protracted at will, as a in say-&y.
infleksible.
Long when
sound can be
its
Obs.A
by
it
Letter is said to be Short when the sound represented

can not be protracted, as a in hat.
Rem. Some
1.
2.
combine
Letters
To form one sound.

To form a combination
of sounds.
unite with the same, or with other vowels, to form

Diphthongs and Digraphs, Triphthongs and Trigraphs.
Obs.Vowels
a Diphthong
is a union of two vowels in one syllable, in

sounded.
are
vowels
both
which
Examples. Oi in boil, ou in thou.
Obs.
_A
Digraph is a union of two vowels

BS
which only one of the vowels is sounded.
Examples. Ea in Eagle, ei in neither, oe in subpoena.
Obs.A Triphthong
all
of
which
one
syllable, in
a union of three vowels in one syllable,
are sounded.
Examples. TJoy
Obs.
is
in
in buoyancy.
A Trigraph
a union of three vowels in one syllable,
is
which are sounded.

Examples. Eau in beauty, ieu in
not all of
I&p Let the

tences name
1.
3.
5.
6.
Obs.
Pupils
now
adieu.
turn to page 38, and in some of the Sen-
All the Vowels. 2. All the Semivowels.

All the Mutes. 4. All the Liquids.
All the Diphthongs and Digraphs.
All the Triphthongs and Trigraphs.
Two or more
consonants
may
unite to form a
complex
sound.
Examples. 5r bring
,
Rem.
The
cl-~, cling
ng
ciing.
same consonant repeated in the same
called a Double Consonant ; as
11
in Ball, rr in Burr.
syllable is
ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART
16
Eem.
Consonants
unite with
Vowels
to
I.
modify
their
sound or
signification.
Examples. A
Rem.
ayhay eight they.
For convenience
in articulation,
most words are divided
into Parts, called Syllables; hence,
is
Syllable is a whole Word, or such part of a

Obs.
uttered by one impulse of the voice.
Word
as
Examples.Manman-ly man-li-nessun-man-ly.
One
Syllable that completes a
word
is
called a Monosyllable.
Examples.Mangood sing form.
Two
Syllables united to form a
Examples.
word
are called a Dissyllable.
Manlygoodness singing inform.
Three Syllables that complete a word are called a
Trisyllable.
Examples.Manliness goodnesses informing.
Four or more
Syllables that complete a
word
are called a Poly-
syllable.
Examples.Unmanliness information.
Rem. Every Syllable must have one vowel sound.

one or more consonants.
Obs.
is
A Consonant placed before a Vowel in the
called an
Antecedent.
the same Syllable
is
Consonant placed
called a Consequent.
Exercises in
Hat
It
may have
same Syllable
after a
Vowel
the Analysis of Words.
a Monosyllable.
Semivowel ntecedent to its vowel a.
h
is a Consonant
a
is a Vowel
short sound.
t
is a Consonant Mute Consequent to its vowel a.
is a Dissyllable accent on the first.
Mary
is a Consonant Semivowel LiquidAntecedent to its vowel
is a Vowel long sound.
a
Semivowel Liquid Antecedent to its vowel
r
is a Consonant
is a Vowel
short sound.
y
is a Trisyllable
accent on the first.
Beautiful
is a Consonant
Mute LiquidAntecedent to its vowel u.
b
Trigraph
is
a
having
the sound of u long.
eau
is a Vowel not sounded.
e
is a Vowel not sounded.
a
is a Vowellong sound.
u
is a Consonant
Mute Antecedent to its vowel i.
t
i
is a Vowel long sound not accented.
is
a.
y.
in
WORDS.
f
u
1
17
is a Consonant SemivowelA ntecedent to its vowel u.

is a Vowelthird or medial sound.
is a Consonant Semivowel Liquid Consequent to its vowel u.
By
these models, let the following
words be analyzed
Faith.
Sincere.
Gratitude.
Benediction.
Hope.
Love.
Duty.
Candor.
Constellation.
Celebrating.
Zeal.
Fully.
Weariness.
Thankfulness.
Honesty.
Works.
Easy,
Hopefully.
Unanimity.
Meditativeness
Individual.
Consanguinity.
Oceanica.
Meditative.
Mediation.
WORDS.
CLASSIFICATION.
Remark. In a Discourse, words are used

1. As Names of beings, places, or things
2. As Substitutes for names or facts
3. As Qualifiers or Limiters of names
8.
To assert action, being, or condition;

To modify an assertion or a quality
To express relations of things or of thoughts
To introduce or to connect Words and Sentences
To express a sudden or an intense emotion ; or,
9.
For Rhetorical
4.
5.
6.
7.
Hence, by their uses
effect.
Words are distinguished
2.
Nouns,
Pronouns,
3.
4.
1.
5.
Adverbs,
6.
Prepositions,
Adjectives,
7.
Conjunctions,
Verbs,
8.
Exclamations,
9.
Def.
as,
10.
and
Words of 'Euphony.
A Word used as the name
of a being, of
place, or of a thing, is called
Noun.
Examples. Godmansea way wondersemotion.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
18
Def.
11.
A Word used for a Noun,

A
is
I.
called
Pronoun.
Example s . I thou he she-it-who what that.
Def.
Noun
12.
A Word used to qualify, or otherwise limit a
or a Pronoun,
is
called
An
Adjective.
Examples.Mysterious [way]his [wonders] #te
Def.
13.
A Word used to assert an
of a person or of a thing,
is
A
14.
act, being, or state,
called
Verb.
Examples. [God] moves [He] plants [Day]
Def.
[sea].
declines.
A Word used to modify the signification of a
Verb, of an Adjective, or of another Modifier,
An
Def.
15.
called
Adverb.
"
A mist rose
2.
"
3.
"
The task was exceedingly difficult."

He came between us very oft."
Examples. 1.
is
slowly from the lake. 1 '
A Word used to
express a relation of words
to each other, is called
A
Examples.
1.
2.
Def.
16.
Sentences,
Preposition.
"At midnight, in his guarded tent,

The Turk was dreaming o/'the hour."
A Word used to connect Words, Phrases, and

is
called
Conjunction.
Examples. 1. " And I am glad that he has lived thus long."

2. " God created the heaven and the earth."
"
WORDS CLASSIFICATION-.
Def.
17.
emotion,
A "Word used to express
a sudden or intense
called
is
An
Exclamation.
Examples.
Alas oh shocking !
Def.
A Word used
18.
19
chiefly for the sake of sound,
called
is
A Word
Examples.
Obs.
of Euphony.
1.
" There are no idlers here."
2.
"
3.
''''Even in
Now,
then,
we
are prepared to define onr position."
our ashes, live their wonted
fires.
For observations on " Words of Euphony " see Part
II.
Questions fob Review.

PAGE
15.
What is Language ?
What language is Natural?what, Artificial ?
Artificial language is how distinguished ?
What is Spoken Language ?
What is Written Language ?. .
What is Grammar ?
What is English Grammar ?
What is a Letter?
What is a Word?
What is a Phrase ?
What is a Sentence?
By their uses, how are words classified ?
What is a Noun ?
What is a Pronoun?
What is an Adjective ?
What is a Verb ?
What is an Adverb ?
What is a Preposition ?
What is a Conjunction ?
What is an Exclamation ?
What is a Word of Euphony?
. ,
16.
17.
18.
19.
See Def.
See Obs.
See
See
See
See
See
See
See
See
See
See
See
See
See
See
See
See
See
1.
1.
Def.
2.
Def.
3.
Def.
4.
Def.
5.
Def.
6.
Def.
7.
Def.
8.
Def.
9.
Def. 10.
Def. 11.
Def. 12.
Def. 13.
Def. 14.
Def. 15.
Def. 16.
Def. 17.
Def. 18.
20
PHRASES.
ANALYSIS OF PHRASES.
t} 7
Phrase
consists
Principal Elements and

,.
Adjunct Elements.
01
<
Def.
19.
The
Principal Elements of a Phrase
are the words necessary to
its
structure.
Examples .Of light round path amid shadeby consequences of youth.

1.
"Rays of limpid
2.
"Birds sang
3.
"Manhood
Def.
20.
light
amid
disgraced
is
gleamed
The Adjuncts of
."
|
by the consequences
used to modify or limit the
."
their path
round
the sprouting shade
of neglected youth
a Phrase
are the
."
|
words
of other words in the
offices
Phrase.
Examples. Limind their the whispering the
1.
" Rays
of limpid light
2.
"Birds sang
3.
" See
amid
gleamed
the ivhispering
Winter comes
varied.
round
their path
shade
to rule the varied year
The Principal Elements of a Phrase

The Leader and
the
."
|
."
."
{
consist of
Subsequent.
Def. 21. The Leader of a Phrase
is
the
word
used to introduce the Phrase generally connecting its

Subsequent to the word which the Phrase modifies or
limits.
Examples .Likein ofof To question.

in the van
1.
"Like a
2.
"Enough remains of glimmering
spirit
it
J
came,
|
To guide the wanderer's steps aright

3.
Obs.
"
The previous
The
position
but
example.]
of& storm
light
."
|
."
|
question being demanded,
the debate closed.
1 '
Leader of a Phrase is commonly the first word in

not always ; Adjuncts may precede. [See the last
21
PHRASES-ANALYSIS OF PHRASES.
!A Preposition,
A Participle,
A Substantive.
"I
Examples.1.
am monarch
of all I survey
to dispute."
My right there is none

2.
kC
Taking a madman's sword
regarded
3.
"
as robbing him
The evening
to
prevent
his doing mischief,
can not be
."
J
star having disappeared,
Def. 22.A Participle
is
we
returned
to
the castle."
word derived from a
Verb, retaining the signification of its verb, while it also

performs the office of some other "part of speech."
page
Participles, see
Obs.For obervations on
111.
Def. 23.The Subsequent of a Phrase is the Element which follows the Leader as its object of action or
relation, or which depends on it in construction.
Examples.Parted fta# great-coats- comfortershandkerchiefsmouth
ears walking-canesfeet.
" At parting, too, there was a long ceremony in the hall, buttoning up
silk handkerchiefs over the
great-coats, tying on woolen comforters, terns
unmouth and up to the ears, and grasping sturdy walking-canes to snpport
|
steady feet."
(
The Subsequent of a
Phrase may
be
\
(
A Word,
A Phrase, or
A Sentence.
Examples.
1.
Up
2.
time
3.
the sound, when oft at evening's close

yonder hill the village murmur rose."
Word." Sweet was

Phrase."
habit
of moving quickly,
is
another
way
of gaining
."
j
Sentence." The footman, in his usual phrase,

"
Comes up with Madam, dinner stays."
'
q bs> 1 .The
Subsequent of a Phrase
Example. " These crowd
is
sometimes suppressed.
around, to ask him of his health."
ENGLISH GBAMMABPABT
22
I.
Obs. 2. When any Element of a Phrase is suppressed, that part

of the Phrase which is expressed whether Leader, Subsequent, or
Adjunct is to be regarded as the representative of the whole Phrase,
and in the analysis of a Sentence, it should be construed as the
whole Phrase would be if fully expressed.
Examples. 1. " These crowd
"
around,''''
i. e.,
around him.
2.
" William will come
3.
" Mary has come to school early,"
home"
i.
e., to
his home.
i.
Around'' as an Element in the Sentence,
is
e.,
at
an early hour.
an Adverb for
it is
a representative of the Adverbial Phrase, around him.
"Around" as an Element in the Phrase, is a Preposition

ing a relation of " crowd" to " him," understood.
"
Home"
as
an Element in the Sentence,
for
an Adverb
is
showit is
representative of the Adverbial Phrase, to his home.
"
Home"
as an
Preposition
to,
" Early," as
Element
in the Phrase,
an Element in the Sentence,
representative of the Adverbial Phrase, at

" Early," as
limit the
word
Noun Object
is
of the
understood.
for
is
an Adverb
an
early hour.
an Element in the Phrase,
is
an Adjective
it is
used to
hour, understood.
RECAPITULATION".
'
Leader
Preposition.
Participle.
Pkistcipal
Elements,
>
Substantive.
Word.
Subsequent
PHRASES
Phrase.
.
Sentence.
and
consist of
Word.
Adjective
Phrase.
Sentence.
Adjunct
Elements.
Adverbial
Word.
Phrase.
Sentence.
23
PHRASES-CLASSIFICATION.
CLASSIFICATION.
(
Remark.Phrases are distinguished
I.
by
by
by
their uses.
their farms,
and
their structure.
Offices of Phrases.
The
Adjectives,
are used as substitutes for Nouns,
Hence, by
or they are independent in construction.
Remark.Phrases
and Adverbs
their
offices.
Phrases are distinguished as,

8. Adverbial,
1.
Substantive,
2.
Adjective,
4.
Independent.
is a phrase used
or the Object of
Verb,
a
of
as the Subject or the Object
a Preposition.
X) EF#
24. A Substantive Phrase
be, contents his natural desire."

His being a minister, prevented his rising to civil power."
" I doubted his having been a soldier:"
The crime of being a young man, I shall attempt neither to
" To
Examples 1.
2.
3.
4.
palliate
What
nor deny."
" contents his natural desire V"
To be"i.
" I
mere
existence.
doubted" What?
"
"
e.
His having been a
soldier."
The crime of" What?

" Being a young man."
are called Substantive Phrases, because they
similar to those of Nouns and of Pronouns.
Obs. Such Phrases

perform
offices
Def. 25. An Adjective
Phrase
is
of a
to qualify or limit the application
a phrase used
or of a
Noun
Pronoun.
" The time of my departure is at hand."
"Forgetting the things that are behind, I press forward."
Examples. 1.
2.
What
"
time ?"
"
Of
my
departure."
ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART
24
"
Examples. 3.
What
The dishes of luxury cover
Eem.
his table.'"
" dishes ?"
"
Of luxury."
Whenever a Phrase
or a Pronoun,
I.
it is
is
used to qualify or describe a
Noun
Adjective.
Def. 26. An Adverbial Phrase is a phrase used

modify the signification of a Verb, of an Adjective, or
of an Adverb.
to
Examples. 1.
2.
"
God moves
"He
is
in a mysterious way."
powerful/or evilimpotent for good"
"
God moves"How ?
"
Powerful"
" In a mysterious
"
In what
For
way."
respect f
evil."
Hem. Any Phrase used to ask or to answer

why? where? when? etc., is Adverbial.
the questions how f
Def. 27. An Independent Phrase is a phrase not

grammatically connected with any other element.
Example." The hour having
Obs.
arrived,
we commenced
the exercises."
The
office of an Independent Phrase is Logical, not GramThus, in the sentence, " The hour having arrived, we
commenced the exercises," the phrase " the hour having arrived,"
indicates the time of commencing the exercises but it is not joined
to the word " commenced" by any connecting word.
matical.
II.
The Forms
of Phrases.
Phrases are distinguished also by their forms,
as,
1.
Prepositional,
3.
Participial,
2.
Infinitive,
4.
Independent.
Def.
28.
A Prepositional Phrase
is
a phrase in-
25
PHRASES-CLASSIFICATION.
troduced by a Preposition, having a
Noun
or a
Pronoun
as its object of relation.

11
Examples.1. " In a mysterious way." " Tb me.
handy
is
"
aZ
departure
o/wy
2.
The time
introDef. 29. An Infinitive Phrase is a phrase

object
its
as
Verb
a
haying
duced by the Preposition to,
of relation.
Examples.1. " To love"" To study"" To
2.
3.
"
be diligent"
We ought not to be satisfied with present attainments."
"I
sit
me down
a pensive hour
to
spend."
Def. 30. A Participial Phrase is a phrase introduced by a Participle, haying an Object or an Adjunct.
Examples . 1.
" Scaling yonder peak."

" Scaling yonder peak I saw an eagle."
Moving quickly gaining
2.
"
is
3.
time.
A habit of moving quickly,

another
way
of gaining time."
Crushed to earth.
" Truth crushed to earth will rise again."
phrase inDef. 31. An Independent Phrase is a

a Partiby
followed
Pronoun,
a
or
troduced by a Noun
it.
upon
ciple depending
Examples.-!. The cars having
2.
left,
we
chartered a coach.
" Thus talking, hand being in hand,

And they passed on to their blissful bower."
III.
The Structure
of Phrases.
PRINCIPLE.
'
their structure, Phrases

are distinguished as
By
Simple
or
Compound,
Transitive
or
Intransitive,
Principa i
Complex,
Mixed,
or
Auxiliary,
26
ENGLISH GRAMMABPABT
Dee. 32. A Simple Phrase

one Leader and one Subsequent.
is
a phrase haying but
Examples. 1. " Enough remains of glimmering

To guide the wanderer's
2.
I.
light,
steps aright."
" Thought meeting thought, and will preventing will."
3.
Dee. 33. A Compound Phrase is a phrase having

two or more Leaders or Subsequents joined in the same
construction.
Examples. 1. "The engraver has placed
above the circle.'''
the Conjunction
without
and
"Rewarding
and punishing actions by any other

would appear much harder to he accounted for, by
minds formed as he has formed ours.
2.
rule,
1 '
"The whole animal kingdom
3.
is
in a state #* constant decay
and renovation."
4.
"Habits, formed in childhood and youth, last a whole

lifetime."
Dee. 34. A Transitive Phrase is a phrase whose

Subsequent is a Transitive Verb or Participle.
Examples.1. " He does not venture
to try the effect of his imperial voice,

in hushing its stormy billows, and bidding its proud
ivaves to stay themselves at his feet."
Dee. 35.An Intransitive Phrase is a phrase

whose Subsequent is a Noun or a Pronoun, or an Intransitive
Verb or Participle.
Examples. 1. "
I call to you
with
all
my voice"
2.
" To
3.
" I saw an eagle, wheeling near
Dee. 36.A
die, to sleep,
perchance to dream."
its
Complex Phrase
Leader, Subsequent, or Adjunct,
is
brow."
is
a phrase whose
by another
qualified
phrase.
Examples. 1. " Some in
the fields of purest ether play,

in the blaze of day."
And hask and whiten

2.
"
The
greatest possible intimacy should never induce you
to dispense w\th
politeness."
PHRASESBEGAPITULA TION.
3.
4.
5.
"
27
The office of wisely developing the minds of young

women, should be ranked among the most honorable
employments in the land."
" Long years have elapsed since I gazed on the scene,

Which my fancy still robed in its freshness of green."
" Dost thou aspire to judge between the Lord
Of Nature and his works f"
Def. 37. A Mixed Phrase is a compound phrase,

having one or more Transitive Subsequents and one or
more Intransitive Subsequents.
Examples.
1.
2.
" Forbade to ivade through slaughter to a throne,

And shut the gates of mercy on mankind.'"
" The old gentleman had never entertained the idea of William's leaving home and engaging in business for himself."
RECAPITULATION.
Substantive.
Adjective.
Uses.
Adverbial.
,
Independent.
Prepositional.
Infinitive.
Forms.
Participial.
PHRASES
^
are distinguished by
their
Independent.
Simple.
Compound.
Transitive.
Intransitive.
Structure.
<
Principal.
Auxiliary.
Complex.
Mixed.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPABT
28
I.
Questions for Review.

PAGE
What
What
What
20.
20.
The
21.
23.
24.
25.
are the Distinct Elements of Phrases

are Principal Elements of Phrases
are Adjunct Elements of Phrases
Principal Elements consist of
See Def.
See Def.
what ?
Def. 21.
What is the Leader of a Phrase ?
It may consist of what ?
Def. 23.
What is the Subsequent of a Phrase ?
It may consist of what ?
In how many ways are Phrases distinguished ?
By their offices how are Phrases classified ?
What is a Substantive Phrase ?an Adjective Phrase ? Def. 24, 25.
Def. 26.
What is an Adverbial Phrase?
Def. 27.
What is an Independent Phrase ?
By their forms how are Phrases classified?
What is a Prepositional Phrase ?
Def. 28.
Def. 29.
What is an Infinitive Phrase ?
Def. 30.
What is a Participial Phrase ?
Def. 31.
What is an Independent Phrase ?
By their structure, how are Phrases distinguished ?
What is a Simple Phrase ? a Compound Phrase ? Def. 32, 33.
What is a Transitive Phrase ?
Def. 34.
What is an Intransitive Phrase ?
Def. 35.
What is a Complex Phrase? a Mixed Phrase?
Def. 36, 37.
.
26.
19.
20.
SENTENCES.
Remark.
A Sentence may be resolved into
its
Elements.
Def. 38. The Elements of a Sentence are the

which enter into its structure.
parts
Rem.
In
are involved,
We
the structure of Sentences, certain general principles
which are common
to all languages.
1.
have that of which something
the Subject of the Sentence.
2.
is
declared.
There must be a word or words used
This
to declare
is
called
positively,
29
SENTENCESTHEIR ELEMENTS.
something of the subnegatively, interrogatively, or conditionally

Predicate.
the
called
This is
ject.
These two parts are
essential to the structure of a Sentence.
Predicates of some Sentences assert acts

to some persons or things.
3.
The
The names
which pass over
Object
of such persons, places, or things are called
Elements.
to limit, or to
4 There are often other Elements, used to qualify,
are called Adjunct
modify the various parts of Sentences. These
Elements.
The Parts
of a Sentence j
Principal Elements, and

Adjunct Elements.
Dee. 39. The Principal Elements of a Sentence

assertion.
are the parts which make the unqualified
Examples. 1. Birds fly.
2. The sun shines.
3. " Tbe night passed away in song."
4. " The mountains showed their gray heads."
unconfined,
5. " Thy bounty shines in Autumn,
And spreads a common feast for all that live.'"
" The king of shadows loves a shining mark."
6.
" In the beginning God created the heaven and the
7.
earth."
Def. 40.The Adjunct Elements of a Sentence

are such as describe or modify other elements.
night passed away in song."
" There in his noisy mansion, skilled to rule,
."
The village master taught his little school
Examples. 1. " The

2.
3.
4.
Rem.There are still other words, which are neither Principal

Elements nor Adjuncts,words which are sometimes used in conan integral
nection with the Sentence, but which do not constitute
part of it. Hence,
Dee.
41.
"Words
accompanying a Sentence without
entering into its structure, are called
ENGLISH GRAMMAR- PART L
30
Attendant Elements*
Examples. 1. " Lend me your
5.
songs, ye nightingales!"
"
Liberty! I wait for thee. 11
" There are no idlers here. 11
" I sit me down, a pensive hour to spend."
" Even in our ashes live their wonted fires. 11
6.
"Friends, Bomans, Countrymen! lend
2.
3.
4.
me your
ears."
PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS.
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION.
The
Principal Elements of a Sentence are,
The
Obs
Subject,
Every Sentence
The Yvedicate,
must have,
at least,
The
Object.
one Subject and one
Predicate, expressed or understood.
The
Subject.
Def. 42. The Subject of a Sentence is that of which

something is asserted.
Obs. 1. The Subject of a Sentence is always Substantive in its
it may be a Noun, or a Word, a Phrase, or a Sentence
used
for a Noun.
It may be determined by its answering the question
who? or what? placed before the Predicate.
office
EXAMPLES.
a.
A Noun.l.
2.
3.
b.
c.
fly ?
1
A Pronoun.4. We come. Who come?

5.
They are satisfied. Who are
6.
" They that seek
A Phrase.
8.
d.
Birds Ay. What
" Knmvledge is power. ' What is power ?

" Truth crushed to earth, will rise again. 1 '
me
satisfied
early, shall find
me. 11
" To do good, is the duty of all men. 11 What is

-1.
duty?
" His being a minister, prevented his rising to civil power. 11
A Sentence. .
10.
" At what time he took orders, doth not appear. 11

" That all men are created equal, is a self-evident truth. 11
a self-evident truth ?
What is
31
SENTENCES THEIR ELEMENTS.

Obs. 2. A Subject of a Sentence having Adjuncts,
Modified Subject.
Example." The king of shadows loves a
is
called a
shining mark."
The Predicate.
Dee. 43. The Predicate of a Sentence
Word
Words that express what
or
is
the
asserted of the
is
Subject.
Obs.The Predicate consists of a Verb, with or without ana Pronoun, or a

other Verb, a Participle, an Adjective, a Noun,
Preposition.
Examples.
a.
only 1. Birds fly.
Verb
2.
3.
b.
Quadrupeds run.
" Here steeps he now alone."
Two Verbs4. We
shall go.
do remember.
" Ye shall not in the lofty pine
Disturb the sparrow's nest."
5. I
6.
C.
a\
e.
/.
g.
Fer5 and a Participle.--7. John was injured.

8. Willie is reading.
4i
Thou ar perched aloft on the beetling crag."
9.
Fero and an Adjective. 10. James became poor.

11.
Warner
12.
"
And
is steepy.
the waves are
Ferft
17.
TOo
18.
" Thine
are you?
is the kingdom.
below."
and a
That business
Remakks.The
Predicate
lias
is
man."
1'
Preposition.19. Its idle
20.
its
?ftite
A Fer& and a Noun.13. God is love.

14. We are friends.
15. " The proper sMy of mankind is
A Verb and a Pronoun. 16. It is /.
hopes are
been attended
o'er.
to.
varied not only inform, but also in
functions.
may assert an act as, William walks.

may assert being-as, God exists.
It may assert quality-as, Sugar is sweet,
" Thine is the kiugdom."
It may assert possession as,
It may assert identityas, It & J.
1.
It
2.
It
3.
4.
5.
32

6.
It
7.
It
may
may
I.
assert condition&$, " Its idle hopes are o'er."

assert change of condition as, " His palsied
hand
waxed strong"
Logical Pbedicate.
Grammatical Predicate.
Obs. 1. The term " Predicate" has two applicationsa Logical
and a Grammatical. The Logical Predicate includes the Grammatical Predicate and its Object.
Thus, in the sentence,
u
The king of shadows
loves a shining mark,"
" Loves a shining mark,' is the Logical

Predicate
" Loves'" is the Grammatical Predicate.
1
Obs. 2. In Sentences that have no Objects, the Logical and the

Grammatical Predicates are identical. Thus, in the sentence,
The oaks
"
" Fall " is
3. The Modified
Obs.
cate
and
its
Adjuncts.
Are
in the pines;
" Are"
is
fall,"
Predicate includes the Grammatical Predi-
Thus, in the sentence,
Hollow winds
"
"
of the mountains
both the Logical and the Grammatical Predicate.
is
are in the pines,
the Modified Predicate of " winds."
the Grammatical Predicate.
The
Rem. The
Object.
Object of a Sentence, being distinct
from the Grammatical Predicate, is properly regarded as a distinct Element in the

structure of such Sentences as contain Objects. Hence,
Def. 44. The Object of a Sentence is the Word or

Words on which the act, expressed by the Predicate,
terminates.
Obs. 1.- The Object of a Sentence
or a Sentence used for a Koun. It
swering the question
whom?
is
a Noun, or a Word, a Phrase,
may
be determined by its anor what? placed immediately after
the Predicate.
Examples.
a.
A Noun.1.
2.
3.
John saws icood saws what f

Birds build nestsbuild what f
" Shall joy light the face of the Indian ?"
33
ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES.
b.
A Pwnoun.-A.
d.
A Phrase.
A Sentence.-
him seen whom?
seekest thou ?
" Oft the shepherd called thee to his flock."
6.
c.
have seen
Whom
5.
" 1 regret his being absent."I regret
-7.
-8.
9.
what?
" The fool hath said in his heart, 77*ere is wo od."

" And God said, 7^ /ier be light."
Modified Object.
2.An Object
Obs.
that has Adjuncts
is
said to be modified.
ExampleWe have reached the end of the chapter. Here "end"

Object. " The end of the chapter" is the Modified Object.
is
the
ADJUNCT ELEMENTS.
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION.
A Word,
\ A Phrase, or
A Sentence.
(
An
Adjunct Element may be
Examples.
a.
A Word.1. We were walking homeward Whither ?

2. We shall arrive soon. When f
3.
&.
c.
" Darkly waves
eacft
#ta bough.
A Phrase 1. We
2. We
A Sentence.!. Students, wAo sfady,
2.
will improve.
Students will improve, / they study.
are used to
Hence,
Rem. Adjuncts
acts or qualities.
limit or describe things, or to
Adjuncts are distinguished as

Obs.
1 '
were walking toward home Whither ?

shall arrive itt a sto time. When ?
-j
A-diective
modify
or
AdverUaL
1J^cfe
J.$tmcfe, whether Words, Phrases, or Senanswer the questions, What? What kind?
many? etc. They are attached, in construction, to
tences, are such
as
Whose? How
Nouns and to Pronouns.
are
Obs. 2. Adverbial Adjuncts Words, Phrases, or Sentences
Whence?
such as answer the questions, How? Why? Where?
Whither?
ciples,
and
etc.
They
to Adverbs.
are attached to Verbs, to Adjectives, to Parti-
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
34:
1.
Logical Adjuncts.
Obs. 3. Words, Phrases, and Sentences, having no
Grammatical
connection with other Elements in a Sentence, often
perform Adjunct offices, by limiting or modifying the application of other
Elements. Such are properly called Logical Adjuncts.
Examples.
a.
Words.-
1.
Webster, the Statesman,
is
remotely related to Webster, the
Lexicographer.
b.
Phrases.1. " Napoleon having fallen, there
c.
Sentence. " It
is
possible that
Anna
is
no more cause
for alarm."
will come."
Rem. The words
" Statesman" and " Lexicographer"

are used to
two "Websters;" the Phrase "Napoleon having
why there is no more cause for alarm; and "Anna
Sentence used to tell what is meant by the word " it"
distinguish the
fallen," to tell
will come," is a
Questions for Keview.
PAGE
28.
What
29.
How are
30.
a Sentence f
the Elements of Sentences classified
are Principal Elements of a Sentence ?
are Adjunct Elements f
is
32.
What is
What is
What is
33.
Make a Sentence having a Word Subject.

Make a Sentence having a Phrase Subject.
Make a Sentence having a Sentence Subject.
What is a Modified Subject ?
What is the Predicate of a Sentence ?
What is a Logical Predicate ?
gg
j) e f.
What
See Def.
What
See jj e f
What are Attendant Elements f
See Def
What are the Principal Elements of a Sentence V
What is the Subject of a Sentence ?
See Def.
By what method can you ascertain what is the
Subject of any Sentence
31.
g ee
?
39.
49
4l!
42.
See Obs.
1.
See Def. 43.
a Grammatical Predicate ?
a Modified Predicate ?
the Object ?
See Def. 44.
How can you determine what is the Object of any
Sentence?
See Obs. 1.
What is a Modified Object ?
See Obs. 2.
What are Adjunct Elements of Sentences ?
35
ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES.
Adjunct Elements may consist of what?
Make a Sentence having a Word Adjunct.
Make a Sentence having a Phrase Adjunct.
Make a Sentence having a Sentence Adjunct.
What is a Logical Adjunct ?
.See Obs.
3.
RECAPITULATION.
Subject
Noun.
(Word,..
Pronoun.
(
.
Phrase..
Substantive,
[ Sentence. ..Substantive.
^
*g
Pkincipal
Elements.
Predicate..
pq
'*
t>
<3
Object
another Verb.
g a Participle.
an Adjective.
a Noun.
^ a Pronoun.
a Preposition.
Word
Noun.
Pronoun,
Phrase..
^Sentence
Word,.
GO
Grammati-
Phrase.
cal
a
Sentmce
'
Substantive,
Substantive.
Adjective.
Adverb,
Adjective.
Adverbial.
Adjective.
(Adverbial.
Adjunct
Elements. 1
Word.
Logical
Phrase.
d
d w
a>
J* _L
CD
-g d.2,-H
-+^>
DQ
Sentence.
r&
d
H
!-?
<*>
-+3
g~
O-H
.d -U
tb O
r^2
CD
<
36
Exercises
"
Analysis.
God moves
in a mysterious way,
His wonders to perform
;
He plants his footsteps in the

And rides upon the storm."
Quest Of whom
Am.
is
sea
something asserted in the lines above written ?

is said concerning " God?
Something
What is said of God ?

A. God "moves?
How does God move

A. "In a mysterious
way?
God moves in a mysterious way"

A. " To perform Ms wonders?
"
Concerning tchom
is
A. Something more
Why do you
something more said
think so
is
said of
"He" means
God.
God ?
A.
He
"plants."
He
plants what f
A.
He
plants "footsteps?
He
plants whose footsteps ?
A. " His"
said concerning " God.
is
A. Because, in this connection,
What more
why ?
footsteps.
He plants his footsteps where?

A. " In the sea?
A.
What more is said of God ?

" rides?
He
He
rides
A. " Upon
where f
the
storm?
In the
lines written above, what is

word " God ?"
A. It is used to tell who " moves."
What is
A. To
tell
the use of the
what God
word
does.
" moves
the use or
office
of the
37
EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS.
What
A. To
the use of " in a mysterious
is
how God
tell
way fn
mores.
Ms wonders to perform ?"

A. To tell for what purpose God moves.
What is the use of" He ?"
A. To tell who " plants footsteps" and " rides."
What
is
the use of "
What
is
the use of "plants?"
A. To
what " He"
tell
What is
To
A.
whose footsteps.
tell
the use of "footsteps ?"
What is
To
A.
He
what
tell
plants.
the use of " in the sea ?"
What is
A. To
does.
the use of " his ?"
tell ivhere
He
plants footsteps.
of " rides?"
What is the use

A. To tell what " He"
What
"
is the use of
does.
the storm ?"
upon
where He rides.
young Pupil has
The
Remark.
A. To
tell
seen, in this exposition of the

meaning ; and that when
four lines written above, that words have
the thoughts of the
convey
they
together,
put
properly
they are
person
who
wrote them, to those
who
read them.
in the
same man-
U2T Let the following Sentences be analyzed

nertae teacher being careful to ask appropriate questions.
1.
" The sun rose on the sea ."

" A mist rose slowly from the lake ."
"The night passed away in song ."
"Morning returned in joy ."
" The mountains showed their gray heads
u The blue [face of ocean smiled ."
3.
4.
5.
6.
"Bay
^
8.
" Hollow
9.
"Darkly
winds
2.
are
declines
in the pines
."
|
."
|
moves each giant bough,

."
O'er the sky's last crimson glow
" Nature's richest dyes
|
10
11.
12.
13.
Are floating o'er Italian skies."

" A golden staff his steps supported."
" The dying notes still murmur on the string."
' A purple robe his dying frame shall fold."
38
14.
15.
16.
17.
"At
the heaving billows, stood the me&gei'form of Care"

" Oft the shepherd called thee to his flock. 11
<k
The comely tear steals o'er the cheek.
" The storms of wintry Time will quickly pass."
1 '
18.
" Thus in some deep retiremenr, would I pass

The winter- glooms, with friends of picasant soul."
19.
" Then comes the father of the tempest forth,

Wrapt in thick glooms."
20.
"
Thy bounty
And
shines in
spreads a
Autumn, unconfined,
common feast
for all that live."
21.
"
Some
22.
"
And bask and whiten in the blaze of day.

On thy fair bosom, waveless stream,
in the fields of purest ether play,

11
The dipping paddle echoes far,

And. flashes in the moonlight gleam."
23.
"
Who can observe the careful ant,

And not provide for future want."
25.
" Nature with folded hands seemed there,

Kneeling at her evening prayer."
" The woods
26.
"
27.
" Spring calls out each voice of the deep blue sky."
28.
" Thou' rt journeying to thy spirit's

Where the skies are ever clear."
24.
Threw their cool shadows freshly to the west."

The clear dew is on the blushing bosoms
Of crimson roses, in a holy rest. 11
home,
"A summer breeze
29.
Parts the deep masses of the forest shade,

And lets a sunbeam through. 11
30.
" The pines grew red with morning."
31.
" Sin hath broke the world's sweet
peace unstrung
Th' harmonious chords to which the angels sung."
And
32.
"
33.
" The blooming morning oped her
34.
"
35.
36.
eve, along the western skies,

Spreads her intermingling dyes."
No
dewy
eye."
marble marks thy couch of lowly sleep
But living
statues there are seen to
"A distant torrent faintly roars.
weep."
11
37.
" His gray locks slowly waved in the wind,

And glittered to the beam of night."
38.
" Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield."

" Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke."
" How jocund did they drive their team afield !"
" How bowed the woods beneath their sturdy stroke !"
39.
40.
41.
42.
" The breezy call of incense-breathing morn,

The swallow, twittering from the straw-built shed,
The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn,
No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed."
"
DIAGRAMS GENERAL RULES.
39
DIAGRAMS.
Kem The
tion in the
determines
office of an Element in a Sentence
Diagram, according to the following
its
posi-
GENERAL EULES.
A.
(5.)
CUD
(
3S
5PGz
B.
(6.)
^3EF
^TZO^
ens
3)
J7jll8jll9
Principal Elements of a Sentence are

and on the same horizontal line ; as
uppermost,
placed
Eule 1. The
(1), (2), (3),
Diagrams A and
Eule 2. The
place ;_as, (1)
b.
Subject of a
and
(10),
Sentence takes the
first
and
and
Diagrams
A,
(1), (6),
'
(25), b.
Eule 3. The
(2), (7),
Predicate of a Sentence
Subject attached ; as
(11), and (26), b.
right of the
(2)
is
and
placed to the
(11),
A r and
40
I.
Eule 4.The Object of a Sentence is placed to the

right of the Predicate attached ; as
(3), a, and
and
(3), (12),
X ),
B.
Eule 5.An Adjunct of a Sentence is placed beneath

Word which it limits or modifies attached as, (4)
the
(5), (6), (7), (12), (13),
(17), (18), (23), a,
(14),
(5), (8), (9), (17), (18), (19),
and
(4
,'
(20), (23), (24), b.
Eule 6.If the Adjunct is a Phrase, its Leader is atWord which it limits: as, (15), (19), (25)
tached to the
A,
and
'
(15), (21), b.
Eule 7.The Subsequent
of a Phrase
'
placed to the
to the right
of (19) (26) to the right of
(25)(16) of (15), A, and
_
right of
(22) of
its
Leader attached
(21)-(16) of
Eule 8. If
as (20
is
and 21)
(15), b.
the Adjunct
is a Sentence, it is attached
the Adjunct Sentence limits
as, the Adjunct Sentence within
the dotted line (6), is
attached by the line from (2) to
(9), a, and
to 19 in-
by a
line to the
Word which
(6
clusive) is attached to (1), b.
Eule 9.A
Word which it
eric,"
page
Logical Adjunct
describes,
is
placed beneath the

[See "Eod-
but not attached.
41.]
Eule 10. A Conjunction used to introduce a Sentence

placed above the Predicate of the Sentence
which it introduces ; as, (a), used to introduce the
Sentence (1, 2, 3),
A, and (9), introducing the Adjunct
Sentence (10, 11), a,
and (o), introducing the Sentence (1, 2,
3), b.
is
Eule
11.
Conjunction used to connect Words,
Phrases, or Sentences, similar in construction,
is placed
between the Elements connected ; as,
connecting
(10),
(11) to (7),
B.
[See also Diagram, page 43.]
41
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES.
Rule 12. A
Relative
Pronoun
or a Possessive Adjec-
Adjunct Sentence, is attached

tive used to introduce an
"
antecedent" by a line as (6) attached to (1) and
to the
;
(X) attached
to (22), B.
1.
Some Sentences
^^
(in their Forms and
,.
REMAKK.-Sentences
differ
-j
assert the
te#,
condition, or jfofe of a
not pass over to an

or of a thingor an act which does
on Objects.
terminate
which
acts
Otliersassert
2.
3.
Some Sentences
person
Object,
one fact others assert more than
assert but
Proposition- oth4 Some assert an Independent or a Principal

Hence, by theiv forms,
proposition.
qualifying
or
secondary
ers a
Sentences are distinguished
as,
Intransitive, Transitive, or Mixed.
Simple, Compound,
or
Complex.
their uses, Sentences are distinguished as,
By
Principal
\
(
Declarative,
Interrogative,
or
Imperative.
or
(
Auxiliary
\
(
Substantive,
Adjective, or
Adverbial.
Sentence
Dee. 43. An Intransitive Sentence is a
or an act which
that asserts condition, being, or state
does not terminate on an Object.
Examples.
2.
William sleeps.
Errors abound.
Mary
1.
is cheerful.
tv\
"J (
K
William
sleeps
4.
God is
5.
Mountains are elevated.
love.
42

"On some
6.
(8.)
fond breast the parting soul relies."
T~
soal
Cg*-J- (
I.
Parting
reiie8
(on)
~)
b re a St
some
)l fond
Obs.An
and
Intransitive Sentence contains one or

Predicates,but no Object.
GUT Let
make an
each Pupil
more Subjects
Intransitive Sentence.
Def. 44. A Transitive Sentence is a Sentence

that
an act which terminates on an Object.
asserts
Examples.
(9.)
John saws wood.
2.
Industry promotes health and wealth.
3.
" I thank thee, Roderick, for the word."
(10
'}
John
Obs. A
sawB
wood
ciDn^n~^
Mlie J
cate,
1.
Transitive Sentence has at least one Subject, one

Predi-
and one
Object.
38
HEP Let each Pupil
make
a Transitive Sentence.
Def. 45. A Simple Sentence

but one proposition.
a Sentence that
is
asserts
Examples.
,|
1.
William sleeps.
2.
Mary
(!*)
William
sleeps
](
3.
4.
(^
is cheerful.
Ki ng
jf
loves
^(ofj^h^Q
mark
LLil
Bhiniiig
Obs.A Simple Sentence can have but one

and when Transitive one Object.
cafe,
WW Let each Pupil make a Simple Sentence.
Subject,
one
Pmfc
43
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
Def. 46. A
that asserts
Compound Sentence
more than one
a Sentence
is
proposition.
Examples.
1.
Anna and Mary
2.
Temperance
3.
4.
study Latin.
elevates and ennobles man.

Robert studies Grammar and Arithmetic.
" Slowly and sadly they climb the distant mountain,
And
read their
doom
in the setting sun."
(13.)
Obs.
Compound Sentence has more than one
Subject or
Predicate or Object.
Def. 46 (b). In a Compound Sentence, the Principal

Elements which are compounded are called Clauses.
Obs.
The Compound Clauses may be
(14)}
Warner
& )
"}A
CArthmHl
"Y
_y
The
1-
7\
studies
fT &
The
2.
^T
st udy
4.
recites
'
/Arithmetic )
Warner"*)^
Arthur
recite
Warner
Grammar.
Predicates only
and
3
Warner and Ar-
Subjects only-
thur stud y Grammar.

Gram
"V Grammar)
"\f
Warner
Grammar
recites
I
(
studies
&
~\
~\f~
study
Objects
jWarner
Grammar and
Arithmetic.
The
studies
studies
The
Subjects and the Predicates

Warmer and Arthur study and reGrammar.
cite
-^
stiKHes
'
Arthur
X'Gramm aQ
The
6>
The pre(Ucates and the Objects

Warner studies and recites Gram-
^^7-4-
!t->
JXAnthmeticQ
study_3^Gramm_
L_J
L & i-^
recite
jQ Anthme tic)
-*,
t r-7
5.
Subjects and the Objects

Warner and Arthur study Grammar
and Arithmetic.
^ a/
7>
The
and AHthmetiCm
and the
Objects Warner and Arthur study
Grammar find Arithmetic.
Subjects, the Predicates,
and
^^
ENGLISH GBAMMARPABT L
44
Obs.
A Compound Sentence may have more than two clauses.

Examples.
Friendship, Love, and Truth abound.
1.
(15.)
C Friendship jf
Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen
2.
Love
(A)
constitute the chief elements of organized matter.
abound
Truth"
(
1
Let each Pupil make a Compound Sentence.
Rem. Sentence? which have Compound Predicates, often have

Objects applicable to only a part of them. Hence,
Def.
more
is
50.
Compound Sentence,
Transitive,
called a
having one or
and one or more Intransitive Predicates,
Mixed
Sentence.
Examples.
" Time
1.
slept
on flowers, and
lent his glass to
slept
(16.)
Time
HPK2IL/
lent
2.
Slept"
The
is
Intransitive
stars will then lift
up
j
^
flowers
glass
JT^
T2
Rem."
Hope."
hope
his
" lent" is Transitive.
their heads
and
rejoice.
(17.)
stars
lift
T^)
fcJQlce
The
3.
4.
X (their)
will
then
iead s
1 Rem." Will lift"
is
"re-
joice" is In transi-
tive.
" I will never pant for public honors,

Nor disturb my quiet with the affairs of
"
Transitive;
Who
And
state.'"
can observe the careful ant,

wot provide for future want?"
Let each Pupil make a Mixed Sentence.
Def. 51. A Principal Sentence asserts an independent or a principal proposition.
45
Examples.
A mortal disease was upon her vitals.
1.
(18.)
disease
> Av
C
X
t
rr\
mortal
wa s
vitals
"
Principal Sentence,
Intransitive.
Simple,
F
'
her
^T
)
lup
The FUR WARMED a BEAR.
(19.)
V_
fur
"
He hath brought many
-XJ
3.
(
Y bear
yV_^
warmed
_/V
The
Princi]pal Sentence,
Transitive.
Simple,
F
'
captives to
Rome."
20.)
CHe
Def.
Y hath brought Y captives

- A^,
r
y\
An
52.
Principal Sentence,
Simple, Transitive.
Auxiliary Sentence
a Sentence
is
used as an Element in the structure of another

Sentence or of a phrase.
that
is
Examples.
1.
'*
was upon her
mortal disease
the Rubicon."
vitals before Caesar
had passed
(21.)
disease
J^
f a Vmi.HRfS
(j^^mortaij
.
was
|up<>
|^
glials
"Before Ccesar had passed

the Rubicon" is an Auxfliaiy S entence-^r&W, because it modifies
the Verb " was "
L ber J
(before)
âd7^^d7Îblco^)
Caesar j(
the
2.
"
The
fur that
warms
a monarch,
warmed
a bear.
(22.)
fur
.
>
.
._,
^^^
warmed
.
bear
(^tbat
^warmBj^monarcli)
C
Y
y
A___
Sentence
Aan Auxiliary
J
because
^ -y
lhat warms a monarch"
is
djective,
scribes
or limits the
K
u ~
it
de-
noun
ENGLISH GBAMMARPART L
46
many captives to Rome,

did the general coffers fill."
hath brought
Whose ransom
(23.)
V
J
r
Be
hath brought
Sweet was
yonder
Whose
ransom did the genera ^ coffers fill" is an Aux-
Tmany)
v
;
iliary
coffere)
because
(the) (gey
>
Up
5.
fill
\whose
"
Rome J J
jjg f
/rôln~Y did
4.
>
'.
captives
SentenceAdjective,
it
nates the
limits or desig-
noun " captives."
the sound, when oft, at evening's close,

the village murmur rose."
hill
" The bounding steed you pompously bestride,

Shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride."
6.
" I have a temple in every heart that owns
7.
"
To him
that wishes for me, I
my influence.''''
am always present."
(24.)
CI
have
w
NP
fej r
temple
C
I
heart ^
That owns my influence"

i
is
an Auxiliary Sentence
JJ
Adjective, because
every')
)
its
that
noun
the
it
lim-
" heart."
jf owns^nflu^
Cm)
8.
" Oft as the morning dawns, should gratitude ascend."
(25.)
(
V
gratitude
fe
is
Qft
Xjj^JLj
r
l?
27*0 morning dawns" is

Adverbial, because it modifies the Adverb " oft"-
"^4s
QasT)
/-
>/
(morning
9.
"
a Word Adjunct of
^J " 0ft
SHOULD ASCEND.
should ascend
yV
*\
telling 7iow oft.
" These lofty trees wave not less proudly,

That their ancestors moulder beneath them.'
10.
Def.
''
" Soon as the woods on shore look dim,

We'll cheerfully sing our parting hymn."
53.
A Principal Sentence and
tences constitute a
its
ples above.]
flUP Let each Pupil
Auxiliary Sen-
Complex Sentence.
make
Complex Sentence.
[See
Exam-
Rem.
47
An
Auxiliary Sentence
is
an Adjunct of a Word, a
or it is used as
Phrase, or a Sentence going before in construction
Yri?s.
~
Auxiliary Sentences
are
-,
,,.
(
\
<
-,
distinguished
as
G
Def.
54.
Hence,
noun.
a substitute for a
Substantive.
?
,
.,._..
Adjective, and
,
T
Adverbial.
Substantive Sentence
is
used as the
Subject or the Object of a Sentence, or as the Object of a
Phrase.
Examples.
Subject Sentence.
(a)
1.
"
jTAotf ^tfotf
me/i sometimes
commit faults, cannot be denied."
(26.)
7 Tbat
-\
"
\^
'
iit*
fauitT)
\
y
{ can be denied)
J\
^)

r-yJ
'
TAa^ #wc? men sometimes

commit jauits;'
faults" is an
Sentence
because it
nsprl ns
here used
as the Sub-
Auxiliary
Substantive;
is
ject of the Principal Sentence.
Object Sentence.
(b)
2.
" But Brutus says he was ambitious.''
(BuT)
"i& was
cause
it is
(c)
ambitious"
Substantive, be-
Object of a Phrase.
3.
(28.) ^
is
the Object of the Principal Sentence.
"He
was unwilling
n^
He
was unwiiung
N
)
to
tell when he went."
"When
he went" is
an Auxiliary Sen-
tence
Substantive ;
because it is here
used as the Object
of the verb "tell."
Obs.
A Sentence
Principal Sentence.
is
often a Logical Adjunct of
some word
in a
ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART L
48
Examples.
1.
4i
It is possible that
John
will come"'
(29.)
possible
DC
-^
Rem." That John
jg
come"
L,tha
used to
logically,
what we
" it."
Hence the Sentence
tell
TT
A.
Sentence
mean by
J the word
C7~^TV
w
\w
will
comea ^
John
will
is
Wordbeing
an Adjunct of that
explanatory expression.
(See p. 34, Obs.
is,
merely an equivalent or
3.)
Rem. 2. By omitting the word " It," the Auxiliary Sentence

becomes grammatically the Subject in the Principal Sentence.
Thus:
11
That John
will come, is possible.
1 '
(30.)
C John
Def.
that
is
55.
An
is
j^
will
come
"*)
possible
Adjective Sentence
is
a Sentence
used as an Adjunct of a Substantive.

EXAMPLES.
ut
1.
(31.)
"s^
He
He
that getteth
loveth
r~ .Tb-~v^^^vCi^7^
(32.)
"
^_^^^
"
N/
2.
wisdom loveth
"
Them
Bonl
his
soul."
is
an Auxiliary Sentence,
Adjective; because it is
llse(^ as aa Adjunct of
thp Pronoun " He."
Hr"
the
v
^ri?
mgA owu ^)
V
that honor me, I will honor.
own
That getteth wisdom"
"
11
That honor
<me,"
is
an
Auxiliary Sentence, Adjective ; because it is used

to limit or describe the
" Them."
Pronoun
Let the Pupils analyze and place in diagram the following

Additional Adjective Sentences.
3.
4.
5.
"
The bounding steed you pompously bestride

Shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride."
" That life is long which answers life's great end."

" The man of wealth and pride,
Takes up a space that many poor supplied."
" Here I come to
6.
ivh&t
tell
I do
49
know."''
Rem." What I do know"

~\
{
here
^ lt0
*
C
7.
John
is
the modified Object

of "tell." u Which I do
know" is an Auxiliary
Sentence,
Adjective
because it limits the
is
^n
^5.
X^
Y
X^ oknow
not willing to
tell
it
h '*
Pronoun
" that."
what he thinks.
An Adverbial Sentence is a Sentence

used
as an Adjunct of a Verb, a Participle, an
that is
Adjective, or another Adverb.
Def.
56.
Examples.
1.
" They kneeled before they fought."
(34.)
They
(^
Jf kneeled
^-^zzim^r
(before^
they fought" tells when

they kneeled. It is an AuxilAdverbial.
i aiy Sentence
Before
j\
fcthey X~fonght
Additional Advekbial Sentences.

and Freedom reign, contentment
2.
" Where Wealth
3.
"
4.
" These lofty trees wave not less proudly

That their Ancestors moulder beneath them."
How
dear to
When fond
my
heart are the scenes of
Becollection presents
them
my
fails."
childhood,
to view.''''
RECAPITULATION OF DIAGRAMS.
1.
For Sentences. Principal Elements.
(35.)
John
Master jT taught
TnrV
pi a ys
^
j'
school
^
E
(
(
^
We
^Y
1
eign
_JJJ-L-
ia
t,
beheId
\-
Compound SentenceIntransitive,
Two
t>
Sentence Transitive.
a Compound SentenceIntransitive.
^ )ne Subject
two Predicates.
(We alth
Simple Sentence Intransitive.

a Simple
rgr'\
"iin^s
.a
..
m T\
pgFB
>
.a
Subjects
one Predicate.
CompoundsSentence Transitive.
TwoOlgectB.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART L
50
~Y
urn
or)
J
I
Compound Sentence Transitive.

Predicates
J
J
)
Subjects two Predicates.
Two
two Predicates, two
Two
a Compound Sentence Mixed.

Predicates one Object.
Subjects,
Objects.
~)
1
a
(
Two
P-S
soul
apology
Transitive-Simple.
Auxiliary Sentence
Transitive Simple.
>
a Sentence having
a Phrase
Object.
.a
^s wrong
(__he_J[
Stv
T"
John
"V
1
^
2.
Leader
Subsequent.
|ofj
Java
says
was evident
^)J[
V7
H
Phraoes.
t
~"Y
he
|
Principal
Adverbial.
a Sentence having a Phrase for its

Subject.
X^grctted T\ having done Y"iT^)
J hD
Adjective.
the Principal Sentence.
\
j
\f
jqiscourage^ youth
TmnsiuVe-Simple
Auxiliary Sentence
Tran sitive Simple.
-TV
"V"^
will makej
^
jj
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
the Principal Sentence.
loveth
~
He
Predicates one Object.
Compound Sentence Mixed.
He
two Objects.
Two
.bruits
Q C
.a
.a
man
two Objects.
Subjects
Two Predicates.
.a
He
>
Two
Two
(
I
-a
"
Subj
"ects.
x
i
Compo
Compound
Sentence Transitive.
.)
11
J(
.a
Two
,a
Jr-p
x
\
3
life
Spirit
^
O
XZ
>
promote
State
breath
"
~~*Y
cal1
can
^ >
,
lbB(
n y'
!
/%
its
Sentence having
a Sentence for
Subject.
J
^
for
its
a Sentence having
a Sentence for it?
Object.
Elements.
a Prepositional Phrase
One Leader one Subsequent.
Simple.
m
T
2 In
I
I
^
jj
^ 9^
Gaining
V
Y
V2
.,
^
~)
J^ time
reciting
I'-l
.a Participial
Two
lessons
Jv,
Leaders
Transitive.
Phrase Compound,
Compour
Transitive.
one Subsequent.
dream
(To!
a Participial Phrase Simple,

One Leader one Subsequent.
stuciyinj^y
c it )
1
a Prepositional Phrase Compound.

One Leader two Subsequents.
sa fety
T ^
peace
_.^
51
..
..an Infinitive
Phrase Simple,
Intransitive.
.an Infinitive
Phrase Transitive.
ItsCjEl^C
story
an Independent PhraseIntransitive.
One Leader one Adjunct. [See p.
]
U>eing done)
X2
an Independent PhraseTransitive.
Foat
[See p.
25.]
fy wharf )
jiaving
lef
COMPLEX PHRASES.
..a Prepositional
Of
^gaining^flTf
Phrase as
its
Phrase having a Participial

Subsequent.
Phrase having another Prepositional Phrase as Adjunct of its Subsequent.

Principal Phrase Prepositional.
Auxiliary Phrase Prepositional.
..a Participial Phrase, having a Sentence for
..a Prepositional
(on [
~)
bed
(rf^sea-nowersj
I Say m g
I
jfC^JC
its
Subsequent.
Rem. 1. The above Diagrams are adapted to the Principal Elements of a Sentence and of Phrases. In the exercises which follow,
these Elements are variously modified by Adjunct Words, Phrases,
and Sentences.
The whole
2.
sometimes
five
is
consisting of one, two, three, four, and

placed in one Diagram as exhibited on
Predicate
words,
the following pages.

PAGE
41.
Why are Sentences classified ?.

How are Sentences classified ?
See Remark.
See Principle.
52
I.
PAGE
42.
43.
What is an Intransitive Sentence f

See Def. 45.
May Intransitive Sentences be either Simple or
Compound ?
See Obs.
Make Intransitive Sentences
Simple.
"
"
Make
Compound.
See Def. 46.
What is a Transitive Sentence f
Simple.
Make Transitive Sentences
"
"
Make
Compound.
What is a Simple Sentence ?
See Def. 47.
Intransitive.
Make Simple Sentences
"
"
Transitive.
Make
See Def. 48.
What is a Compound Sentence f
Intransitive.
Make Compound Sentences
"
"
Transitive.
Make
What are Clauses of a Sentence ?
See Def. 49.
What Elements in a Sentence may be compounded?
44.
45.
46.
See Obs.
See Prin.
See Def. 54.
tinguished?
47.
(1-7).
Subjects.
Make Sentences having Compound
"
"
"
Make
Predicates.
"
"
"
Objects.
Make
How numerous may be the Clauses of a Sentence ?
What is a Mixed Sentence f
See Def. 50.
Make Mixed Sentences 1st Clause Transitive.
"
"
Make
2d Clause Transitive.
What is a Principal Sentence f
See Def. 51.
See Def. 52.
What is an Auxiliary Sentence f
What is a Complex Sentence t
See Def. 53.
Make Complex Sentences.
What are the offices of Auxiliary Sentences ?
See Kem.
By their offices, how are Auxiliary Sentences dis-
What is a
Make
Substantive Sentence f
a Substantive Sentence that shall be
the Subject of a Principal Sentence.

Make a Substantive Sentence that shall be
the Object of a Principal Sentence.
48.
49.
What is an Adjective Sentence f

Make Adjective Sentences.
What is an Adverbial Sentence t
Make Adverbial Sentences.
See Def. 55.

See Def. 56.
EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS
EXERCISES
Rem.
1.
every grade
53
m ANALYSIS.
In the following Exercises will be found Sentences of

from the most simple to the most complex.
The
Teacher will find exercise for his judgment and discretion in
as-
signing the Sentences to his Pupils (for analysis) according to their

several capacities.
-
2.
The Teacher
will find it interesting and profitable to his Puassign to each at least one Sentence, to be placed in its ap-
pils, to
propriate Diagram drawn on the blackboard ex tempore, or on

paper by appointment at a previous recitation.
Simple Sentences.Intransitive.
"
1.
Now fades
the
glimmering landscape on
the sight"
(36.)
C
(
landscape
the
J,
Simple Sentence
fades
)(Now) Lnj
glimmering
J
gight
Intransitive
See Def.
ANALYSIS.
Principal
Elements.
Adjunct
The Subject
The Predicate
j
(
(nsn
Of the
*'
"Landscape."
" Fades."
o
Subject,
,
Elements.
Of the Predi-
cate,
j"The"
(
a Word.
Glimmering >,
aWorcL
"
Now"
" On the
a "Word.
sight". a Phrase.
Rem. Let the Pupils thus analyze and place

gram the following
in a simMar Dia-
Additional Sentences.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The studious pupil seldom fails in his recitation.

The arrogant pedant was quickly banished from the company.
Such bright examples seldom fail, ultimately, to please.
That bright meteor fashed brilliantly athwart the heavens.
The young aspirant never succeeded in his effort.
Our brightest students are also foremost in their sports.
Ggf" Let each Pupil make a Sentence adapted

Diagram.
to
the
same
54
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART I.
Simple Sentences. Transitive.
1.
"
The king of shadows
loves
a shining mark.'
(37.)
c
A
king
The J
[of
shadowa
Simple Sentence
loves
mark
BU
")
Transitive
shining
See Def. 44.
ANALYSIS.
The 8wl3 ect

Principal [
The
Pre
Elements. 1
I The Object
^^
Adjunct
Elements.
" Loves."
"Mark."
J
(
<
" King."
0/ the
Predicate,
Of
J the
Object
J
"
Of shadows/'
a Phrase.
a Word,
("Shining.... a Word.
\"j:\
Elements.
Class.
The,
King,
Of shadows,
Loves,
A,
to tell ichat " king."
Shining,
to tell
Mark,
to tell
to tell
what
to tell
who
to tell
to tell
" king."
" loves
mark."
what the king does.

what " mark."
what " mark."
w7i<atf the king " loves."
Adjunct of " king."

Subject of" loves."
Adjunct of "king."
Predicate of" king."
Adjunct of " mark."
Adjunct of "mark."
Object of "loves."
Other Examples applicable to the same Diagram.

2. The science of geology illustrates many
astonishing/acfe.
3.
A love for study secures our intellectual improvement.
4.
The
5.
A desire for improvement should possess all our hearts.
6.
7.
8.
habit of intemperance produces
much
lasting misery.
The use of tobacco degrades many good men.
A house on fire presents a melancholy spectacle.

A ma?z of refinement wi# atfo^tf no disgusting habits.
HP Let each Pupil make a Sentence for the same Diagram.

m~ Let the Pupil read only the Principal Elements of the above
Sentences.
Thus,
" Science
"Love
Then
let
him add
the
illustrates facts"
secures
Adjunct
to
improvement"
each word.
55
Compound Sentences.Intransitive.
"Dissolute places and
1.
tlw
companions slwuld
loose
be
avoided by
young."
(38.)
P^ces
companions
j^
Un
loose J
youth,
ANALYSIS.
Principal
Elements,
(The
Th
4.
Companions."
Should be avoided."
."Dissolute."
." Loose."
" By the young."
Of the 1st Subject

Of the 2d Subject
Of the Predicate
Adjuncts.
3.
u s?jjecL
ThePredicate ^
2.
Places/
1st Subject.
The Teachers and the Pupils have been complimented by the Committee,
His fortune and his talents should be devoted to that cause.
" The dipping paddle echoes far,
And flashes in the moonlight gleam.
1 '
echoes
(39.)
C&)^
far^y
flashes
Gliam
(thej
l moonlight _
AKALYSIS.
"Paddle."
" Echoes."
The Subject
The 1st Predicate
The 2d Predicate
Principal
Elements.
'
.,,
'
Of the
,:
" Flashes."
("The"
Subject
-j
Adjuncts. ^ Of the 1st Predicate.

/
7
r\* n
o 7 d
Predicate
Of the 2d
y
5.
Our youngest Pupil
u Dipping^
" Far"
" I n tlie
a
a
a
Word.
Word
Word.
moonlight
gleam_ a Phrase.
studies well, and recites with his usual precision.
ENGLISH GBAMMABPART
56
I.
Compound Sentences. Transitive.

1.
"
Can storied urn or animated bust

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath?"
(40.)
<c storied
7&_
Can
bust
Qm
animated""}"
Back J
call
breath
ô j-^^r)
mansion
l^JLfs
ANALYSIS.
"Urn."
(1st Subject
Principal
Elements.
26?
Adjunct
*
Elements.
/S^jW
"Bust.
Of the Is*
Of the 2d
3.
4.
" Storied."
Subject
Subject
(
"Animated."
" Back "
"
the Object
Additional Sentences, adapted
call."
" Breath."
Of the Predicate
Of
2.
"Can
The Predicate
The Object
To it g mans i on
The "
"Fleeting."
to the
same Diagram.
What boy
or what girl can not place the next Sentence in this Diagram ?
Never, since the Creation, has the eye or the heart hailed such beautiful
forms.
The mother and the daughter quickly drove the daring burglar from the
house.
Let the Pupils make other Sentences for the same Diagram.
Additional Sentences,
In which the Principal Elements are similar.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
" Hill and valley echo back their songs."

" Then Strife and Faction rule the day,"
" And Pride and Avarice throng the way."
" Loose Revelry and Riot bold,
In freighted streets their orgies hold."

" Illuminated reason and regulated liberty shall once more exhibit
man in the image of his Maker."
" The hunter's trail and the dark encampments startled the wild
beasts
from their
lairs."
1.
"
In
God
the beginning,
created the heaven
57
and
earth"
the
heaven
(41.)
God
created
(&)
Ji
In [
the
earth
beginnlnj"")
tb
\thej
analysis.
mi
^^
f
Adjunct
Elements.
" God."
" Created/'
The Subject
The Predicate
Principal
Elements.
Of
Of
Of
Of
n-u
S" Heaven" and

jEarth.
Objects
the
the
the
the
Subject
Predicate
"In the beginning."

" The."
" The."
1st Object
2d
Object
Construction.
Elements.
Office.
" In th,e begin-
tells
ning,"
"
when God
" created."
" created heaven

and earth."
tells what " God" did.
tells what " heaven."
tells
God,"
| Created,"
" The,"
who
"
Heaven,"
And,"
"The,"
tells
"
joins
tells
"heaven and
what " earth"
"Earth"
tells
what
what
"God
"
God
created."
earth."
created."
Additional Sentences, for

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Adjunct of
" created."
the
Subject of " created."
Predicate of "God."
Adjunct of " heaven."
Object of" created."
Conjunction.
Adjunct of " earth."
Object of" created."
same Diagram.
William loves his study and his play with equal attachment.
God, in the creation, has displayed his wisdom and his power.
Men gather the tares and the wheat with equal care.
We, at all times, seek our honor and our happiness.
Students reqnire of the teacher much instruction and some patience,
He educated his daughter and his son at great expense.
GUP Let
the Pupils
make
other Sentences for the same Diagram.
58
1. "
The
spirit
of beauty unfurls her light,

her course in a joyous flight"
And wheels
(42.)
joyous
aj I
ANALYSIS,
f
Principal
Elements.
The
" Spirit"
Subject
TfcB
s::S"
iJg&Pf
!.*<**
("The"
^-j
/J &ferf
0/fo
adjuncts.
<
0/ ^6 1st Predicate.
Of the 2d Predicate.
0/ *fo 1st Object
Of the 2d Object
."
3.
teacher of grammar
best scholar.
The
The queen
And
4.
a Word.
a Phrase.
of beauty"
In a joyous flight". .a Phrase.

.
Her"
" Her"
a Word.
a Word.
"
Additional Sentences, /or

2.
t,mdl
examined her
the
class,
same Diagram.
and presented the medal to the
of night unveiled her face,
silvered the heavens with her mild beams.
The king of day
And
dispelled those beams,

lighted the earth with his golden rays.
$W* Let each
Pupil
make
a Sentence for the
same Diagram.
Additional Sentences The Adjuncts vary.

5.
"
With louder plaints the mother spake her
And
6.
7.
blessed the cot
" Slowly and sadly they climb the distant mountain, and read their
the setting sun."
"An aversion
at
8.
9.
woes,
where every pleasure rose."
to effort paralyzes every noble desire,
doom
in
and defeats every attempt
advancement."
" Secrecy keeps the key of prudence, and unlocks the sanctuary of wisdom."
" Two hundred years have changed the character of a great continent, and
blotted forever from its face a whole peculiar people."
59
Compound SentencesMixed.
1.
" Time
slept
on flowers and
lent
Ms glass
7wpe"
to
slept
Ipnj flowers)
Time
lent
X.
Hope
bis
ANALYSIS.
r
^
C1TAL
**
The
" Time."
Subject
i
Elements.
"
Adjunct
5.
6.
Intransitive.
" Glass."
the Subject.
Of
Of the 1st Predicate " On flowers" a Phrase.
Of the 2d Predicate " To hope" ... a Phrase.
"His"
a Word.
Of the Object
.
Additional Sentences adapted

3.
Elements.
4.
and
[ Lent".. Transitive.
I'The Object
2.
" Slept"
The Predicates...]
We sigh
to the
same Diagram.
and spend our lives for naught.

William goes to school, and pursues his study with zeal.
James stays at home, and spends his time at play.
We shall pass from earth, and yield our homes to others.
Fruits ripen in Autumn, and yield us rich repasts.
for change,
" Wlio can observe the careful ant
And
not provide for future

can observe
Who
ant
_JC
UheJ(
(and)
provide
wantf
)
careful
_J
(no^^forj-
want
[
future
)
)
ANOTHER METHOD OF ANALYSIS.

The
The
Subject.
Predicates.
'
can observe
and
Who
The
Object.
Ant,
the, careful
provide
not, for
want
future
Let each Pupil make a Sentence adapted to the same Diagrams.
60
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
The Auxiliary Sentence Substantive.
1.
" That all
men
are created equal,
is
self-evident truth."
( That )
[ men J^
are
"
created
êqual
ANALYSIS.
"That all men)
Principal
Elements.
The
Subject.
are created
equal"
The Predicate
Adjunct
Elements.
Of the
>
a Sentence,
j"Is
("Truth"
Verb and
Noun.
Subject
Of the Predicate
4df-evident."
Analysis of the Auxiliary Sentence.
Principal
Elements.
Adjunct
Elements.
(
(
The Subject
The Predicate
Of the
Of the
Predicate.
Subject
" Men."
"Are
.
.
" All" .... a Word.

[with] "equal" [rights].
Additional Sentences, adapted
same Diagram.
to the
2.
That those boys were capable of such deception, was not
3.
That our pupils are addicted to such habits,

That long lessons are agreeable to this
5.
That our teacher
6.
That such tasks should be imposed on small scholars,
class, is
master of his profession,
is
fully believed.
a lamentable truth.
is
4.
is
created."
not very obvious.
always fully acknowledged.

is
an unusual thing.
GUT Let each Pupil make a Sentence adapted

Diagram.
to the
same
"
2. "
But Brutus
says he
61
was ambitious"
( But")
Brutus
says
Jf
( he j^was
amhitious
^)
ANALYSIS.
f The
Principal J The
Subject. .."Brutus"
Predicate, ."says".
Elements.
nz-w
Object.
Uu
The
I
"
He
Let each Pupil
was am-
.
.
bitious".
Adjunct Elements.
the
a Word.
a Word.
make and
a
a Sentence
None.
analyze a Sentence adapted to
same Diagram.
1.
"
That good men often commit faults, can not
C_men_ r"
y~f^jT^)]
commit
be denied."
ANALYSIS.
ESSE
Elements.
a
mfl
Adjuncts.
^ ,. -
"
SUhJeCt
\ m.
)
The
\l
ba
ffi
fe n co mmit
. ^
.,
Can not* be denied
r.
Predicate
^f the dedicate
Sentence.
\
'
"
the Subject
Not any."
"Not."
Additional Complex Sentences.

Sentence Subjects.
2. " /ccm /zctf, has never accomplished any thing."
3.
4.
" I will try, has done wonders."

" That we may be in error is quite possible."
Sentence Objects.
5. " Will you walk into
'
6.
7.
my parlor ?'
said a spider to a fly."
He knew not that the chieftain lay unconscious

"Then Agrippa said unto Paul, 'Almost thou
"
of his son."
persuadest
me
to be a
Christian.''
A celebrated writer says,

8.
take care of themselves.' "
;i
Take
care of the minutes, and the hours will
ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART L
62
The Auxiliary SentencesAdjective.

1.
"But
they that fight for freedom undertake

noblest cause mankind can have at stake."
The
But
Complex Sentence.
Analysis of
Principal Sentence.
the
The
Principal
Elements.
-y^f
Subject
The Predicate. Undertake"
The Object ...." Cause"
Of the
Adjunct
Of
Subject
Transitive.
forfreedom"[
f"The"
Of the
"[That] mankind can have
Object. \
at stake"
Analysis of
Principal
Elements.
Adjunct
Elements.
the
'
the
>
a Sentence.
" That."
" Fight."
."
For freedom" a Phrase.

.
second Auxiliary Sentence.
The SuiJ ed
" Mankind."
" Can have."
[That] undergt00d#
Tlie Predicate
The 0J)jed
Subject
Predicate
Adjunct
Ft
F^FATTq
Elements,
f t]ie
f îe
0fthe 0iject
Thus analyze and place
first Auxiliary Sentence.
The Subject
The Predicate
Of the Subject
Of the Predicate
Analysis of
aSentence
a Word.
a Word.
" Noblest"
Simple
the Predicate
Elements.
Principal
"Rtpm^xttq
elements,
in the
.
.
" At stake"
a Phrase.
__
same Diagram the following
EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS
63
Additional Sentences.
2.
And
3.
And
students who love to study merit the highest honors which teachers can
give them.
actions
which were founded in
we had
in view.
justice,
produced the good results which
" But such as seek for truth shall find the richest boon which
4.
give.
"
5.
And
God to man can
,,
who
bleed for thee,
6.
But he who wins at
last,
Shall claim the brightest gift
Shall love the very toils
Which thou
Which
canst yield to me."
fortune round
him
cast.
33
(H^ Let each Pupil make a Sentence adapted to the same

Diagram.
"
He
gather
usury and unjust gain increaseth

him that will pity the poor"
that by
it for
Ids substance, shall
W Let the Pupil place this Sentence in the subjoined Diagram.

"
X~
TT
3
jT
bliss
(J Our
proper
depends
Complex Sentence. The Auxiliary qualifies a Phrase.

Elements.
" Our,"
" Proper,"
On what we
What
We,"
"
Blame,"
j
'
Offices.
:
" Bliss,"
" Depends,"
"
Our proper bliss depends on what we blame"
<_X
"
G
.
blame,"
[That]
[Which]
Adjunct of"
Adjunct of "
bliss.''
bliss."
Subject of " depends."

Predicate of " bliss."
Adjunct of " depends."

.Object of " on."
Object of "blame."
Subject of " blame."
Predicate of " we."
ENGLISH GBAMMABPABT L
64
Auxiliary SentencesAdverbial.
1.
"
And when
Us yellow luster smiled
O'er mountains yet untrod,
Each mother held aloft her child,

To bless the bow of GodP
(49.)
And
Analysis of
the
Principal Sentence.
FIRST MODEL.
" Mother"
(The Subject
."Held".
The
Predicate.
5
Elements. \
u ChM
| The 0ijed
r>*T
Of the
Adjunct
Elements.
Of the
i
Predicate,
" Each"
"Aloft"
"When its yellow
luster smiled o'er
Subject
f
_
.
yet
lJ
T
Transitive.
a Word.
a Word.
""
*"
a Sentence
(Adverbial).
untrod"
"To bless the bow

Of the
of
I
mountains
Q
Sim
Object.
God"
."Her"
.
a Phrase.
a
Word
SECOND MODEL.
Elements.
"And"
"
"
"
When
Introduces the Principal Sentence.
yellow luster smiled

O'er mountains yet untrod"
its
Each"
Mother"
.-.
.Adjunct of " held."
Adjunct of " mother."

,... .Subject of " held."
65
\
.............
Aloft
Her" .............
;t
Adjunct of "
To
bless "the
bow
of
God"
j ts
yellow'''.
L us ter"
g m |ied"
O'er mountain's yet untrod"
'.
Analysis of
To"
" Bless".
the
Adjunct Phrases.
"
Introduces the Phrase connects " bless" with held."
Object of " to."
Adjunct of " bow."
Object of " bless."
Adjunct of " bow."
'.
The"
I Bow"'
I Of God''
Introduces the Auxiliary Sentence,

Adjunct of " luster."
Adjunct of " luster."
Subject of " smiled."
Predicate of " luster."
Adjunct of " smiled."
"."".".".
Auxiliary Sentence.
u
ti
the
-^hen"
"
Introduces the Pfirase connects
Of"
>
Introduces the
" smiled."
er
Phrase connects
y et
^T
3.
4.
5.
6.
bow."
" mountains" with
o'er."
Adjunct of " untrod.

u
Adjunct of mountains."
>i
I Untrod"'
2.
"
of " of*"
Object of "
"Mountains"
I
God" with
0bJ ect
God"'.'.'.'.'.
child."
Object of " held."

Adjunct of " held."
child'"' \\
Analysis of
I
Predicate of " mother."

Adjunct of " held."
n e\&
Thus analyze
the following
Additional Examples.
" Wherefore is there a price in the hand of a fool to get wisdom, seeing he
hath no heart to it."
" Yet do I feel my soul recoil within me,
As I contemplate the dim gulf of death."
" If we have whispered truth,
Whisper no longer."
" Speak as the tempest does,
Sterner and stronger."
" The hoary head is a crown of glory, if
it
be found in the way of
righteousness."
7.
" Their advancement in life and in education

have been a gentleman."
was such
that each ought to
66
I.
EXAMPLES
Of Substantive, Adjectiye, and Adverbial Sentences.
(50.)
^
WT
Let the Pupil name the Sentence below adapted to this Diagram, and place it in an exact copy, written on the blackboard.
1.
2.
"If you would know the deeds of him who chews,

Enter the house of God, and see the pews."
" The man that dares traduce because he can
With safety to himself, is not a man.'
1
3.
" And, as I passed by, I heard the complaints of the laborers who
had
reaped down his fields, and the cries of the poor whose covering
he
4.
" The time must come when all will have been said that can be said
to
exalt the character of any individual of our race."
5.
" Mysterious are his ways, whose power

Brings forth that unexpected hour,
had taken away.
1 '
When minds
that never met before,

Shall meet, unite, and part no more.'"
6.
"
My heart is awed within me when I think

Of the great miracle that still goes on
In silence round me."
7.
"
When we
consider carefully what appeals to our minds, and

exercise
our own reasontaking into respectful consideration what
others say upon it and then come to a conclusion of our
upon
it
own
vve
act as intelligent beings."

8.
9.
" Before we passionately desire what another enjoys,

into the happiness of its possessor."
we
should examine
"With what
loud applause didst thou beat heaven with blessing

Bolino-.
broke, before he was what thou wouldst have him
be ?"
1M~ Teachers and Pupils

cises in
will find additional Sentences for Exer-
Analysis in the Appendix.
PART
II.
ETYMOLOGY.
Remark
1.
2.
3.
4.
Rem.
1.
2.
1.
In Part
I.
we have
considered
The Structure of Sentences and of Phrases;

The Elements which compose a Sentence or a Phrase
The Classification of Sentences and of Phrases
The Analysis of Sentences Proximate and Ultimate.
2.
In our progress through Part
I.
we have
seen
That the Proximate Analysis of a Sentence consists in re

solving it into its immediate Constituent Elements, and that
these may be Words, Phrases, or Auxiliary Sentences.
That the Ultimate Analysis of a Sentence consists in reducing its Proximate Elements to the TVords which
compose them.
Rem.
3.
We have next to consider the history of Words conincluding,
sidered as ultimate Elements of Sentences

1.
2.
3. Their Modification,
Their Formation,
4. Their Relation, and
Their Classification,
5. Their Collocation.
Principle. The
guage embraces
Science
Orthoepy,
Orthography,*
of Lan-
Etymology,
Syntax, and
<
Def. 57. Orthoepy

and of Words.
* It accords "best
with our plan,
treats of the
first
JProsocly.
Sounds of
letters
to discuss the Classes, the Modifications,
and the delations of Words, before analyzing the Words and examining their
Elements. Hence Orthography is placed in the Appendix.
68
ENGLISH GBAMMARPART
Def. 58. Orthography

of Words.
II.
treats of the Structure
and
treats of the Classification
and
Form
Def. 59.Etymology
Modification of Words.
Def. 60. Syntax treats of the Relation and mutual

Dependence of Words.
Def. 61. Prosody treats of the Arrangement and
Utterance of Words.
Classification
and Modification
Words are distinguished
i
(
1.
The Forms
of Words.
b ? their Forms and

by their Uses.
of Words.
Prist. By their forms, Words are distinguished
as,
Radical or Derivative,
Simple or Compound.
Def. 62. A Radical
derive
its
original
Word
is
Word
that does not
from another Word in the same lan-
guage,
Examples. Sun cloud rose friend chief swiftjust sell.
Def. 63. A Derivative Word is a Word derived

from a Eadical, by prefixing or adding one or more let-]
ters to
it.
Examples. Sunny swiftly cloudy sinful sellingunconscious roseate

friendlyjustify chieftain.
Obs. A Word
that is Eadical in the English language,

a Derivative in the language from which it comes.
may
be
Examples. Conscience optics algebraphilosophy signify.
D EF 64 A Simple Word
.
separately from another
is
Word
that
is
used
Word.
Examples. Havebrightlyfreedomparlor music study timespatienceloved cottagepeace cold.
69
WORDS-CLASSES.
p EF
made
65.A
of two or
Compound Word
is
Word
that
is
more Words combined.
Examples. Star-lighthousehold-wordsrose-bud steam-enginepencilcage neverthelessmoonbeam rail-road.
Obs. The parts of a Compound Word are printed as one Word

without space between them, or they are joined by a short horizontal line (-) called a hyphen.
Examples
{without the hyphen). Overlayunderwrite withstand sometimes nevertheless.
"
(with the hyphen).Hour-glasswarm-hearted ink-standpenholder.
Pkik. The Parts
Word
of
Compound
are
the Basis and

(the Adjunct.
e6. The Basis of a Compound Word

Principal Element in the Word.
D EF#
is
the
Examples.Race-horsehorse-raceho\xx-glasssergeant-at-armsfather-in-
lawaid-de-camo.
D EF
67. The Adjunct
of a
Compound Word
is
the
part that limits or modifies the Basis.

Examples.Race-horsehorse-racehour-glass jack-''-lantern father-in-
law aid-de-camp.
Obs.
1.The Adjunct of a Word may be one Word
or a Phrase.
Examples. One Word.Man-stealer -race-horse book-maker.
Phrase.Yather-in-law aid-de-camp will-o' -the-wisp.
Obs. 2. Derivative and Compound Words have
this distinction,
viz.
Compound Words
consist of two or more complete Words; whereas,

Word with Letters ox Particles pre-
Derivative Words consist of one
fixed or attached.
(
These
D EF#
Particles are called

^
68. A Prefix
is
Prefixes
one or more
before a Kadical, to form a Derivative
and
} Suffixes.
letters
placed
Word.
Examples.inform degradeoverlook undertake involve elect absolve

perfect.
ENGLISH GBAMMABPABT
70
Def. 69. A Suffix is one or more

Word, to make it Derivative.
letters
Examples. Yoiming gradedhonied/
Rem.
II.
added to a
goodness.
Words may iiave more than one Prefix or Suffix.
Prln".
Prefixes
and
Suffixes are dis- j
tinguished as
Hence,
Simple
or
Compound.
Examples of Simple
Prefixes.
Ab
Bis solve,
Be
solve,
Be
form,
Suffixes.
Form
Form
Com pose,
Be pose,
Be pose,
Be take,
solve,
Coin
Good
Tak
ation,
Danger
Over take.
Under take.
In form,
TJni form.
ing
ous,
en,
Verb
ose,
Rude
ly,
HopejfW,
age.
Con
ness,
sular,
Lamb kin.
Bigot ry,
Compound
Prefixes.
Be con
Suffixes.
Lone
struct,
Mis con
In co herent,
Un
pre tending,
Ir re vocable,
Form
Im
Modi
per forated.
Prefixes
Be due
edy
Con form able,

Re con cil i a tion,
Tran sub stan ti a
In dis sol u ble,
Pri^.
ness.
tion
are
a tion,
fi
cation.
Suffixes.
negat
ion,
Con
fine, ment,
Sub
stan
Un
The Radicals
Words
and
Ab
ing,
Bis solv
li
Might i ly,
Fear less ness,
Eight fully,
ceive,
tial,
con -dition
Non con form
Con form abil
ally,
ist,
ity.
of Derivative j Separable or
|
Inseparable.
Def. 70. A Separable Radical constitutes a perWord, without its Prefixes or Suffixes.
fect
WORDS CLASSES.
71
Examples.
Con
De
Form
Def.
71.
Derivative.
Âdjoin,
Conjoin,
form,
form,
In form,
Per form,
Re
Join
Disjoin,
Enjoin,
^Rejoin.
form.
An Inseparable Radical
Word
distinct
Radical.
Derivative.
Radical.
is
not used as a
in the language, without the aid of its
Prefixes or Suffixes.
Examples.
Radical.
Col
E
{
Ad
lect able,
Re
Re
col lect,
Un
se lect ed.
office
vert,
Con
lect,
De
The
that of
Obs.
Radical
Derivative.
A vert,
lect,
lect,
Se
Lect.
Radical.
Derivative.
Vert.
Di
E vert ion,
In vers ion,
col lect ion,
of Prefixes
Suffixes, to
Note.For an extended
list
vert,
vert,
modify the
to
is
Uni vers
al.
signification of the
determine the " part of speech."

of Prefixes
and
Suffixes, see " Derivation of
Sanders Analysis of Wokds.

1
Woi'ds" in
EXERCISES.
Let the Pupil tell which of the following Words are Simple,
which are Compound, which are Primitive, and which are Derivative.
Ardent,
Ardently,
Jack-o'-lantern,
Beauty,
Courage,
Beautiful,
World-renowned,
Courageous,
Race-horse,
Duty,
Dutiful,
Horse-race,
Eager,
Eagerness,
Life-giving,
Unfairness,
Fair-haired youth,
Fair,
Good,
1
Goodly,
How dear to my heart are
Conformable.
the scenes of
my childhood,
When
fond Recollection presents them to view,

The orchard, the meadow, the deep-tangled wildwood,
And
every loved spot that
my
infancy
knew
I"
ENGLISH GRAMMAR- PART
72
Let the Pupil analyze the Derivative and the

according to the following
II.
Compound Words
Model.
1.
" Conformable"
a Derivative Word.
ANALYSIS.
The Prefix
The Radical
The Suffix
2.
con
form "
able "
" Kace-horse"
Compound Word.
ANALYSIS.
The Basis
The Adjunct
3.
horse "
race."
" Horse-race"
Compound Word.
ANALYSIS.
The ifrms
The Adjunct
Questions for Review
PAGE
67.
What
What
What
The
68.
race."
horse."
are the subjects discussed in Part

is
II. ?
is Ultimate Analysis of
Sentences ?
Science of Language embraces what
parts
What
is
Orthography?
is
Etymology?
Syntax?
Prosody?
Wha
Wha
is
What
is
Words
are distinguished
by what
"
\
different bases
See Prin
See
See
See
See
See
Def. 58.
Def. 59.
Def. 60.
Def. 61
Prin
"
See
See
m a imple rd Give Exai*ples
See
! ?
ro
69. What is a ^,
Compound Word ? Give Examples. See
What are the different Parts of a Compound
Word ? See
What is the Basis of a Compound Word ?
See
Rem
."
By their forms, how are Words distinguished ?

What is a Radical Word ? Give Examples
What is a Derivative Word ? Give Examples
.
Remark
See
See
Proximate Analysis of Sentences ?
. \ \ \
'
Def 62
Def 63*
Def 64.
Def 65
Prin
Def. Q6.
'
WORDS-CLASSES.
73
PAGE
What
is
the
Adjunct of a Compound Word
The Adjunct Element

consist of what ?
See Def.
67.
See Obs.
1.
See Obs.
2.
Compound Word may
of a
69.
How are Compound distinguished from Derivative
70.
Make a Compound Word a Derivative Word.

What distinct Elements may be in a Derivative Word ?
See Def. 68.
What is a Prefix ? Give Examples
What is a Suffix ? Give Examples
See Def. 69.
See Prin.
How many sorts of Prefixes ? Of Suffixes ?
What distinctions of Eadicals in Derivative Words ? Prin.
What is a Separable Radical? Give Examples. .See Def. 70.
What is an Inseparable Radical? Give Examples. Def. 71.
Words?
71.
II.
Prin.
1.
2.
Nouns,
Pronouns,
Principal Elements in Sentences.
>
)
7.
Prepositions,
Conjunctions,
8.
Exclamations,
6.
9.
\
(
Attendant Elements.
Words of Euphony,)
Obs. These nine

;"
of Words.
By their uses, Words are distinguished as

Verbs,
3.
Speech
The Uses
classes of
words are
called " the Parts of
for in these classes are included all the
words of the Eng-
lish language.
Def.
72.
A Noun
is
Word used
as the
Name
of a
being, of a place, or of a thing.

Examples.' The king of shadows loves a shining mark."
1
Obs.
1.
Nouns are names of

aversion
Let the Pupil be careful here to distinguish a name from
Material things, as Man book house apples.

Mind hope desire
2. Ideas or things not material, as
remorsejoy imagination veracity.
1.
Obs.
2.
74
the tiling named and

a house is a thing the
;
Obs.
8.
II
remember that the name is the Noun.

name of that thing is a Noun.
The term Substantive
is
used in grammar
Thus,
to indicate a
Noun, a Pronoun, or a Phrase or a Sentence having the Syntax of

a Noun.
Classification of Nouns.
Kem.
Some
Nouns
are appropriated to individual persons or
places, or to things personified
others are general in their appli-
Hence,
cation, being used to designate classes or sorts.
Pein. Nouns
-J
cl^f^
j^
to
Def. 73. A Proper Noun is a name appropriated

an individual person or place, or to a thing personified.
Examines. WilliamBoston Hudson Oregon.
" And old Experience learns too
That
all is
late
vanity below."
Common
Def. 74. A
Noun is a name used to designate one or more of a class or sort of beings or things.
Examples. Man
"
Rem.
Now
book conscience feelinglandscape.
fades the glimmering landscape on the sight."
Some Common Nouns are the names of
Def.
75.
An
Abstract
quality of a thing,
Examples. Goodness
Def.
76.
Noun
qualities.
the
is
name
of a
and not of the substance.
meekness impracticability.
A Collective Noun
is
Noun
that in
its
Singular form indicates more than one.

Examples. Committeeassemblyarmy tribe clanmultitude.
" The village master taught his little school."
Def. 77. A Verbal Noun is a Noun derived from a

Verb being inform a Participlein office, a Substantive.
;
Examples.Beginninggatherings spellingjoining.
" In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth,"
75
ETYMOLOGY,
q bs> i. The
Classification of
Nouns
as
Common and
Proper,
is
one rather of curiosity than of practical utility in the Science of

Language. In writing or printing such Nouns we begin with a
Capital Letter.
q bs>
2.
A Word
is
known
to be a
Noun.
1st. By its being a Name.

2d. By its performing a Substantive
3.A
Obs.
office.
may be,
Substantive
2.
The
The
3.
A Name or an Equivalent, independent in construction.
1.
Subject of a Sentence.
Object of a
Sentence or of a Phrase.
But,
4A
Obs.
Phrases,
Substantive
and by
office
may
be performed by Words, by
Sentences.
Examples.
1.
2.
3.
By Words, Nouns. 1. Paul the Apostle wrote an Epistle to Timothy.

Pronouns. 2. Was it you that introduced me to him ?
By Phrases. 3. " Tafci^ a madman's sword, to prevent Ais doing mischief
By Sentences4.
5.
can not be regarded as robbing him."

" 7%a a# me^ are created equal, is a self-evident truth."
" But Brutus says, Tte was ambitious.'''
Hence,
Obs. 5. A Noun is generally Substantive. But a Word commonly used as a Noun may become,
as, An iron fencegold leaf.
1. An Adjective
as, Willie is coming home.
2. An Adverb
;
3.
A Verb
as,
" But
q bs 6.A Substantive
commonly used
.
(a.)
if
you mouth
office is
it."
sometimes performed by words
As Adjectives.- 1. " The good alone are great."

I thee the much the Grecians
2. " Nor grudge
&
give,
(p.)
Nor, murm"ring, take the little I receive."Dry den.

AdAs Adverbs 3. " 'Tis Heaven itself that points out an hereafter:"
(c.)
As Conjunctions.- 4. "Your
dison.
(d) As an Exclamation.-*.
i/ is the only peace-maker

/."- Shakspeare.
much
"With to/ and wfoqp/ and

Scott.
virtue is in
wild halloo
T-
76
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
II
Modification of Nouns.
Rem. Some Nouns and Pronouns, by their form, by
their posi-
tion in a Sentence, or
1.
2.
3.
4.
The sex as
The speaker,
by their obvious uses, indicate

male or female, or neither.
the being addressed, or the being or thing spoken
The number of beings or things as one or more.

The condition, with regard to other Words in the Sentence,
(1.) The Subject of a Sentence.
(2.) The Object of a Sentence or of a Phrase.
(3.)
Independent in construction.
Most Nouns
are modified
as;
Hence,
C Gender,
by ) rerson >
)
Number,
Case.
and
Gendee.
Def. 78. Gender is the modification of such
Nouns
and Pronouns as, by their form, distinguish the
sex.
Def. 79. Nouns and Pronouns that indicate
Males are
of the
Masculine Gender.
Examples. Man-lion-ox-DavidJohn Cornelius.
Def. 80.Nouns and Pronouns indicating

Females
are of the
Feminine Gender.
Examples.- Woman-lioness-cow-Dollie-Jane-Cornelia.
Def. 81.Nouns and Pronouns that

indicate neither
Males nor Females, are said to be of
the Neuter
Gender.
Examples.Bookpentable starplanet.
GW^
Obs. 1. The term Neuterapplies only

and Pronouns as do not denote a male or a
female.
to
such Nouns
Obs. 2.Young animals and infants

are often represented by
Pronouns of the Neuter Gender as, Mary's
kitten is very playtulit is quite a pet with the whole family."
;
" Calm as an infant as
it
sweetly sleeps."
77
NO UNS- MODIFICATION
Prik.
1.
The Gender of Nouns
By
the termination
as,
Masc.
Fern.
Masc.
determined
is
Fern.
Actor,
Actress.
Jew,
Jewess.
Administrator,
Administratrix.
Authoress.
Benefactor,
Benefactress.
Lion,
Patron,
Prince,
Lioness.
Author,
Emperor,
Empress.
Protector,
Protectress.
Executor,
Executrix.
Shepherd,
Shepherdess
Elector,
Electress.
Songster,
Songstress.
Patroness.
Princess.
Governor,
Governess.
Tiger,
Tigress.
Heir,
Heiress.
Tutor,
Tutoress.
Host,
Hostess.
Tailor,
Tailoress.
Hero,
Heroine.
Widower,
Widow.
2.
By
Words
different
as
Masc.
Fern.
Fern.
Masc.
Bachelor,
Beau,
Maid.
Husband,
Wife.
Belle.
Boy,
Girl.
Lass.
Queen.
Brother,
Sister.
King,
Lad,
Lord,
Drake,
Duck.
Man,
Woman.
Father,
Mother.
Master,
Mistress.
Friar,
Nun.
Nephew,
Niece.
3.
By
prefixing or affixing other
3.Whenever Words
appropriated to males
Examples. 1.
2.
But
"
as,
Maid-servant,
She-goat,
Hen-sparrow,
Landlady,
Gentlewoman.
which include both Males
are used
and Females, without having a
Word
Words
Fern.
Masc.
Man-servant,
He-goat,
Cock-sparrow,
Landlord,
Gentleman,
Obs.
Lady.
is
direct reference to the sex, the
commonly employed.
The proper study of mankind
is
man."
" There is no flesh in man's obdurate heart

It does not feel for man."
to this rule there are exceptions
as, geese,
ducks.
78
II.
Obs. 4. Things personified are often represented by Pronouns

of the Masculine or of the Feminine Gender.
Examples.1. " Then Fancy her magical pinions spread wide."

2. " Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass to Hope.
3.
" For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast,
And breathed in the face of the foe as he pass'd."
5.Many Nouns which denote the office or condition of

and some others, are not distinguished by Gender and
hence they have no modification of Gender. The persons, indicated
by such nouns, are, physiologically, males or females; but the words,
having no form to indicate the sex, have, therefore, no modification
of gender. The term " Common Gender," given to such words by
some authors, is about as appropriate as is the term " Common
Number" would be to the word sheep.
Obs.
persons,
Examples.Parent cousinfriendneighbor teacher.

Obs. 6. Nouns not modified by Gender may be represented by
Pronouns of the Masculine or of the Feminine form and, when
thus represented, the Gender of the Noun may follow that of the
Pronoun.
;
Examples.1.
2.
My cousin has
" She
invited
me
to ride
was a kind neighboran
with him.
affectionate parent."
Note. In the English language less importance is attached to

the Gender of Nouns than in the Latin, Greek, and other languagesthe relation of Words in Sentences depending more upon
and less upon the terminations. Hence, in parsing Nouns
and Pronouns, the Gender need not be mentioned, unless they are
position
obviously Masculine or Feminine.
Questions for Review,
page
73.
By their uses, how are words distinguished ?

What Classes of Words are used as Principal
ments
in Sentences
See Prin.
Ele-
See Prin.
What Classes are used as Adjunct Elements ?

See
What Classes are used as Attendant Elements ?. .See
How many " Parts of Speech" in the English Lan.
guage?.
Prin.
Prin.
See Obs.
1.
NO UNSM0DIF1CA TION
79
PAGE
What
Noun ?
Give Examples
See
See
What is the difference between Nouns and things ?. See
See
74. How do we use the word Substantive ?
See
How are Nouns classified ?
See
What is a Proper Noun ? Give Examples
See
What is a Common Noun ? Give Examples.
What Common Nouns are called Abstract Nouns ? See
"
"
"
Collective Nouns ? See
"
"
"
Verbal Nouns ? See
See
75. How may we know that a word is a Noun ?
See
What offices do Substantives fill ?
What, besides Words, perform Substantive offices ? See
Are
is
all
Nouns names
of material things
as
Nouns,
may
1.
Obs.
2.
Obs.
3.
Prin.
Def. 73.
Def. 74.
Def. 75.
Def. 76.
Def. 77.
Obs.
2.
Obs.
3.
Obs.
4.
See Obs.
5.
what other offices ?

Give Examples of Nouns becoming
Obs.
Words commonly used
Def. 72.
perform
Adjectives,
Adverbs, Verbs.
76.
What
different Modifications of
Define the term
What Nouns are

What Nouns are
What Nouns are
To what Nouns, then,
apply
See
See
See
See
See
Prin.
Def. 78.
Def. 79.
Def. 80.
Def. 81,
does the term Neuter Gender
See Obs.
1.
of Persons are represented by Neuter
Pronouns ?
See
"What Names of tilings are represented by Pronouns
of the Masculine form ?
See
What Names of things are represented by Pronouns
of the Feminine form ?
See
What Nouns are not modified by Gender ?
See
Words including Males and Females have what
form ?
See
By what distinct methods are Nouns varied to denote Gender
78.
as used in
What Names
77.
Nouns
Grammar
of the Masculine Gender ?
of the Feminine Gender ?
of the Neuter Gender ?
Gender
Obs.
2.
Obs.
3.
Obs.
4.
Obs.
5.
Obs.
3.
See Prin.
Give Examples of Change of terminations of Nouns.

"
"
Different Words.
"
"
the use of Prefixes and Suffixes.
4*
80
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
II.
Person.
Kem.All Nouns
1.
2.
3.
are the
Names
of
The persons speaking.

The persons or things addressed.
The persons or things spoken of.
Or,
Hence,
Dee. 82.Person is that modification of

Nouns and
Pronouns which distinguishes the Speaker from
the
Person or thing spoken to or spoken
Puitf.-Nouns and Pronouns

are of the
j
[
of.
First rers<>
Second rerson,
Third Person.
Def. 83. The name of the speaker or writer
is
or
of the
First Person.
Example. "7,
Def.
of the
John, saw these things."
84The name of
Second Person.
Example.-" Father,
& person or thing addressed,
thy hand hath reared these venerable

columns."
Def. 85. The name of the person or thing

spoken
is
of the
Third Person.
Example." The
is
of,
hero hath departed."
NUMBEK.
Rem.Nouns by
their
form denote individuality or
plurality.
Def. 86.Number is that modification

of certain
Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Verbs,
whose forms
distinguish unity from plurality.
Pbibt. Nouns are distinguished as
\
(
Sin ular
Plural.
or
Def. 87.Nouns denoting but one

person or thing, are
of the
Singular Number.
Examples.-Man-boy-pen-book-mouse
ox.
81
NO UNS NUMBER.
of the
Def. 88.Nouns denoting more than one, are
Plural Number.
Examples.Men"boyspensbooksmice oxen.
determined by
Obs. 1. The Number of a Noun is usually
the Singular
from
differs
Nouns
most
of
Plural
form. The
having
an additional
iW.-Acts,
m
uu
s.
Examples.
Chair
Pen,
Pens,
Mastiff,
Book,
Books,
Egg,
Eggs,
Singular.-Mt,
its
by
Mastiffs,
Chairs.
2.But a Noun whose Singular form ends in s, , sh, x,

addiand some Nouns in o and y, form the Plural by the
of es.
___
_
^y^
Examples.
Obs.
cli
(soft),
tion
iw.-Gases,
final, after a Consonant,

Obs. 3.
nal orthography), and is added.
Glass,
Lash,
Lashes,
Church,
Churches,
Lynx,
Lynxes,
Singtdar.-Q**,
Glasses,
changed into ie
is
Hero,
Heroes.
(the origi-
Examples.
Singular.-^,
OW/otm-Ladie,
Ifcmtf.-Ladies,
Polly,
Quality,
City
Pollie,
Qmditie
Pollies,
Qualities,
Cities.
toe.
form the Plurals
Exception. But Proper Nouns in y commonly

Tullys.
by adding s to the y as, the two Livys the
;
0bs< 4__in the following Nouns,

the usual termination for the plural
f final
is
changed into v, and
is
added
Singular.
Beef,
Plural.
Beeves.
Self,
Calf,
Calves.
Elves.
Shelf,
Plural.
Selves.
Shelves.
Sheaf,
Thief,
Sheaves.
Thieves.
Wolf,
Won,
Wolves.
vvoive*.
Yourself,
Yourselves.
Elf,
Half,
Leaf,
Loaf;
Other Nouns
Obs.
Singular.
Halves.
Leaves.
Loaves.
'
in f form their Plurals regularly.
5.But most Nouns ending in fe
are changed into ves.
Examples.
Singular.-Kmfe,
Plural.Knives,
q bs> e.Many Nouns
form
Life,
Wife,
Lives,
Wives.
their Plurals irregularly.
Examples.
Singular.-Xm,
/toirf.-Men,
Child,
Children,
Foot,
Feet,
Ox,
Oxen,
Moose,
Mice.
<
82
ENGLISH GRAMMABPART
II
Obs. 7. In most Compound Words, the basis only

is varied to
form the Plural, if its Adjunct Word precedes, or its Adjunct
Phrase
follows.
Examples.
^^r.-Fellow-servant,
Ink-stand,
Ink-stands,
i^ntf.-Fellow-servants,
Race-horse,
Race-horses,
Singular.Father-in-law,
Plural.Fathers-in-law,
Camp-meeting,
Camp-meetiugs.
Aid-de-camp,
Aides-de-camp.
Obs. 8. But, if the Adjunct Word follows the basis,

the Plural
termination is commonly attached to the Adjunct
Examples.
Singular.Arm-full,
i^mJ.-Arm-fulls,
Camera-obscura,
I-nis-fatuus
Caniera-obscuras,
Ignis-fatuuses.
Obs. 9.In forming the Plural of Nouns having

titles prefixed ori
is not uniform.
There seems to be a propriety in regarding a name and its
title as
annexed, custom
Compound Noun
as, Jonathan Edwards, John Smith, Miss

Bates.
decided which part of the Compound Word the
Name or the Titleis to be regarded as the Basis, and which the
Adjunct, the Plural termination should be attached
as directed in
Obs. 7 and 8, above. Thus, Miss Bates and
her sister, two ladies
unmarried, are Misses. " I called to see the Misses
If,
"
then,
it is
Bates."
We purchase goods of the Messrs.
Barber." Here the titles constitute the Bases the names, the Adjuncts.
Again Patterson the father and Patterson the son are
two Pattersons.
They are both doctors. If we speak of them as men
we
make the Name the Basis and the Title as Adjunct; thus "
I visited the two Doctor Pattersons."
But if we speak of them as
Doctors, we make the Title the Basis, and
pluralize it thus "
:
employed Doctors
J.
& A.
We
Patterson."
Obs. 10. Some Nouns have no Plurals.

Examples.Wheat silvergoldirongratitude.
Obs. 11. Some Nouns have no Singular.

Examples. Tongs embers-vespersliterati scissors.
BS
.
z. e.,
12 - Some
Nouns have
the
same Form
in both
they are not modified by Number.
^^.-Apparatus,
P^.-AP paratus,
Examples.
News,
Wages,
News,
Wages,
Sheep,
Sheep,
Numbers
Vermin
Vermin:
NO UNSNUMBER.
Obs.
13.
Some
83
Nouns, having a Singular form, are used in a
Plural sense.
Examples. Horse foot cavalry cannon sail. One thousand Jiorse and
two thousand/^ five hundred cavalry fifty cannon twenty sail of the line
and, for supplies, five hundred Jwad of cattle.
Obs.
14.
Some Nouns, having no
Plural form to indicate
Num-
ber, receive a Plural termination to indicate different species.
Examples.Wines. " Most wines contain over twenty per

" The teas of the Nankin Company are all good."
cent, of alcohol. ,,
Tea.
Obs. 15. Many Latin, Greek, and Hebrew Nouns used in Engcomposition, retain their original Plurals. Commonly the
terminations urn and on, of the Singular, are changed into a,
for the Plural
x into ce, i into es, a into ae, and its into i.
lish
Examples.
Singvlar.- -Datum,
Plural.- -Data,
Singular.- -Erratum,
Plural.- Errata,
Singular.- Thesis,
Plural.
Theses,
Genus,
Genera,
Criterion
Index,
Criteria,
Indices,
Axes.
Stratum,
Nebula,
Focus,
Strata,
Nebulae,
Parenthesis,
Parentheses,
Alumnus,
Alumni,
Analysis
Analyses,
Axis,
Foci.
Terminus,
Termini.
Ellipsis,
Ellipses,

PAGE
80.
Define the term Person as used in Grammar

See
" Parts of Speech" have the modification of
Person ?
See
How many Persons in Grammar ?
See
What Nouns are of the First Person ?
See
What Nouns are of the Second Person ?
See
See
What Nouns are of the Third Person ?
Define the term Number, as used in Grammar.
See
How many Numbers, and what are they ?
See
What Nouns are of the Singular Number ?
See
What Nouns are of the Plural Number ?
See
How do we determine the Number General
Rule ?
See
What Nouns take es to form the Plural ?
See
How form Plural of Nouns ending in y ? ExcepSee
tion ?
How form Plural of Nouns ending in f ? ExcepSee
tions ?
Def. 82.
What
81.
Prin.
Prin.
Def. 83.
Def. 84.
Def. 85.
Def. 86.
Prin.
Def. 87.
Def. 88.
Obs.
Obs.
2.
Obs.
3.
Obs.
4.
1.
84
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART II.
PAGE
81.
How form Plural of Nouns ending

&
"NT
Montis +1^
,r
o
_
Mention
the Nouns
that form the
,
^
Plurals
in fe ?
See
Oh, 0.
K
O^tJL/DS.
irregu-
larly
82.
What
Compound Words
part of
Plurals?
See Obs.
6.
are varied for the
See Ob
What part when Adjunct Word folio
wsiheBasVsV See Obs'*
Explain and apply the law as stated
in Obs. 9.. .See Obs'
Do all Nouns have Plural forms
?
8*
9'
See Obs lo
Singular forms ?
See Obs 11
Are all Nouns modified by
Number ? Give examples
_
in ._
c
\
\\
83. Do all Plurals have Plural
Voms?: \
ot'
J
Are Plural forms always used to
denote Number ? See Obs'
Give examples of Latin
Plurals-Greek Plurals. .See Obs 15
'.
'.
Exercises
Geoter, Person, akd Number.
m- Let the Class give,
1st, the Gender-2d, the

Person-3d the
of the following Names,-always
* a reason
for the modification, by
repeating the Definitions
gS
Number of each
William,
Ganges,
Boy,
Gir] ,
Unt
'
n
cousm,
Cuba
Cuba,
" Father, thy
Father,
Inde *'
City,
Qaea&m.
Army
*
'
be ^lecrnrPeTso'n
Town,
c
Tl' y
.^ * *** ** ***? W<^ *
Model.
hand hath reared this venerable
column
Stars,
Thou,
Mother,
<*
Sun,
Eivers,
Ye,
Earth,
Heralds
Messengers,
Walls
Woods,
Men,
Floods.
Hills
'
"
'
Model.
"
them
all."
muns
~^ îng
Se"
J?T Y
chigTof
My Father made
he f n. Wing Singular
Sent
be cian ?ed to their Plutie Bule forte
NOUNS CASES.
85
Motto,
Hero,
Fox,
Ox,
Son-in-law,
Father,
Staff,
Pea,
Spoon-full,
Man,
Knife,
Goose,
Basis,
Cousin-german,
Child,
Hoof,
Mouse,
Stratum,
Knight-errant.
Boy,
Model.
"
The
boys
have accomplished
their tasks."
Let the Gender and Number of the following Nouns be

changed and placed in Sentences.
Man,
Bachelor,
Lioness,
Boys,
Brother,
Poetess,
Sons,
Prince,
Uncles,
Geese,
Sister,
Tutor,
Council,
Cow,
Maid,
Widower.
Models.
Two icomen shall be grinding at the mill."

" And the widows of Asher are loud in their wail."
"
Case.
Def.
Case
89.
is
that modification of
Pronouns indicated by their relation

Rem.
1.
A Noun or
Sentence.
itive
of
2.
As
a Pronoun
is
used
Nouns and
1.
As
the Subject of a
the Object of an action or relation.
some other Noun.
4.
of
to other words.
Independent of other
3. As a DefinWords in the
Sentence.
Bem.
2.
These different conditions of Nouns suggest their modi-
fications in regard to
Case
for Case, in English
Grammar, means
Hence,
condition.
English Nouns and Pronouns haye four cases
The
The
The
The
Obs. In
Nominative
or Subjective Case,
Objective Case,
Possessive Case, and
Independent Case.
the Latin, Greek, German, and
many
other languages,
Nouns are determined by their terminations. But, as

English Nouns have no inflections, except to form Adjuncts, the
Cases are determined only by the offices of Nouns in Sentences.
the Cases of
Hence,
ENGLISH GBAMMABPART
86
Def.
90.
A Noun
of a Sentence,
is
11
Pronoun which is the Subject

Subjective Case.*
or a
in the
xamples.Animals run.John saws woodEesources are developed.

Obs The Subject of a Sentence may be a Noun, a Pronoun, a

Phrase, or a Sentence.
Examples.
1.
2.
A Noun Virtue secures happiness.

A Pronoun." He plants his footsteps in the sea."
A Phrase." To be able to read ivell, is a valuable accomplishment.
A Sentence." That good men sometimes commit faults, can not be denied."
1 '
3.
4.
Def. 91.A Noun or a Pronoun which is the Object

of a Sentence or of a Phrase, is in the Objective Case.
Examples.
1.
John saws wood.
2.
Science promotes happiness.

" The king of shadows loves a shining marled
3.
4.
5.
" In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth."
" Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow."
Obs.The Object of a Sentence may consist of a Noun, a Pronoun, a Phrase, or a Sentence.

Examples.1. A Noun. Clara studies Grammar.
2. A Pronoun. Mary instructed her.
3.
4.
Dee.
92.
A Phrase.I favored her using the Diagrams.

A Sentence.Mary thought Diagrams might assist her.
A Noun or a Pronoun varied in
raphy, so that
in the
it
may
its
orthog-
indicate a relation of possession,
is
Possessive Case.
Obs. 1. The Possessive is commonly formed by adding an apostrophe ['] and to the Nominative form.
Examples.
NominativeMan,
-Man's,
Boy,
World,
George,
Boy's,
World's,
George's.
Case" to that of " Nominative." The foronly the form. Every Engthe Possessive. Hence, in
English Syntax, the term "Nominative" has no distinctive significance. But
the term " Subjective" properly indicates the office.
*
We prefer the term " Subjective
mer term indicates the Office of Nouns the latter,

lish Noun has the same form in all its Cases, except
87
jsrouiis cases.
Obs. 2. In a few Words ending in the Singular with the sound

of s or of c soft, the additional s is omitted for euphony.
Examples.
" For conscience
sake.
11
" Festus came into Felix room."

1
Obs.
3.
Most
Plural
Nouns ending
in
s,
add the apostrophe
only.
Examples.
Nominative.Horses,
Possessive. Horses 1 ,
Eagles,
Foxes,
Eagles 1 ,
Foxes
1
.
" Heroes and heroines shouts confusedly rise. 11

1
Obs. 4. The term Possessive Case is applied to Nouns and Pronouns, to indicate a peculiar variation of "Words in respect of
form; and, because this form commonly indicates a relation of
possession, it is termed Possessive Case. But,
Obs.
5.
Nouns
always indicate
and Pronouns in the Possessive Case do not
" possession or ownership."
11
Children's shoes.Here the word " children's does not imply ownership.
simply specifies " shoes 11 as to size.
It
Small shoes.Here " small " specifies " shoes 11 in a similar manner.
Small 11
and "children's 11 performing similar offices, are similar in their etymology.
" Small' is an Adjective" Children's" is an Adjective.
; '
Obs. 6. Possession or ownership

Pronouns in the Possessive form.
Examples.
Who
is
not limited to Nouns and
1.
John owns Webster^ Dictionary.
2.
William has
possesses the
my knife.
Dictionary
In whose possession
is
the knife
A System of Grammar, having foundation in the docWords and other Elements of Sentences are to be
and that the proper criterionmust
fied according
Rem.
its
trine that
classi-
to their offices
class Possessive
is
Nouns and Pronouns
as Adjectives.
Obs. 7. Words commonly used as Nouns and Pronouns become

Adjectives whenever their 'principal office is to limit or describe beings
or things; and they may have the form of the Subjective, of the
Possessive, or of the Objective Case.
Examples.
Subjective
Form. Wisdom's ways thine enemymy self.

Form.K gold yen silver steel them selves.
Possessive
Objective
FormA. gold pena he goat.
"
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
88
II.
A Noun or a Pronoun not dependent on any
Def. 93.
other Word,
is
in the
Independent Case.
We
use the term Independent case in a generic sense ;

Obs. 1.
including the five following specific conditions
1.
The names
of persons or things addressed.
Examples. O Liberty Friends Bomans Countrymen.
This
2.
may
be termed Independent Appellative Case.
Nouns and Pronouns used
to introduce
Independent Phrases.
Example. The hour having arrived, we commenced

This
3.
the exercises.
the Case Absolute.
is
in predicate with Verbs and with
Participles.
Examples. 1. God
This
4.
is love.
2.
We axe friends.
you?
had no thought of its being you.
3.
Is that
4.
We
called the Predicate Case.
is
to limit or specify other
Nouns
previously mentioned.
Example. Peter
This
is
the hermit, resembled Peter the Apostle.
the Independent Case in Apposition.
[See Logical
Ad-
junct, p. 34.]
5.
for
Nouns and Pronouns, used
as
titles
of books, signs, cards, or
euphony.
Examples.Webster's Dictionary." The Sketch Book.""

Bracebridge Rail."" Adams and Ellis."''
" The Moon herself is lost in heaven.
Tales of a Trav-
eler."
1 '
"
This
is
Rem.
Nouns
the Warning Case.
and Pronouns in these various conditions are
not dependent on any other word" for their regimen.

Obs.
2.
In the English
language,
Nouns
are not varied in form
to distinguish the Cases, except for the Possessive.
always determined by
its office.
The Case
is
NOUNS-CASES,
(1.)
If
it
is
89
the Subject of a Sentence,
it is, tlierefwe,
in the
Subjective Case.
(2.)
If
it is
it is,
(3.)
the Object of a Sentence or the Object of a Phrase,

therefore, in the Objective Case.
If it has a Possessive form, or
any other form, and
limits
performs the
office
or describes a being or a thing,
(4.)
it
of an Adjunct, and is, therefore, an Adjective.

If it performs neither of these offices, it is not joined to
any word going before in construction, and is, therefore, in the Independent Case.
Obs. 3. Nouns and Pronouns in the Subjective or in the Objective

Case are used Substantively. In the Independent Case they are
used Substantively, or as Logical Adjuncts. (See Obs. 2, above.) In
the Possessive Case they are commonly used as Grammatical Adjuncts.
Obs. 4. Exception. Nouns and Pronouns of the Possessive

form are sometimes used Substantively ; but, when thus used, they
are in the Subjective, in the Objective, or in the Independent Case.
Examples.
(a.)
Subjective"My book
Mine
"
Mine"
is
is
new
is little
used
John's is old.
yours is soiled.
;
the Subject of the Sentence
hence in the Subjective
Case.
Objective. John
(b.)
"
Mine"
is
is
a friend of mine.
the Object of the Preposition " of
hence in the Ob-
jective Case.
Note.
It
a mistaken notion of certain grammarians, that

above example, is equivalent to " my friend," and
must therefore be " in the Possessive Case, and governed by friend
is
" mine," in the
understood."
John is a friend of mine ; i. e., he is friendly to me.

Fred is my enemy but he is a friend of " my friend, John"
;
Is "
mine" equivalent to
"my
friend?"
mine;
it
How
the notion van-
ishes before the test

ic.)
"
Independent. The "book
Mine"
is
is
was yours.
used in Predicate with "
Predicate Case.
is ;"
hence in the Independent
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
90
Exercises. 1. Peter
2. I
visited me.
visited Peter.
3.
Did you ever see the Apostle Peter f
4.
Peter having gone,

" Thou art Peter.''''
5.
6.
II.
we
returned.
Where have you been, Peter ?

what book is that ?
7.
Peter,
8.
Do you know what
Let the pupils
tell the
the term " Peter's pence"
Case of the
word
means
"Peter" in each
Example
above.
Then make sentences that shall have the words Mary, Albert,
Book, Scholars, in each of the cases and in each subdivision of the
Independent Case.

PAGE
85.
Define Case as used in English Grammar

See Def. 89.
In what four distinct conditions are Nouns used ? See Rem.
See Prin.
How many Cases in English Grammar ?
In the Ancient Languages, how were Cases distinguished ?
See Obs. 1.
See Obs. 1.
In English, how are Cases determined ?
86.
When
is a Noun or a Pronoun in the Nominative

or Subjective Case ?
See Def. 90.
The Subject of a Sentence may consist of what ?
See Obs.
Give Examples of Nouns used as Subjects.
.
"
"
of Pronouns of Phrases of Sentences.

in the Objective Case?
See Def. 91.
The Object of a Sentence may consist of what ?. .See Obs.
Give Examples of Word Objects of Phrase Ob-
When
is
Noun
jects
When
of Sentence Objects.
is
Noun
or a
Pronoun
in the Possessive
Case ?
How is
87.
the Possessive Case of
See Def.
Nouns formed ?.
.See Obs.
When do we omit the s ?

See
What Nouns require the apostrophe ( ) ?
See
Why do we use the term Possessive Case in Gram-
92.
1.
Obs.
Obs.
2.
See Obs.
of the Possessive Case
always indicate Possession ?
See Obs.
Is possession or ownership always indicated by
the Possessive Case ?
See Obs.
May a Noun in any form become an Adjective ?. .See Obs.
'
mar?
3.
Do Nouns and Pronouns
5.
6.
7.
PRONOUNS.
91
PAGE
88.
When
is a Noun or a Pronoun in the Independent

Case ?
See
In what sense do we use the term Independent
,
Case
When
is
Def. 93,
See Obs.
an Independent
Word
called
1.
Appellative ?
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Absolute?
in Predicate?
in Apposition?
"
"
"
"
"
Naming or Nominative.
Nouns and Pronouns used as Subjects of Sentences are in what Case ?

... See
All Nouns and Pronouns used as Objects of SenSee
tences are in what Case ?
All Nouns and Pronouns in Possessive form are in
See
what Case ?
All Nouns and Pronouns not Subjects, nor Objects,
nor Possessives, are in what Case ?
See
When Possessive Nouns are not used as Adjuncts,
See
what case must they be in ?
All
Obs.
2.
Obs.
2.
Obs.
2.
Obs.
2.
Obs.
4.
Pkonouks.
Rem.
To avoid an
unpleasant repetition of the same Word in

is introduced as Substitutes for Names.
a Sentence, a class of Words
Hence,
Def.
94.
Pronoun
is
Word
used instead of a
Noun.
1.
As Pronouns are of general application, the Noun or
Pronoun for which any given Pronoun is substituted, is commonly determined by the context and, because it generally pre-
Obs.
the
cedes the Pronoun,
Obs.
2.
The
it is
called
its
Antecedent.
Antecedent of a Pronoun
may
be a Word, a
Phrase, or a Sentence.
Examples.
1.
" James has injured himself

" Come, ye
2.
3.
Word.
who
he has
studied too
much."
love the Lord."
Phrase." William's abandoning a good situation in hopes of a better,

It has been the prime cause of all his troubles."
was never approved by me.

is
4. A Sentence." I am glad that Charles has secured a liberal education.

what few poor boys have the perseverance to accomplish."
It
ENGLISH QBAMMARPART
92
II.
Classification of Pronouns.
Kem.
Some Pronouns, by their forms, denote their modification
of Gender, Person, Number, and Case.

Others introduce Adjective Sentences to which they belong.
Others, in addition to their ordinary office, are used in asking
questions.
Others describe the
Names for which they are substituted. Hence,
Pronouns are distinguished
as
Personal Pronouns,
Melative or Conjunctive Pronouns,
Interrogative Pronouns, and
Adjective Pronouns.
Personal Pronoun.
Def. 95. A Personal Pronoun is a Pronoun whose

form determines its Person and Number.
Obs. The Personal Pronouns
are
\
(
&fmple
or
Compound.
List.
Simple.
Compound.
Myself,
I,
thou,
you,
he,
she,
it,
thyself,
yourself,
himself,
herself,
itself.
Obs. These are called Personal Pronouns, not because they

always represent persons, but because their forms decide whether
they indicate the speaker, the person or the thing spoken to, or the
person or the thing spoken of.
Modification.
Rem. Whenever one Word is used in the place of another, it is

properly subjected to the same laws as the other this is true of
;
Pronouns.
Hence,
Prin. Pronouns have the same modifications of

der, Person, Number, and Case, as Nouns.
Rem.
To
Gen-
denote these several modifications, some Pronouns

This variation of form is called Declension.
are varied in form.
93
PRONOUNS.
Decleksio^ of Pronouns.
Simple Personal Pronouns.
1.
FIRST PERSON.
Subjective.
Singular.
Independent.
Possessive.
Objective.
my,
me,
I or
our,
us,
we
I,
Plural. We,
me*
or us.
SECOND PERSON.
You,
Plural. You,
you,
you,
your,
Singular.
your,
second person.
Thou
Plural. Ye,
Singular.
Solemn
He,
thee,
your,
you,
She,
PluralThey,
Feminine.
her,
her,
their,
them,
third person.
its,
Plural
1.
she or her.
they or them.
Neuter.
It
them,
They,
From the above Paradigm, notice,
Singular.
Obs.
he or him.
they or them
him,
them,
their,
third person.
Singular.
thou or thee,
ye or you.
Masculine.
his,
Plural They,
Style.
thy,
third person.
Singular.
you.
you.
it.
it,
they or them.
their,
1.
That Pronouns of the Third Person Singular only are va-
2.
That the Pronoun you is not varied to denote the Number.

This is a modern innovation but the idiom is too
ried to denote the sex.
well established to yield to criticism or protest.

3.
That the principal variations of form are made
to distin-
guish the Cases.

4.
Obs.
2.
That, to distinguish the Persons, different words are employed.
Mine,
monly used
thine, his, hers, ours, yours,
to specify
or otherwise describe
and
theirs,
are
com-
Nouns and Pronouns
;"
Pronouns in the Independent Case commonly take the form of the Subjec"O happy they!" "Ah, luckless he/" "It is I!" But they sometimes take the form of the Objective, as, "Him excepted." " I found it to be
*
tive, as,
him" " Ah. me!"
ENGLISH GRAMMAR PABT
94
II
and when thus used, they are therefore Adjectives.^ They are
placed here to denote their origin, and to accommodate such teachers as, by force of habit, are inclined to call them Pronouns in all
conditions. (See Possessive Specifying Adjectives, p. .)
Obs. 3. Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, are sometimes used Substantively, i e., as the Subjects or the Objects of
Sentences the Objects of Phrases, or as Independent Words and
when thus used, they are therefore Substantives. (See Adjective
Pronouns.)
;
Example
S3.
My sword
and yours are 'km."Shalcspeare.

Object of a Sentence." You seek your interests we follow ours."
Object of a Phrase." Therefore leave your forest of beasts for ours of brutes,
called men.." Wesley to Pope.
'-
" John
is
a friend of mine."
11
Independent." Thine is the kingdom.
" Theirs had been the vigor of their youth. 11
Obs. 4. The Pronoun it is often used indefinitely, and may have

an Antecedent of the First, the Second, or the Third Person, of the
Singular or of the Plural number and sometimes it has no ante;
cedent.
Examples. "It
is
I" " Was it thou?"" Is

JohnWas it the boys ?
you ?"
it
It was
It
Obs.
5.
That
snows. It blows.
It
seems.
which a Pronoun
for
is
used,
may
also
be a
Phrase or a Sentence.
Examples.
A Phrase
A Sentence.2.
" It is good to be here."

" It remains that we spealc of its moral
-1.
effects."
Eelatiye Pronouns.
is
Def. 96. A Relative* or Conjunctive Pronoun

a Pronoun used to introduce a Sentence which quali-
own
fies its
antecedent.
Examples.1. The youth who was

2.
3.
speaking, was applauded.

saw the man whom you described.
" Mount the horse which I have chosen for thee."
We
the term " Kelative" is applied to these Pronouns. " Cona more appropriate term, as they always introduce Auxiliary SenBut Pupils may use either term, as preferred by the Teacher.
By most authors
junctive"
tences.
is
95
pbojsouns.
Obs. 1. In Example 1, " who" relates to " youth," and introduces the Auxiliary Sentence (" who was speaking"), whose office
it is to describe " youth."
The word " who" not only introduces the Adjunct Sentence, but
a Principal Element the
is also an Element in that Sentence
Subject.
In Example 2, " whom you described," is an Auxiliary Sentence,

used to describe or point out a particular " man ;" " whom/ introduces that Adjective Sentence, is the object of " described," and re1
lates to
man."
List.
The Words used

that,
as Conjunctive
Pronouns
who, which,
are,
and what.
Obs.
2.
The Words as and than are sometimes, by
as Conjunctive
Examples. 1.
2.
ellipsis,
used
Pronouns.
" Such as
"
I have,
give I unto thee."
We have more than heart could wish."
But, generally, on supplying the ellipsis, we may make those

offices of Prepositions or of Conjunctions. Thus,
words supply the

1.
" I.give unto thee such [things] as [those which] I have."
2.
" We- have more [things] than [those things which] heart could wish."
Obs.
Which,
also
3.
Who
that)
varied in Declension to indicate the Cases only.
is
and what, are not declined.
But the word whose
is
used as the Possessive of which.

Nom.
Pos.
Obj.
Who,
Whose,*
Whom,
Who
Which,
Whose,
Which,
Which.
That,
That.
That,
What,
Obs.
4.
Who
is
applied to
Indep.
or
whom.
What,
What.
man, or to beings supposed
to pos-
sess intelligence.
Examples.He who
studies will excel those
who do
not.
"
He whom
sea-
severed realms obey."
Obs.
5.
WJiich
and what are applied
to brute animals
and
to
things.
Examples. The books which
I lost. The
pen which
I use is
good.We
value most what costs us most.

* Whose is always a definitive, attached to Nouns, and may relate to persons
or to things as, " Whose I am, and whom I serve."" Whose body Nature is,
and God the soul."
;
96
Obs. 6.T7iat
is
applied to
Examples. 1.
"
Them
2.
"
The
that
man
q bs
is
or to things
honor me, I will honor."
rose that
are praising,
all
Is not the rose for
and
II
me.
1 '
What, when used as a Relative, is always

7
equivalent to that which, or the things which
t
Examples. " What Reason weaves, by Passion
is
compound;
undone."
Real 1.In the combination of these two elements, that is con.at, and which, the Relative part, is contracted to ich
at
and being prefixed to the Antecedent part, becomes wh
tracted into
.,
ich at.
should be borne in mind that the Antecedent part of this word

never Relative but always an Adjective Pronoun, or an Ad-
It
is
jective.
Real 2. The two Elements of this Word never belong to the

same Sentence one part introduces a Sentence which qualifies the
antecedent part of the same word.
;
" Our proper bliss depends on ich at
we blame."
Compound Pronoun,
equivalent to
what" is
That, the Antecedent part, is the object
the two words that ichich.
"
of "on;" "ichich," the Relative part, is the object of blame."
The Auxiliary Sentence, " we blame which," is used to qualify
In this example, "
[See p. 63, last Diagram.]
" that."
Obs.
8.
The
ever, whatever,
Example. "
Compounds, whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoand whatsoever, are construed similarly to ichat
Wh at ever purines,
fortifies also
the heart."
Ever, in combinations like these, seems originally to

Rem.
have been " every"an Adjective element in the compound word,
attached to the Antecedent part. Thus,
Every thing which purifies, fortifies also the heart.
Every that which purifies, fortifies also the heart.
What
purifies, fortifies, also the heart.

purifies, fortifies also the heart.
Every what, or whatever
So
also
WJwever
is
equivalent to
Every one who.

" Whoever
will,
Every one who
may come."
may com.
will,
97
PRONOUNS.
Rem. 2. The antecedent part
Example. " Wholives
is
to nature, rarely can be poor."
Every [one] who
lives to nature, rarely
can be poor.
W7co ever lives to nature, rarely can be poor.
Interrogative Pkoxouxs.
Def. 97. An Interrogative Pronoun
noun used to ask a question.
Examples." Who
will show us any good?

" WTiich do you prefer ?"
" TFâ^ will satisfy him ?"
is
a Pro-
1 '
List.
Obs.
1.
The Interrogative Pronouns are,

Who
applied to man.
Which
What
3.
the Baptist
you have ?
What can compensate
Which
man
or to things.
Examples. 1. Who was John

2.
applied to
will
for loss of character
q bs> 2. The Antecedent technically so called of an InterrogaPronoun, is the Word which answers the question.
tive
Examples. Who gave
Whom
the valedictory
shall
we obey
3. A Word which asks

Word which answers it.
Obs.
the
Wheeler.
Our parents.
a question
Examples. Wtuo has the book ? John

Whose book is it ? [It is]
is
to
be construed as
is
[has the book].
William's [book].
" William'
describes " book ;" hence an Adjunct of " book."
" Whose" ha3 the same construction
hence an Adjunct of
;
" book."
Adjective Pkoxouxs.
Def. 98. An Adjective Pronoun
Word, used to supply the place of the
is
a Definitive
Word which
it
limits.
Rem. Words
of this class are primarily Adjectives becoming

substituted for the Xouns which they de-
Pronouns only by being

scribe.
Example. " Some
said one thing,
and some, another"
].
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
98
Obs.
and
is,
In
1.
this
Example,
"
some" defines people (understood),
therefore, used Adjectively.
" people,"
II.
It is substituted for the
constituting the Subject of the Sentence
used Substantively. But the Substantive being the principal

Its secondary
the Word is properly called a Pronoun.
being Adjective, it is properly called an Adjective Pronoun.
Obs.
Supply the
2.
Word
hence
it
is
office,
office
Noun, and the Word becomes simply Ad-
jective.
Example. Some people
said one thing, and some
people said another
THING.
Here "some"
and "another" are
Specifying Adjectives
of
PEOPLE.
An
Adjective Pronoun always performs, at the same

an Adjective office and a Substantive office
it may have, at the same time, an Adjective and an Adverbial Adjunct.
Obs.
time,
;
3.
two
and
distinct offices
Example. The professedly good

1
"
Good"
'
are not always really so."
describes people (understood), thus performing an
Ad-
jective office.
"
Good" is the Subject of the Sentence hence a Substantive.

As a Substantive, " good" is limited by the Adjective " the."
As an Adjective, " good" is modified by the Adverb "professedly."
;
Rem. Words thus used

"Pronominal Adjectives."
are,
We
by some grammarians, called

prefer the term " Adjective Pro-
noun," because the Principal office is Substantive the Adjective

office being secondary in the structure of Sentences and of Phrases.
Obs.
4.
Adjective Pronouns may be derived from

Qualifying Adjectives,
Specifying Adjectives, and
Verbal Adjectives.
Obs. 5. Many Verbal and all Qualifying Adjectives, may become

Adjective Pronouns by placing the specifying Adjective the before
them.
Examples. 1. " The proof of the pudding

2.
3.
is
in the eating."
Who are the called, according to his purpose."

"He sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust."
"
'
PRONOUNS.
Obs.
6.
99
Adjective Pronouns derived from Specifying Adjectives
may be
The
Possessive,
Distributive,
Demonstrative,
Indefinite.
Possessives are
MineAll
thine are mine.
Thine And thine are mine.

His I prefer his to hers.
Hers Yet hers is better than his.
Ours Miss Ward is a friend of ours.
Yours Our grapes are preferable to yours.
Theirs Theirs were better than ours.
The Demonstratives
are
This Memory and Forecast just returns engage,

on to age.
That That pointing back to youth,
These " Farewell my friends, farewell my
my love with
Those My peace with
"
this,
foes.
those."
these,
The
Distributives are
Each Each
prefers his
own.
I shall be satisfied with

The hats are returned, because neither of them
None " None Then none have I offended.'
Each other The two desperadoes killed each other.
One anotherBoys should not interrupt one another.
Either
Neither
either.
fits.
The
Indefinites are
All"All join
to guard what each desires to gain."

"
Another " Art thou He, or do we look for another ?
Any Have any of the pupils given an example ?
flattered."
of both
Both" Lepidus
Some " Some deemed him wondrous wise."
Such Such as I have, give I to you.
flatters both,
is
Rem. Other words, when preceded by

each of the above classes.
The one.
The other.
The first.
The same.
The former.
The latter.
the,
The elect.
The right.
The left.
may be added
The whole.
The half.
The second.
tc
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
100
II
Kecapitulation.
Radical
By
their
Forms
/Inseparable.
.Derivative
(Prefix.
Boot.
1 Suffix.
Simple.
Compound..
Words
are dis-^"
tinguished
[Jg*^
and
'Nouns.
Pronouns.
Adjectives.
Verbs.
By their
Uses
Adverbs.
Prepositions.
ta
Conjunctions.
Exclamations.
Words of Euphony
'Proper
or
Nouns
are
"
Common
Concrete.
Abstract.
Collective,
,
Verbal.
{Personal.
Relative, or Conjunctive.
J
Interrogative.
Adjective.
Modification of Nouns and Pronouns.

Masculine.
Gender
Feminine.
Neuter.
Person
Nouns and Pronouns
\
(
are
modified by
Number
\
'
Case
'
First.
Second.
Third.
Singular.
Plural.
f Subjective.
J Objective.
I Possessive.
[
Independent.
PRONOUNS.
101
Questions foe Review.

PAGE
91.
92.
Define a
Pronoun
What is
the
See
See
See
See
See
See
See
Antecedent of a Pronoun ?
The Antecedent may consist of what ?
How are Pronouns distinguished?
What
is
What
distinct classes of Personal
a Personal
Pronoun ?
Pronouns ?
What words are used as Simple Personal Pronouns ?
What words are called Compound Personal Pronouns f
Why are these words called Personal Pronouns?. .See
See
What modifications have Pronouns ?
See
What is meant by Declension of Pronouns ?
Def. 94.
Obs.
Obs.
1.
2.
Prin.
Def. 95
Obs.
List.
Obs.
Prin
Rem.
94.
What Pronouns, by their forms, distinguish sex? .See Obs.

What Personal Pronouns are alike in both numbers f
See Obs. 4.
What is said of the various uses of the word it f
See Def. 96.
What is a Relative or Conjunctive Pronoun ?
See Obs. 1.
What twofold offices do these words perform ?
95.
Give a List of the Relative Pronouns.
93.
What is said of as and than f

What Conjunctive Pronouns
the Case
96.
98.
See Obs.
2.
are varied to indicate
See Obs.
3.
When do we use who ? When use the word what f

When use the word that as a Simple Pronoun ?
What is the peculiar use of the word what f
See Obs. 7.
Resolve " what" into its elements
.See Rem.
What part of speech is the Antecedent Element of" whatV
See Obs. 8.
Name the Compound Relatives
Analyze the words whatever and whoever
See Rem.
See Def. 97.
What is an Interrogative Pronoun?
What words are used as Interrogative Pronouns ? See Obs. 1.
How may we ascertain the Antecedent of an Interrogative ?
See Def. 98.
What is an Adjective Pronoun ?
See Rem.
Why called Pronouns f
See Obs. 1.
Why called Adjective Pronouns ?
How may these words become simply Adjectives ? See Obs. 2.
How do we show the twofold offices of these
words ?
See Obs. 3.
From what are Adjective Pronouns derived ?
See Obs. 4.
What are the classes of Adjective Pronouns ?
See Obs. 5.
What Adjectives may become Adjective Pronouns
and how ?
See Obs. 6.
;
97.
102
ENGLISH GBAMMAB-PART
II.
PAGE
99.
What words are used as Possessive Adjective Pronouns ?

What words are used as Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns ?
What words are used as Distributive Adjective Pronouns?
What words are used as Indefinite Adjective Pronouns t
ADJECTIVES.
Rem.As things possess individuality, and have points of difc
ference from one another, so we have Words which point
out and
describe those things, and mark their differences from
other
things.
Hence,
Def. 99. An Adjective
is a Word used to qualify or

Noun or a Pronoun.
Examples. Good amiable the our earnest fallingyoung
conscien-
otherwise describe a
tious correctfamous.
A good boy.
Falling leaves.
An amiable young lady.
Conscientious Christian.
Correct expression.
Our national resources.
Hem. Any word, of whatever form or origin, used chiefly as an

Adjunct of a Substantive, is therefore Adjective.
Classification.
Rem.
1.
2.
3.
Adjectives are used
To
To
To
express a quality as, good hoy red rosesweet

apple.
specify or limit as, the book thy pen three
boys.
express, incidentally, a condition, state, or
friend wheeling orbs injured reputation.
Pri^. Adjectives are
fas-
tinguished
as.
1
(
act as,
loving
Hence
Qualifying Adjectives,
^WVi^w,
Verbal Adjectives.
ai
Qualifying Adjectives.
Def. 100.A Qualifying Adjective is a Word used
by expressing a quality.
to describe a Substantive
Examples. Good sweet coldhonorable amiablevirtuous.

An honorable man.
Some good fruit.
An
amiable disposition.
A virtuous woman.
Three sweet oranges.
Much
cold water.
ADJECTIVEL
103
Specifying Adjectives.
Def. 101.
A Specifying Adjective
is
Word used
to define or limit the application of a Substantive with-
out denoting a quality.

Examples.A an the this that some threemy.
A mau of letters.
That mountain in the distance.
An educated man.
Some good
The question
Three sweet oranges.

My enemy.
at issue.
This road.
fruit.
Proper Adjectives.
Def. 102.
called
Adjectives derived from Proper
Nouns
are
Proper Adjectives.
Examples.Arabian Grecian TurkishFrench.
INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES.
Obs. Which, what, and sometimes
tives,
Examples. 1. Which side will you take

2. What evil hath he done ?
3.
Rem.
1.
2.
3.
whose,
when used
as Adjec-
are called Interrogative Adjectives when they indicate a question.
Whose book
is
that
Adjectives may specify
By
By
By
simply pointing out things by limiting or designating

denoting relation of ownership, adaptation, or origin.
denoting number, definite or indefinite. Hence,
Prot. Specifying Adjec-
-,/,.
ure Adjectives,
^
T
Numeral
Adjectives, and
rossessive Adjectives.
*;
hves are distinguished as
Def. 103.
A Pure Adjective
is
Word used
only to
point out or designate things.

Examples. Thethatthose suchnext same other.
Thou
art the man.

That question is settled.
Those books are received.
" Such shames are common."
The next class.

The same lesson.
Other cares intrude.
Any man may
learn wisdom.
104
Def. 104.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
II
A Possessive Adjective
is
describes a being or thing
ownership, origin,
by indicating a
Word
that
relation of
fitness, etc.
Examples.My our theirwhose children's John'steacher's.
My fathermy neighbor.
Children's shoes.
Our enemies.
John's horse.
Teachers absence.
Their losses are severe.

2. " O my o f f e n s e
It
3.
i.
"
He
Note.
is
rank
it
smells to heaven
hath the primal, eldest curse upon
it,
A brother's murder."
command, and saw that writing's t ru t h."
heard the king's
A Possessive
Adjective
is
generally derived from a Substantive,
by
changing the Normal into the Possessive form.
Thus
"
Def. 105.
He heard the king's command," is equivalent

He heard the command of the king.
A Numeral Adjective
is
to,
Word used to
denote Number.
Examples. Onetenfirst second fourfoldfewmany.
Obs.
Numeral Adjectives may be,

Onetwo three
Ordinal. First second third fourth.
Multiplicative. Single double quadruple.
Fewmanysome (denoting number).
1.
Cardinal.
four.
Indefinite.
Obs.
as
2.
Numeral
and an, when they denote number, are
to
be classed
Adjectives.
Examples. 1. " Not a drum was heard, nor a funeral note."

Not one drum was heard.
" Not an instance is on record."
?.
Not one instance is on record.
Verbal Adjectives.
Def. 106. A
describe a
ally,
Noun
Verbal Adjective
or a Pronoun,
"by
is
Word
used to
expressing, incident-
a condition, state, or act.
Obs. This class of Adjectives consists of Participles, used primarily to describe Kouns and Pronouns.
Examples. 1.
3.
4.
A running brook.
2.
A standing pond.
saw a boy running to school.

Another standing by the way.
105
ADJECTIVES.
5.
" Scaling yonder peak,

saw an eagle wheeling near its brow.
In this example the Sentence is, " I saw eagle;" and "scaling
yonder peak," is a Phrase used to describe M I." " Wheeling near
Scaling and wheeling are Participles
its brtfw," describes " eagle."
used to describe a Noun and a Pronoun hence they are, in their
office,
They
(See Def. 99.)
Adjectives.
describe
by expressing
(not in the character of Predicates, but), " incidentally, a condition,

state,
or act," of " I" and " eagle"
hence
they are Verbal Ad-
jectives.
To render the classification more simple, we have preNouns and

Pronouns, as Adjectives and, because they are derived from Verbs,
Rem.
1.
ferred to class all Participles used chiefly to describe
and retain more or

they are derived,
of the Verbs from which

use the term Verbal Adjectives.
less of the properties
we
But Teachers who are unwilling to do more than simply to call

them Participles, will not find it difficult to adapt their views to
the plan of this work the Pupil being taught that
;
" Participles, like Adjectives, belong to
Nouns and Pronouns."
And, in the use of Diagrams

" Participles
used to limit Substantives, occupy the same position
as Adjectives."
Rem. 2. Participles used

them.
commonly
as Adjectives,
verbal character, and, like their Verbs,
may have
retain their
Objects after
Hence,
Pkik.
Verlal Adjectives are
dis-
languished as
Transitive
or
Intransitive.
Examples.
Intransitive. 1. "
He
possessed a well-balanced mind."
2. " Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again."

Transitive. 3. " Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle."
4. " We saw the children picking berries"
Compound Adjectives.
Def. 107.
are called
Adjectives consisting of
Compound
Compound Words
Adjectives.
Examples. Everlasting hard-hearted tempest-tossed.
ENGLISH GBAMMABPABT
106
II
Modification of Adjectives.
Hem. Most Qualifying Adjectives express,

form, different degrees of quality. Hence,
Pein.
Some
by
variations in
Adjectives are varied in form to denote
Comparison.
There
may be
four degrees of comparison.
Diminutive
1.
saltish.
salt.
sal test.
3.
Comparative
4.
Superlative
bluest
Def. 108.
amount
It is
bluish
blue
bluer
2. Positive
The
Salter.
Diminutive Degree
denotes an
of the quality less than the Positive.
commonly formed by adding
ish to the
form of the Positive.
Examples.Bluish saltish.
Def.
its
109.
The Positive Degree expresses quality in
simplest form.
Examples. Blue salt large pure richgoodglimmering.
Def. 110.
The Comparative Degree
expresses an
increase or a decrease of the Positive.
commonly formed by adding er. or the Words more or less,

Examples. 1. Larger purer richermore common-fes objectionable.
It is
to the
2.
Def.
111.
" Richer by far
The
is
the heart's adoration."
Superlative Degree
expresses the
greatest increase or decrease of the quality of the
Ad-
jective.
It is
to the
commonly formed by adding

Examples.
est,
or the
1.
Largest purest most ungrateful
2.
"
Words most
or
least,
smallestuppermost.
The 2)urest treasure mortal times

Isspotless reputation."
afford
Obs. 1. By the use of other Words, the degrees of Comparison

be rendered indefinitely numerous.
may
Examples. Cautious somewhat cautiousam/ cautious unusually cautiousremarkably cautious exceedingly cautious too little cautious zmcautious
quite wttcautious.
ADJECTIVES.
Obs.
Words
2.
Comparison
less
and
least to
Examples.Wise,
less
descending,
is
107
expressed by prefixing the
the Adjective.
wise, least
wise ambitious,
less
ambitious, least am-
bitious.
Obs. 3. Most Adjectives of two or more syllables are compared

by prefixing the words more and most, or less and least, to the
Positive.
Examples.
Obs.
Positive.
Comparative.
Superlative.
Careful
more careful
?nost careful.
Careful
less
4.
Some
careful
may
Adjectives
least careful.
be compared by either method
specified above.
Examples.
Comparative.
Remote
Remote
remoter
more remote
Superlative.
remote.
most remote.
Irregular Comparison.
Some
Adjectives are irregular in comparison.
Examples.
Comparative.
Positive.
Good
Bad
Little
Far
worst.
.less
least.
Obs.
5.
2.
Obs.
6.
more
more
most.
farther
farthest.
After,
"
furthermost
older
oldest
elder
eldest.
aftermostnether, nethermost.
He was
most.
further
Some Adjectives want the Positive.
Examples.1.
best.
.worse
Many
Much
Q,
Superlative.
better
in the after part of the ship."
Some Adjectives want the Comparative.
Examples. 1. Top, topmost.

2. " He stood upon
the topmost round."
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
108
II.
Obs. 7. Some Adjectives can not be compared the qualities

they indicate not being susceptible of increase or diminution.
Examples.Round squaretriangular infinite.
Adjective Phrases
Rem.
a:nt>
Things may be described not
Seote^ces.
only by Words, but also by
Phrases and by Sentences.

Examples.
Adjective Phrases.1. "
2.
3.
"
Of
my
departure," tells what " time."
Adjective Sentences. 1. "

2.
3.
Which
is at
hand."
" Night is the time for rest."11

" Turn, gentle hermit of the vale."
Phrase, used here to

Phrase.
"
The time of my departure
tell
He
" hermit."
what
"
Of the vale," is a
Hence an Adjective
own
that getteth wisdom, loveth his
Mount
the horse which
I have
soul."
chosen foi thee.
" Thou, whose spell can raise the dead,

Bid the prophet's form appear."
have chosen for thee," is a Sentence used here

Hence an Adjective Sentence.
to tell
which " horse."
Kecapitulatiok.
{Superlative.
Comparative.
Diminutive.
Adjectives are distinguished
as
Pure.
Numeral.
Specifying
-J
Verbal
VeiDal
Possessive.
Transitive.
Live.
llntransitiv
Exercises.
ItJP Let the Pupil determine which of the following Adjectives
which are Specifying, and which are Verbal. Of
the Qualifying Adjectives, which can be compared, and how comparedof the Specifying Adjectives, which are Pure, which Numeral, and which Possessive of the Verbal, which are Transitive
are Qualifying,
and which are
Intransitive.
109
ADJECTIVES.
Honest,
That,
Three,
Tenth,
Forgotten,
Standing,
Loving,
Infinite,
Twice,
Admonished,
Just,
Several,
Unknown,
Dim,
Human,
Winding.
Able,
Bold,
False,
Capable,
Doubtful,
Eager,
These,
Good,
Then place the Words in

models given below. Thus,
Sentences, and Parse
them
after the
" These dim vaults, these winding aisles

Of human pomp or pride, report not."
First Model.
describe "vaults;" hence an Adjective
These
for
"a Word
used to qualify or otherwise describe a Noun or a Pronoun, is an Adjective."

"
Specifies; hence Specifying for " an Adjective used
only to limit, is a Specifying Adjective."
qualifies " vaults ;" hence an Adjective
for " a Word
Dim
" ......Expresses a quality; hence Qualifying for "a Word
v
used to describe a Noun by expressing a quality, is a
Vaults
"
Qualifying Adjective."
a Name hence a Noun for " the Name of a being,
place, or thing, is a Noun."
Name of a sort or class hence common for " a Name
used to designate a class or sort of beings, places, or
things, is a Common Noun."
for " the Name of a
... .Spoken of; hence, Third Person
person or thing spoken of, is of the Third Person."
Denotes more than one hence Plural Number for
" Nouns denoting more than one, are of the Plural
is
"
"
Number."
"
Winding,
"
Subject of the Sentence; hence Subjective Case for

" the subject of a Sentence is in the Subjective Case."
.describes " aisles;" hence an Adjective for "a Word

describes, by expressing a condition
hence Verbal for
" a Word used to describe a Noun by expressing, incidentally, a condition, state, or act, is a Verbal Adjective."
;
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
110
Human.
IL
.describes " pomp" or " pride M hence an Adjective for

" a Word used to qualify or otherwise describe a Noun
;
or a Pronoun, is an Adjective."
...Expresses a quality; hence Qualifying for " a Word
used to describe a Noun by expressing a quality, is a
Qualifying Adjective."
"
[It is profitable to repeat the Definitions until they become familiar ; after
that they may be omitted the parts of speech and the classes and modifications
of the several Words being simply named, as in the following exercise.]
Second Model.
"
No
fantastic carvings
The boast of our vain

Of thy fair works. 11
race, to
Class.
No
an Adjective
Adjective
Noun
Common,
The
"
"
"
Specifying,
Qualifying,
Adjective
Specifying,
Boast
"
Noun
Common,
is
Fantastic
Carvings
(Rap
show
change the form
Person. Number.
Case.
limits
li
carvings."
11
qualifies " carvings.
Third,
Plu.
Sub. to " show. 11

limits " boast. 11
Third,
Sing.
Obj. of " show. 11
The Teacher will abridge or extend these Exercises at

Then let four Sentences be made, each containing the
pleasure.
Word good,
so that, in the first, it will qualify the Subject in the

second, the Object in the third, the Object of a Phrase attached
to the Subject in the fourth, the Object of a Phrase attached to
the Object.
In like manner use the Words amiable

loved.
this
Thus,
someloving
1.
That amiable young lady was
2.
We saw the amiable gentleman.
3.
The
4.
honestindustriouswise
at the lecture.
benefits of an amiable disposition are numerous.

She possesses the advantages of an amiable temper
Questions for Review,

page
102.
What
Why
is
an Adjective
are Adjectives used
For what various purposes are Adjectives used f
How are Adjectives distinguished?

What is a Qualifying Adjective ?
Give Examples.
See Def. 99.

See Rem. 1.
See Rem. 2.
See Def. 100.
Ill
VERBS.
PAGE
103.
What
is a Specifying Adjective ?.
Give Examples.
See Def. 101.
What
See Def. 102.
is
Proper Adjective
Give Examples.
What is an Interrogative Adjective
Give Examples.
104.
See Obs.
How are Specifying Adjectives distinguished?

What is a Pure Specifying Adjective ?
What is a Possessive Specifying Adjective ?
How are Possessive Adjectives formed ?
What is a Numeral Adjective ?
See Def. 103.

.
.See Def. 104.
See Note.
See Def. 105.
Give Examples.
What is a Verbal Adjective ?

See Def. 106.
Give Examples.
105. How are Verbal Adjectives distinguished?
See Prin.
See Prin.
106. How are Adjectives modified ?
How many Degrees of Comparison may some
Adjectives have ?
See Obs.
When is an Adjective of the Diminutive form ?. See Def. 108.
See Def. 109.
When is an Adjective of the Positive form ?
When is an Adjective of the Comparative form ?
When is an Adjective of the Superlative form ?. See Def. 110.
See Obs. 2
107. What is said of Comparison descending ?
When do we prefix a Word to denote Comparison ?
See Obs. 3.
:
What
Are
Adjectives are compared irregularly?
all
Adjectives compared
See Obs.
7.
VERBS.
Remark.
ing,
we
As
all
things in the universe
necessarily have a class of
A Verb
is
move, or have a beto express the act,
Hence,
being, or state of those things.
Def. 112.
live,
Words used
Word used
to express the act,
being, or state of a person or of a thing.
CLASSIFICATION.
Remark.
(a.)
Some Verbs
are used as Predicates of Sentences
others are used as Subsequents of Phrases.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
112
(b.)
Some
by
are followed
II.
have no
Objects; others
Objects.
(c.)
Some
are used to
make
a principal assertion
used to indicate manner,
ers are
oth-
time, or other
contingency.
(<)
Some admit
a regular method of Conjugation;
others have special or peculiar forms to indicate

their modifications.
Hence,
Prist.
By their functions,
Finite
Verbs are
J
Prii^.
By their relation
,T
to Objects,
Verbs are
<
{
Pki:n\
By their
offices
Verbs are
\
(
,.
or
Principal or
Auxiliary.
.
By their variations in form,

xr
Verbs are
(
<
Def. 113.
Transitive
Intransitive.
in Predicate,
-T
Prist.
or
Infinite.
A Finite Verb
is
Megular
or
^
Irregular.
a Verb that
is
used in
Predicate of a Sentence.
Examples. John studies Re
as
learns.
Obs. Every Finite Verb must be associated with a Substantive

its Subject
expressed or implied.
Def. 114. An Infinitive Verb

used in Predicate of a Sentence.
is
Verb that
is
not
Obs. Infinitive Verbs are used as Subsequents of Infinitive

Phrases always used with the Preposition to, expressed or understood.
Examples. To learn John
is
eager to learn.
113
VERBS CLASSES.
Def. 115. A Verb is Transitive when
an action which terminates on an Object.
Examples. John saws tuoodGod created heaven and
expresses
it
earth.
expresses
Def. 116. A Verb is Intransitive when it
does
which
action
an
or
the being or state of its Subject,
not terminate on an Object.
Examples.Animals runI sitJohn
is
sleepy.
others are
;
or
transitively
used
are
others
Transitive
Obs. 1. Some Verbs are, in their nature,
naturally Intransitive
and some
intransitively.
Examples.
1.
%
3.
4.
5.
6.
Cold blows the wind."

" The wind blows the dust."
" Blows" is Intransitive.
" It has swept through the earth."

" Jane has swept the floor."
Intransitive.
" God moves in a mysterious way."

" Such influences do not move me."
Intransitive.
" Blows"
is
Transitive.
Transitive.
Transitive.
Hence,
that of the SenObs. 2. The character of a Verb is determined by
is transitive only
tence of which it is the Predicate. Any Verb
when its Sentence is transitive only when it demands an Object
in construction.
D EF
117. A Principal
Verb
is
Verb that makes
the complete or the principal assertion.

Examples.John does studyJames can studyAnne should
study.
Def. 118.An Auxiliary Verb
is a Verb that is preto distinguish the

Participle,
a
or
to
Verb
another
fixed to
Verb.
Principal
the
of
Tense
or
Voice, Mode,
List.
Always Auxiliaries.
must,
may,
Present. Can,
shall,
should.
might,
Fast. Could,
Sometimes Principal Verbs.

Present. Am,
PastWas,
be,
do,
was,
did,
have,
had,
will,
would.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
114
Def. 119.
A Verb whose
addition of ed to the Radical,

Examples.
Present
Tense.
Past Tense
is
I love,
Past Tense.I
lovec?,
II.
is
Regular
formed by the
in Conjugation.
act,
save,
fear,
actetf,
savetf,
feared.
Obs. All Regular Verbs are conjugated in the same manner

having similar terminations for the same tenses.
Exception
Some Verbs, for euphony, drop the final letter of
1.
the Radical.
Examples.Love, loved Save, saved Recite,
Exception
2.
recitetf.
Some Verbs, for euphony, drop a final letter of the
Radical.
Examples. Tan, tanned Transmit,
transmitted.
Def. 120.
Verb whose Past Tense
the addition of d or ed to the Radical,
Conjugation.
Examples.Present Tense. I am,
Past Tense.1 was,
Def. 121.
is
is
not made by
Irregular
see,
do,
hide,
lay,
saw,
did,
hid,
laid.
in
A Complete Verb
appropriate form for
all
the
is a Verb that has an

Modes and Tenses.
Examples. Love Recite See Teach.
Rem.
Tenses
Some
:
Irregular Verbs are not used in all the
Modes and
Hence,
Def. 122. A Defective Verb

used in all the Modes and Tenses.
is
a Verb that
is
not
List.
Present. Can,
Past. Could,
may,
might,
must,
ought,
ought,
quoth,
shall,
will,
should,
would.
Def. 123. A Redundant Verb is a Verb that has

more than one form for some of the Modes and Tenses.
Examples.Am or beBreak, broke or brake, broken or broke.
Def. 124. The Verb be and some of its compounds

by most Grammarians, called Neuter Verbs.
Examples.I amHe is John became wise, Cuba belongs to Spain.
are,
VERBS GLASSES.
115
Obs. 1. Some authors include, with the above, an extended

of Verbs that do not predicate physical or mental acts.
list
But,
The term Neuter
Verb seems properly to apply only to

The term Copulative Verb is applied to it by many authors. As this Verb is recognized by either
name, our chief concern should be its use. It is used,
Obs.
the
2.
Verb
be,
and
its
equivalents.
2d.
In Predicate alone, to declare simple existence.

To connect its Subject to an Attribute i. e., to change an
3d.
Assumed Attribute to a Predication.

To form with a Past Participle the Passive
1st.
1.
2.
3.
Voice.
Examples.
amThou artHe is.
Assumed.Singing.
Asserted.Anna is singing.
Cheerful Dora.
Dora
is cheerful.
Active.Dora loves Anna. Caesar conquered Gaul.

Gaul was conquered.
Passive. Anna is loved.
Our friends.
They are our friends.
We have seen him.

He
has been
seen.
Questions for Keview.

TAGE
111.
What is
How
112.
Verb ?
Give Examples
are Verbs distinguished
What
See Def. 112.

See Rem.
See Def. 113.
Verb ? Give Examples

Verb must always be associated with
what?
See
What is an Infinitive Verb ? Give Examples. .See
In what connection are Infinitive Verbs used ? See
What is a Transitive Verb ? Give Examples. .See
What is an Intransitive Verb? Give Examples. See
May some Verbs be used Transitively or Intransitively ?
Give Examples
See
How do we decide that a Verb is Transitive ? See
What is a Principal Verb ? Give Examples. See
What is an Auxiliary Verb ? Give Examples See
Give the list of Verbs that are always Auxiliary.
is
a Finite
Finite
113.
114.
Obs.
1.
Def. 114.
Obs.
2.
Def. 115.
Def. 116.
Obs. 1.
Obs. 2.
Def. 117.
Def. 118.
Give the list of Verbs that are sometimes Principal.

What Verbs are said to be Regular ? Give Ex. See Def. 119.
What Verbs are Irregular ? Give Examples. See Def. 120.
What Verbs are said to be Complete? Give
.
Examples
See Def. 121.
116
II.
PAGE
114.
What Verbs
are said to be Defective?
Give
See Def.
See Def.
Examples
"What Verbs are said to be Redundant?
What
115.
Why is
What
said of the
is
Verb be
the
Neuter Verb ?
called
Copulative ?
Verb perform ?
distinct offices does this
122.
123.
See Def. 124.

See Obs. 1.
See Obs. 2. I
_
Modification op Verbs.
Rem.
Verbs that denote action, have two methods of represent-
ing the action
As done by
As done
1st
its
2d
to its
Subject
Subject
as,
Clara
loves
as,
Anna
is
Anna.
loved by Clara.
Hence,
m
-LTransitive
The Active and
TT
-u
i
verbs nave two Voices. <_. .
tt
'
The Passive.
Def. 125. A Verb in the Active Voice represents

Subject as performing an action.
Example. Columbus
Def. 126.
its
its
discovered America.
A Verb
in the
Passive Voice
represents
Subject as being acted upon.

Example.America was
Obs.
1.
The
same
discovered
fact
by Columbus.
may commonly be
expressed by either
the Active or the Passive form.
ExAMPLES.-William
Charles
assists Charles.
is assisted
by William.
The game
fact gtate(L
" William," the Subject of the Active Verb, becomes the Object
of " by," when the Verb becomes Passive and " Charles," the Object of the Active Verb, becomes the Subject of the Passive.
;
Obs. 2. In the English language, the formation of the Passive

Yoice is less simple than in many other languages. Thus, the corresponding assertions,
In Latin. Doceo, in the Active Voice, has Doceor

in the Passive.
"
"
"
" I am taught "
In English.I teach^ "
Hence, the English Verb does not form its Passive Yoice by an
" inflection of the form of the Active," but by combining the
VERBSMODES.
Copulative Verb be, in
of the given Verb.
Active. To i?ee,
Passive. To be seen,
Obs.
Verb
3.
Thus
rejects the
Obs.
4.
Obs.
5.
various modifications, with a Participle
Examples.
They applaud,
They are applauded,
loved,
I love,
Man
am
God
I
it
its
117
worships,
worshipped.
is
appears that, in English, the Passive form of a

only its Participle being retained.
itself,
Verb
Most Transitive Verbs may take the Passive form.

A Verb taking the Passive form becomes grammatically
The
intransitive.
action
is
directed to
no
Object.
The
Subject
receives the action.
Obs.
6.
But few Intransitive Verbs take the Passive form.

Examples.
1.
We laughed at his clownish performances. (Active Intransitive.)
2.
His clownish performance was laughed a. (Passive.)
Eem. Expressions like the last are inelegant, and should not be
used except in colloquial style.
MODE.
Eem.
In addition to their
primary
signification,
Verbs perform
a secondary office i. e., they indicate some attendant or qualifying

circumstances. This is indicated by the variations of the form of
the Verb, or by prefixing Auxiliary Words.
Def. 127.
mar,
Mode means manner or method. In Grama property of the Verb which indicates the
Mode is
manner of
its use.
1.
A Finite Verb may simply express
2.
It
3.
It
4. It
5. It
may
may
may
may
Subject.
a fact.
express a fact as possible, probable, obligatory, &c.
express a fact conditionally.
express a command or request.
express the name of an act, or a fact unlimited
by a
Hence,
Finite Verbs have five
modes of expressing
their sig-
nification
The Subjunctive,
The Indicative,
The Imperative, and
The Potential,
The Infinitive.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
118
Def. 128.
A Verb used
simply to indicate or assert a
the
fact, is in
Indicative
God created the heaven and the earth. 11

" Rays of limpid light gleamed round their path."
2.
Mode.
"
Examples. 1.
Obs.
II.
conditional circumstance assumed as a fact"

by a verb in the Indicative form.
"
is
prop-
erly expressed
Examples.
Correct.
Incorrect.
1.
If
2.
If
Frank tells the truth, the fault is not

you will go, I will accompany you.
3.
If
Arthur be innocent, he should not be punished.
4.
If
he be
Def. 129.
right, I
A Verb
or obligation, of
its
am
his.
wrong.
indicating probability, power, will,

is in the
Subject,
Potential Mode.
Obs.
Mode,
1,
Words which maybe regarded as signs of the Potential

should
may might can couldmust
shall
are,
icould, either alone, or
followed by the
Word
will
have.
Examples.I may goYou might have goneJohn should study Mary can
learn
It could not be doneJohn shall study.
Obs. 2. Verbs in the Indicative and the Potential Modes

used in Interrogative Sentences. (See p. gg.)
Examples. 1. " Did Claudius waylay Milo

2.
Def. 130.
"
May
(hypothetically)
may
be
?"
one be pardoned and retain the offense ?"
Verb expressing a
is
fact
conditionally
in the
Subjunctive Mode.
-
Example.'
Obs.
If I
were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes."
If, though, unless,
and other Conjunctions, are commonly

But they are not to be regarded
used with the Subjunctive Mode.

as the signs of this
and with the
Mode,
Potential.
for they are also
used with the Indicative
VERBSMODES.
Examples. 1.
2.
If the
boat goes to-day, I shall go in
would
119
it.
stay, if I could conveniently.
The condition expressed by
" if the boat goes," is
assumed as a
hence, " goes" in the Indicative Mode.

limited to Auxiliary Adverbial
Note. The Subjunctive Mode
is
fact
is
Sentences.
Whereas the Indicative and the Potential may be used
in either Principal or Auxiliary Sentences.
A Verb
Def. 131.
used to
command
or entreat
is
in
Imperative Mode.
Examples. 1.
2.
Obs.
" If he repent, forgive him."

" Come to the bridal chamber, Death I"
As we can command only a
person or a thing addressed,
the Subject of an Imperative
Yerb must be of the Second Person
and, as a person addressed
supposed
the
name
of the Subject
is
is
to
be present to the speaker,
usually understood.
Examples.1. Cry aloudspare not, obey your parents.

2.
But
it is
" Speak gently to the
Def. 132.
Go
yg into
the world."
all
A Verb used without
limitation by a Sub-
in the
Infinitive
Obs. 1. The Preposition
tive
child."
often expressed,
"
ject, is
little
to, is
Mode.
usually placed before the Infini-
Yerb.
Examples. 1. " To enjoy is to obey."

2. " I came not here to talk."
Obs.
2.
But that Word
is
Example." Let me hear thy voice awake, and bid her

Give me new and glorious hopes."
It
Note. The Infinitive differs from the other Modes in this
has no Grammatical Subject, and therefore it can not be a Predicate.
It is used, not as an element in a Sentence, but as a constituent element in an Infinitive Phrase the Subsequent. It is analogous to a
:
"
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
120
II
and
Participle, participating of the properties of a Verb
Substantive
always
the Object of the Preposition
also of a
expressed or
to
implied.
Formerly, in our English Dictionaries, the Preposition to was

placed before words to indicate that they were Yerbs.
This practice of Lexicographers now obsolete led some Grammarians into the error of regarding the Preposition to, placed before
a Verb in the Infinitive Mode, as a part of the Verb.
But that Preposition is no more a part of the Yerb than is the
Preposition for a part of the Participle or of the Noun following,
as shown in the following
Examples.
We are prepared to recite.

1.
2.
3.
We are prepared/or reciting.

We are prepared/or recitation.
The Infinitive not improperly called a species of Par always participating of the properties of a Yerb and also
Rem.
ticiple
is
of a Substantive.
Obs.
3.
While the Infinitive
acter, the
Phrase of which
it is
Verb always has a Substantive chara part may be, in office,
Substantive." To err is human.

Adjective. They had a mind to work.
Adverbial.John is eager to learn.
Independent u To sleep! perchance to dream."
Questions for Beview.

PAGE
116.
When is a Yerb said to be in the Active Voice ?. See Def.

When is a Yerb said to be in the Passive Voice ?. See Def.
.
Can the same fact be asserted in either form ?

See Obs.
Give Examples of the changes of Active to Passive.
What Auxiliary Yerb is used to form the Passive
Yerb ?
See Obs.
What
part of the Principal
the Passive
117.
118.
Yerb
is
125.
126.
1.
2.
retained in
What class of Yerbs may take the Passive form ?.

What is Mode in Grammar?
How many different Modes and what ?
See
See
See
See
See
Obs.
Obs.
3.
4.
Def. 127.
Prin.
Def. 128.
a Yerb in the Indicative Mode ?
Make a Sentence whose Yerb shall be in the Indicative.
See Def. 129,
When is a Yerb in the Potential Mode ?
What words are used as Signs of the Potential Mode ?
When
is
121
PARTICIPLES.
PAGE
118.
Make Sentences whose Verbs shall be in the Potential Mode.

The Verbs in Interrogative Sentences may be in
See Obs. 2.
what Modes ?
is
Conjunctions introduce Subjunctive Sen-
tences
119.
Mode ?
When
What
What
Verb
in the
Subjunctive
See Def. 130.

See Obs.
Verb
sort of Sentence has its
in the Sub-
Mode ?
junctive
See Note.
whose Verb is in the Subjunctive Mode.

See Def.
When is a Verb in the Imperative Mode ?
Make a Sentence whose Verb is in the Imperative Mode.
Make
What
a Sentence
is
said of the Subject of an Imperative Sen-
tence
When
131.
is
Verb
in the Infinitive
Mode ?
See Obs.
See Def. 132.
.See Obs. 1.
precedes the Infinitive Verb ?.

Wherein does the Infinitive Mode differ from the
See Xote.
other Modes ?
Does the Infinitive occur in Sentences or in
What commonly
Phrases
120.
See Xote.
Wherein does the Infinite resemble the Participle ? See Xote.

What are the two offices performed by the Infinitive Verb ?
.
What
different offices
form
may
Infinitive
Phrases per-
See Obs.
3.
Make a Sentence having an Infinitive Phrase as its Subject.

Make an Infinitive Phrase, and use it as an Adjective.
"
"
"
ci
Adverb.
Independently.
PARTICIPLES.
Rem.
the
In the three Sentences,
Word
1.
Birds sing,
2.
Birds are singing,
3.
Singing birds delight us,
" sing" (in
Example
1) is
used
a Verb
to assert
an act
Of " birds."
and with
2, " singing" is derived from the same Verb
Auxiliary Verb " are," it makes the same assertion.
In Example 3, M singing" does not assert, but it assumes the same
In Example
the aid of the

act.
The same signification remains in the three Words, while they

perform different grammatical offices. Hence,
122
II
Def. 133. A Participle is a Word derived from a

Verb, retaining the signification of its Verb, while it also
performs the- office of some other "part of speech."
Participles are Derivative Words, formed from their Kadicommonly by the addition of ing or
Obs.
cals
ed.
Examples.Be ...... being.

Have .having.
.
Rem.
A Participle
is
Love
loving
Walk
walking
loved.
. .
walked.
used with or without an Auxiliary prefixed.
Hence,
,.
Participles
are
x
<
(
Def. 134.
derived from
Simple
or
Compound.
Simple Participle
its
is
a single
Word
Verb.
Examples. Loving, lovedhaving, hadbeing,
been.
Def. 135. A Compound Participle consists of a

Simple Participle, with the Auxiliary Participles " having" or "being," or "having been."
Examples.
Simple
i {i
2.
0Yil
^
f
Loved
Rearing.
Feared.
Being loved
Being feared.
Having feared.
Having been feared.
Having been fearing.
!3.
4. Having loved
5. Having been loved
6. Having been loving
C 1.
Participles are distinguished as <
2.
(3.
Present 9
Prior Present,
Past.
Def. 136. The Present Participle is the Participle

formed by adding ing to the root of the Verb indicating
a present act, being, or state.

Examples.Beinghavinglovingwalking doingfearing.
Obs.
cated
When the Participle
by the
Verb,
is
used with a Verb, the time
and may be Present,
Past, or Future,
is indi-
PABTICIPLES CLASSES.
Examples.
123
Present. I am writing letters.

Past. I was wilting letters.
Future. I shall be writing letters.
Def. 137. A Past Participle
is
the Participle that
is
regularly formed by adding ed to the root of its Verb.

Examples.Lovetffearedhatetfrespects.
Obs.
1.
The
formed.
Obs.
Past Participles of Irregular Verbs are variously
[See List]
2.
The Past Participle may be used with a Verb indicating
time, Present, Past, or Future.
Examples.Present.I am
Past.
Future.I
Obs.
3.
The
William is seen.
William was seen.
William will be seen.
loved
I was loved
shall
be loved
Present Participle
is
commonly
Active in signifi-
cation.
Examples.1.
A falling leaf.2. A fading flower.

" Scaling yonder peak,
3.
Obs.
4.
saw an
eagle, wheeling near its
The Past Participle
is
Examples.!. Injured reputation.

3.
rt
brow."
commonly Passive
2.
in signification.
Lost opportunity.
Truth crushed to earth,
will rise again.'"
Past Participle, preceded by the Auxiliary having,

Obs. 5.
used actively.
Examples. 1. Having loved 2. Having lost a day.
3. " The hour having arrived, we commenced the exercises.
4. Having seen the elephant, the rustic was satisfied.
is
1'
Obs.
6.
Preceded by the Auxiliary being, or having been, the Past
is used passively.
Examples. 1. Being loved.
Participle
2.
Having been censured
for
idleness,
John resolved
to
be
diligent.
The above and similar combinations of the Present Parwith the Past, indicate Prior Present Tense. Hence,
Rem.
ticiple
A Prior Present Participle is a Parcompounded of a Present and a Past Participle.
Def. 138.
ticiple
Obs. A Compound Participle may be Present or Prior Present

Active or Passive.
7.
ENGLISH QBAMMABPART
124
Examples.
Present. Being loved

Having loved
Being seen.
Having seen.
Having seen.
Having been seeing.
Being tfeen
Having been seen.
Prior Present.
Active.
Passive. \
'
'
Havin g loved
Having been loving
Being loved
Having been loved
'
II
The term Participle
is given to these words because they

two " parts of speech" at the same time :
that of the Verbs from which they are derived, and also of Nouns, of
Obs.
8.
participate in the offices of
Adjectives, of Adverbs, of Prepositions, of Conjunctions
with Auxiliary Verbs, or
in Predicate
to introduce Participial Phrases.
Examples.
1.
Noun
(a.)
(ft.)
(c.)
2.
Adjective
(d.)
3.
Adverb
(/.)
(e.)
Preposition
(h.)
(i.)
5.
(g.)
4.
Singing is a pleasing exercise.

William maintains a fair standing in society.
" In the beginning, God created the heaven. '
A running brooka standing tree.
Behold the goose standing on one foot.
u 1rTis strange 'tis passing strange.
The task was exceedingly difficult.
" I speak concerning Christ and the Church."
" Nothing was said touching that question.
"Seeing we can not agree, the discussion may be
Conjunction
(k.)
'
1 '
stopped."
6.
7.
8.
Exclamation
Astonishing!
Q.) Shocking !
In Predicate
(m.) " Birds are singing bees are humming."
Leader of Phrase, in.) Wounding the feelings of others.
(e>.)
(p.)
"Avoid wounding the feelings of others."

moving quickly, is another way of
A habit of
gain-
ing time.
Obs.
are
9.
Participles, like the Verbs from which they are derived,
Transitive
Def. 139.
or
Intransitive.
A Transitive Participle
is
a Participle
that has an Object.

Example. "Scaling yonder peak,
Wheeling near
Def. 14Q.
saw an eagle
is
a Partici-
no Object.
Example." I saw an
10.
brow."
An Intransitive Participle
ple that has
Obs.
its
eagle wheeling near its
brow."
A Participle used as a Preposition, must be Transitive.
Example. u I speak
concerning Christ and the Church."
125
PARTICIPLES.
or in
Participle used as a Noun, as an Adjective,
Obs.
Phrase, may be IntranPredicate, or as the Leader of a Participial
sitive or Transitive.
Examples.
11A
(a.)
Intransitive.
" Scolding has long been considered ungenteel."

tw
The curfew tolls the knell of parting day."
l m xfoun
*
Adjective
3.
In Predicate. ." Spring-time of year

.
(&.)
is
coming."
Transitive.
Teaching Clara, is a pleasing occupation.

" Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle."
4.
Substantive..
5.
Adjective
6.
In Predicate. .We are studying grammar.
. .
Obs. 12.
Participle used as a Conjunction or as
an Adverb
must be Intransitive.
fool to get wis-
is there a price in the hands of a

dom, seeing he hath no heart to it."
Examples. 1. " Wherefore

2.
"
A virtuous household,
but exceeding poor."

See Def. 133.
a Participle ? Give Examples

sort of Words are Participles ?
Wherein do they resemble Verbs ?
What
What
121.
is
See Obs.
See Obs.
Wherein do they
See Prin.
How many sorts of Participles ?
Def. 134.
See
Examples
Give
?
Participle
122. What is a Simple
What is a Compound Participle? Give ExSee Def.- 135.
amples
distinguished ?.. .See Prin.
Participles
are
how
Tenses,
In
136.
What is a Present Participle ? Give Examples See Def.
.See Def. 137.
a Past Participle ? Give Examples.
differ
from their Verbs
123.
'
What is
Which Participle
is
Which
Participle
generally Active in
its
signi-
...See Obs.
fication?
is
generally Passive in signifiee
cation?
When may
What
is
a Past Participle be used Actively
a Prior Present Participle?
Examples
124 For what Parts of Speech may
used?
Make
u
3.
?.
!
5.
See Obs.-f-
Give
See Def 138

-
Participles be
SeeObs.8.
its Subject.
a Sentence having a Participle for
"
"
"
Object
'
126
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
II.
PAGE
124.
Make
a Sentence having a Participle as an Adjective.

"
I
"
Admrh
"
'
a Preposition.
as
"
Conjunction.
in Predicate.
Phrase
"
as
its
X^^r.
"
125.
With
respect to Objects,
tinguished ?
how
Subsequent.
are Participles dis-
See Obs.
What is a Transitive Participle ? Give Ex

See
What is an Intransitive Participle ? Give Ex. See
What Participles must be Transitive f
See
may be Transitive or Intran.
sitive?
What
Participles must be Intransitive?
9.
Def. 139.
Def. 140.
Obs. 10.
See Obs.
See Obs.
11.
12.
Tense.
Hem Generally the form of the Verb denotes not only the manner, but also the time, of the action or event expressed
the distinction of Tense.
Def. 141. Tense
is
by
it.
Hence
a modification of Verbs, denoting
distinction of time.
Kem. Time is Present, Past, or Future: of each of these periods

we have two varieties, represented by different forms. Hence,
Most Verbs have

Tenses
six j
j
The Prior Past Tense,

The
Past Tense,
The Prior Present Tense,
The
Present Tense,
The Prior Future Tense,
The
Future Tense.
Def. 142. The Prior Past Tense denotes time

past at some other past time mentioned, or implied.
Example.I had already expressed my opinion.
Obs. I. Had, prefixed to a Participle, is usually the sign of
Tense, A Past Verb prefixed to a Past Participle.
this
Obs. 2. This Tense is called Prior Past, because it represents an

action or event as occurring at a time prior to another past
time
mentioned or implied.
127
VERBS TENSE.
Def."
143. A Verb in the Past Tense denotes time
fully past.
Examples.I wrote you a letter.We walked to Troy

I saw an eagle.David loved Jonathan.
Regular Verbs, the sign of tliis Tense is d or ed added

of the Verb.
In Irregular Verbs, a distinct form is used. [See List.]
Obs In
to the root
Def. 144. The Prior Present Tense denotes time

past, but in a period reaching to the present
Examples.I have completed my task. John has returned.
.
Mary has
been prospered-Thou hast destroyed thyself.
Have, hast, and has, are the signs of this Tense,

Obs.
Present Verb prefixed to a Past Participle.
Tense is called Prior Present, because it represents

as occurring at a time prior to the present, yet
event
or
an action
in a period reaching to the present.
q bs> 2. This
Tense
Def. 145. The Present
denotes time present
reading. Clara can sing.
Examples. Eliza studies. Ellen is

Bo you hear that "bell ?Emily may
write that diagram.
Obs. 1. This is the simplest form of the Verb the sign do

used to denote intensity, and in asking questions.
Obs.
2.
is
Present Tense may be

1.
am
Definite as, I
2. Indefinite
writing. William studies
Virtue
as,
is
commendable.
146. The Prior Future Tense denotes time

compared with some future time specified.
Example.We shall have finished this recitation before the next class will
D EF
past, as
come.
Obs. 1. Shall hate and
ic ill
have, are the signs of this
Tense-
Verbs of Future Tense prefixed to a Past Participle.

Obs. 2. This Tense is named Prior Future, because it represents
an action or event as having occurred at a time prior to some future time expressed or implied.
as
Def. 147. The Future Tense denotes future time,

compared with the present.
Example.James
will return
to-morrowI
shall see him.
128
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
OBB.Shda in the First Person, and

Third, are the signs of this Tense.
%
will,
II.
in the
Second and
Rem.Distinctions of time are not indicated with precision

by
the form of the Verb. This must be done
by the use of Adjuncts
In the Potential Mode the Tenses are quite
Indefinite-one form
being often used for another. [See p.
ggg.]
The same remarks will apply to Participles-to the

Infinitive to
the Subjunctive, and sometimes to the
Indicative Mode.
Recapitulation.
Moae
Voice.
Tense.
Prior Past,
Past,
"
Prior Present,
Indicative
Present,
Prior Future,
Future.
Prior Past,
f
Active.
Potential
Past,
.
Prior Present,
Present.
I
VERB,
-I
Passive.
Neuter
Subjunctive
\
/
Imperative
Present.
Prior Present,
Present.
Infinitive.
I Participle
1
(
Past
Prior Present,
Present.
>
PAGE
126.
Past,
Present.
What is Tense.?..
What natural divisions of time ?
How many forms for each division ?
How many Tenses have most English Verbs ?
Name the Tenses in their natural order.
When
What
is a Verb in the Prior Past

Tense ?
Auxiliary Verb is used as the sign of
Tense?
Why is
this
See Def. 141

See Rem
See Def. 142

this
SeeObs
Tense named Prior Past ?
See Obs 2
VERBS TENSE.
129
PAGE
127.
When is a Verb in the Past Tense ?

See Def. 143.
In Regular Verbs, how is this Tense formed ?
See Obs.
In Irregular Verbs, how is this Tense formed ?
When is a Verb in the Prior Present Tense ?. .See Def. 144.
Why is this Tense named Prior Present ?
See Obs. 2.
What Auxiliary Verbs are the signs of this
Tense ?
See Obs. 1.
When is a Verb in the Present Tense ?
See Def. 145.
What Auxiliary may a Verb in this Tense have ? See Obs. 1.
How make this Tense Definite? How Indefi.
nite
When
is
When
is
See Obs.
Prior Future Tense ?.. .See Def.

Why is this Tense named Prior Future ?
What Auxiliary Verbs are used as the signs of
this Tense ?
See Obs.
a
Verb
in the
2.
146.
1.
a Verb in the Future Tense ?

See Def. 147.
128. What Auxiliary Verbs are signs of this Tense ? .See Obs.
Do the forms of Verbs always indicate distinctions of time with precision ?
See Eem.
By what means
more
can
definite
we make distinctions of time

See Rem.
Exercises.
Jg|r Let each Verb and Participle in the following Exercises be
pointed out, and its Class and Modification given.
1.
I wrote.
7.
2.
Thou
8.
Willing to be taught.
Having seen the teacher.
9.
Retire.
art reading.
3.
James may
4.
Mary can
5.
Joining the multitude.
11.
6.
Accustomed
12.
recite.
study.
Let us alone.
Permit me to pass.
Let me 2:0.
10.
to study.
13. It is pleasant to ride in a sail-boat.

14.
We are
all
foud of singing.
18.
Some are accustomed to sing by note.

The young ladies ought to have attended the
By teaching others, we improve ourselves.
Being accustomed to study, we can learn that
19.
Having been censured
15.
16.
17.
for idleness,
lecture.
lesson easily.
John has resolved
diligent.
20.
By
endeavoring
to please all,
we
fail to
please any.
to
be
130
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART II
"
Truth crushed
The
to earth, will rise again
eternal years of
God
are hers
But Error, wounded, writhes in pain,

And dies amid her worshippers."
Let the Verbs and Participles on
this
and the preceding page be
parsed according to the following
Model.
Crushed
Will
from the Verb crush;'] used here to

describe a condition of " Truth ;" hence, a Verbal
Adjective.
asserts an act of " Truth ;" hence, a Verb.
[a Participle,
is
rise
has no object; hence, Intransitive.

simply declares hence, Indicative Mode.
denotes time future hence, Future Tense.
asserts being of " years ;" hence, a Verb.
"
"
Are
lias
'
no object
hence, Intransitive.

denotes time present hence, Present Tense.
.is [a Participle, from the Verb wound;] used here
to
describe a condition of " Error ;" hence a Verbal Ad;
Wounded..
jective.
Writhes
an act of " Error ;" hence, a Verb.

,
has no object hence, Intransitive.
asserts
The surging
"
Come
Surging
billows and the gamboling storms
crouching to his
feet."
from the Verb surge;] used here to

;" hence, a Verbal Adjective.
Gamboling .is [a Participle, from the Verb gambol;] used here to
describe " storms ;" hence, a Verbal Adjective.
Come
asserts an act of " billows" and " storms ;" hence, a
is
[a Participle,
describe " billows
Verb.
has no object hence, Intransitive.
;
"
Crouching.
from the Verb crouch;] used here to

modify the act expressed by " come ;"
... (it declares the manner of coming ;) hence, an Adverb
.
.is
[a Participle,
by representation.
[See p. 159, Obs.
2.]
VERBS CONJUGATION.
" In the beginning,
Beginning.
God
131
created the heaven and the earth."
from the Verb begin;] used here as

hence, a Verbal Noun.
asserts an act of " God;" hence, a Verb.
act passes to objects (heaven and earth) Transitive.
[a Participle,
.is
the
Created
name of an event
denotes a particular time past
hence, Past Tense.
CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
Rem. "We have seen that most Verbs are varied
in form to de-
note different modes and times of action or being. They are also
varied to agree with their subjects in Person and Number.
Def. 148. The regular arrangement of the various

forms of a Verb is called its Conjugation.
The Principal Parts
of Verbs.
Def. 149. The Principal Parts of a Verb are those

Eadical forms from which the other forms are derived.
Obs.
These forms are used in the

Past Tense,
Present Tense,
Past Tense,
Present Tense,
Am,
was,
Recite,
recited,
Love,
love$,
See,
saw,
and, together with the Simple Participles, constitute the
Bases of Conjugation.
Rem.
We have seen [See Part
1.
I.,
p. 31]
That the Predicate of a Sentence must have
at least
one
Finite Verb.
2.
3.
That it may have other Words.

That in Predicates formed of more than one Word, the
Word
last
cate,
4.
i. e.,
constitutes the Principal Part of the Predi-
makes the Principal
Assertion.
That the Principal Part of a Predicate may be
A Verb. I love,I do see.

A Participle. I am loved. I have seen.
An
Adjective.
John
is
weary.
Velvet
feels smooth.
132
II
A Noun. "We are friends. He is a scholar.

& Pronoun. It is I. Thine is the kingdom.
5.
That the Words prefixed to the Principal Part are Auxiliaries, and may be Verbs only, or Yerbs and Participles.
Hence,
Obs.
1.
1.
2.
Obs.
Yerbs are conjugated

By
By
inflections of their Radicals,
and
the use of Auxiliary Yerbs.
Auxiliaries perform peculiar offices, thus,
2.
Be, with
its
various modifications,
is
used before a Past Par-
ticiple to indicate the Passive Voice.
Examples.
1.
2.
Clara was instructed.

Anna has been complimented.
Can, may, must, shall (used to command), and will (signifying

volition), indicate the Present Tense of the Potential Mode.
Could, might, should,
and would,
are the signs of the Past
Tense Potential.
Do
Bid
f-
Have
r.
Had
May have
"t
Jl
Might have
Shall
Will
Present Tense,
Indicative-intensive form. I do see.
"
Past Tense,
Prior Present Tense, Indicative.
"
Prior Past Tense,
Prior Present Tense, Potential.
"
Prior Past Tense,
'
"
I did see.
I have seen.
IAa^seen.
may have seen

I might have seen.
Future Indicative* {First Person).
I shall see.
Future Indicative* {Second or Third Person.) You will see.
I
The Future and
the Prior Future Tenses are placed in the Indicative Mode,

strict regard to unicustom of grammarians.
formity and consistency would place them with their kindred forms in the PoFor,
tential Mode.
*
in conformity to the general
The
Mode
Verb used to indicate or assert an

thing future may be predicted, but can not be declared or asserted. We may declare a purpose or make a prediction. So may
we declare the possibility of an act, or the obligation to perform an act. But
these are done by a modification of the Predicate, called Potential Mode.
In the Sentence " I shall go," we have asserted a prediction of an act.
"
"
" I may go," we have asserted a probability of an act.
"
"
" I can go," we have asserted a possibility of an act.
'k
Indicative
act, being, or state.
'
is
that form of the
Now a
" I should go," asserts obligation to perform an act.

" I might go," asserts liberty to perform an act.
" I could go," asserts power to perform an act.
Neither of the above assertions declares the performance of an act. They askt
probability, poiver, will, or obligation," but no actual event.
sert
The Potential Present and Past alike assert a present probability, prediction,
possibility, etc.. of a future act or event.
'
VEBBS CONJUGA TIOK
133
Exercises
Showing the peculiar uses of Auxiliary Verbs.

(1.)
Predicate.
Subject.
Principal.
Auxiliaries.
1
Person.
Mode.
Tense.
Voice.
am
have
been
had
been
be
been
be
been
be
been
acting.
reading.
was
shall
shall
have
may
may
have
might
might
have
studying.
singing.
talking.
fretting.
(2.)
r
admitted.
is
.
has
been
had
been
be
been
be
been
be
been
called.
was
John.
will
will
have
may
may
have
might
might
have
hated.
loved.
noticed.
punished.
Let the Pupil substitute for the Word " John" the following
and notice what changes in the various Auxiliary Verbs
must consequently be made. Thus,
requires (amhave shall shall have.)
I
"
(arthast hadst wilt mayst mightst.)
Thou
Subjects,
have.)
have.)
They
"
(are
People
"
(are
He
"
(is has will will have.)
BS
The
Hence,
practical object of the following
Paradigms
is
to teach
are the various changes in the form of the Predicate

to correspond to the Subject, and to indicate the various Modes,
the Pupil
what
Tenses, Persons, and Numbers.
134
II.
Paeadigm of the Ikeegular Verb "Be."

Verb.
Participle.
Am or be
Past. Was
Present.
being.
been.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
Singular Number.
First Person
Second
becona
"
Third
"
I
-S
Plural Number.
We are,
am.
Thou art
You are,
He
>
\
\
Ye are
You are,
'
They
is,
are.
Prior Present Tense.

1.
j
2
'
3.
We have been,
I have been,
Thou hast been,
You have been,

He has been,
Ye have been,
You have been,
They have
been.
Past Tense.
We
I was,
1.
j
Thou wast,
You was* or
He
3.
were,
were,
Ye were,
You were,
They
was,
were.
Prior Past Tense.

I
1.
\
'
He had
3.
We
had been,
Thou hadst been,

You had been,
had been,
Ye had been,
You had been,
They had been
been,
Future Tense.
I shall
1.
j
2
'
He
3.
We shall be,
be,
Thou wilt be,

You will be,
j
(
Ye will be,
You will be,
They
will be,
will be.
Prior Future Tense.

I shall have been,
Thou wilt have been,
\ You will have been,
He will have been,
1.
'
3.
We shall have been,

j
(
Ye will have been,

You will have been,
They
will
have been.
* The word you originally Plural is now used as Singular or Plural. Some
Grammarians insist that " you, though applied to a single person, requires a Plural Verb as, you were, not you was." (See Buchanan's Gr. p. 37 Brown's, p. 528.)
Other authors insist that " the Verb must follow the Nominativeif that denotes unity, so does the Verb." " Why was you glad?" (See Frazee's Grammar, p. 52 Webster's Grammar, p. 25.)
In practice, our best British and American writers disagree, as do the Gram;
marians.
IRREGULAR VERBS PARADIGM.
135
POTENTIAL MODE.
Present Tense.
Plural.
Singular.
We may be,
may be,
Thou mayst be,
You ma?/ be,
He may be,
1.
j
*
3.
Ye may be,
You mg be,
They ma?/
be.
3.
may haw been,

Thou mayst have been,
You may have been,
He may have been,
1.
I might be,
We may have been,
1.
j
(
j
'(
Ye may have been,

You may have been,
They may have been.
Past Tense.
j
2
'
He
3.
We might be,
Thou mightst be,

You might be,
Ye maÂtf be,
You m^ be,
They might
might be,
be.
Prior Past Tense.

I
1.
j
*
might have been,
Thou mightst have been,

You might have been,
He
3.
j
\
We might have been,

Ye m^ Aa^ be^/z,
You
might have been,
They might have
might have been,
been,
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
1.
(
*
3.
Ifwebe
If I be,
If thou be,
If you be,
If he be,
(
(
If ye be,
If you be,
If they be.
Past Tense.
1.
j
'
3.
If I were,
If thou wert,
If you were,
If he were,
j
.
If we were,
If ye were,
If you were,
If they were.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Present Tense,
2
Be
thou, or
Do
thou be,
Be ye,
Be you,
or
or
Do ye be,
Do you be,
INFINITIVE MODE.
Present Tense
Prior Present Tense
To
To
be.
have been.
Pakticiples.
Present
Past
Prior Present.
Being.
Been.
.Having been.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
136
II.
Formulae of Regular Verbs.

Transitive Verb
"Recite."
Active Voice.
The
Principal Parts of this Verb are

Verb.
Participle.
Present Tense
Recite
Reciting.
Past Tense
Recited
Recited.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
Simple Form.
Progressive Form.
Singular.
I
I recite,
1.
Thou
recited,
am
Thou
reciting,
art reciting,
You are reciting,

He is reciting.
3.
You recite,
He recites,
1.
We recite,
We are reciting,
Ye recite,
You recite,
Ye are reciting,
You are reciting,
They
They
Plural.
2
'
3.
recite,
are reciting.

Singular.
haw recited,
Thou hast recite,
You have recited,
I have been reciting,

Thou hast been reciting,
1.
'
3.
He
1.
We have recited,
has
You have been reciting,

He has been reciting.
recited,
Plural.
j
'
3.
Ye have recited,
You have recited,
They have
recited,
We have been reciting,

j
I
Ye have been reciting,

You have been reciting,
They
have been reciting.
137
VERBS CONJUGATION.
Past Tense.
Singular.
j
I recited,
Thou recited^,
You recite,
1.
He
3.
'
recited,
Plural.
Ye recite,
You recited,
They
3.
reciting,
,
He
was
reciting.
We were reciting,
We recite,
1.
was
Thou wast reciting

You was or were reciting,
Ye were reciting,
You were reciting,
They were
recited,
reciting.
Prior Past Tense.

Singular.
I had been reciting,

Thou hadst been reciti?ig,
} You had been reciting,
I had recited,
Thou hadst recited,
3.
You had recited,

He had recited,
1.
We had recited,
He had
Plural.
We had been reciting,

Ye had been reciting,
You 7*ad been reciting,
Ye had recited,
9 j
F You had recited,
(
They had
3.
been reciting.
They
recited,
7*ad &?#?^ reciting.
Future Tense.
Singular.
1.
I shall recite,
Thou wilt recite,

You will recite,
f;
3.
j
l
He
I shall be reciting,
j
He
will recite,
Plural,
Ye will recite,
9 j
f You will recite,
They
3.
trill
be reciting.
We shall be reciting,
We shall recite,
1.
Thou fttfft fo recitm^

You will be reciting,
Ye will be reciting,
You will be reciting,
They
will recite,
rc7Z
be reciting.
Prior Future Tense.

Singular.
I shall have been reciting,

Thou wilt have been reciting,
You will have been reciting,
He will have been reciting.
I shall have recited,
1.
j
Thou
wilt have -recited,

recited,
m7Z
will have recited,
r You
He
3.
(
te
Plural.
We shall have recited,
1.
(
3.
Ye
You
will have recited,

trill have recited,
They
will
have recited,
We shall have been reciting,

Ye will have been reciting,
You will have been reciting,
They
trill
have been reciting.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
138
II.
POTENTIAL MODE.
Present Tense.
3.
may recite,
Thou mayst recite,
You may recite,
He may recite,
1.
We may recite,
(
'
Singular.
I may be reciting,
1.
Thou mayst
be reciting,
You may be reciting,

He may be reciting.
i;
Plural.
o
3.
Ye may recite,
You may recite,
They may recite,
j
\
We may be reciting,
Ye may be reciting,
You may be reciting,
They may be reciting
Singular.
I may have been reciting,
( Thou mayst have been reciting,
( You may have been reciting,
He may have been reciting.
may have recited,

Thou mayst have recited,
You may have recited,
He may have recited,
I
1.
(
'
3.
Plural.
We may have recited,

;
Ye may have recited,

You may have recited,
They may have recited,
j
I
We may have been reciting

Ye may have been reciting,
You may have been reciting,
They may have been reciting.
Past Tense.
Singular.
I might recite,
1.
(
Thou
mightst recite
r
You might recite,

He might recite,
3.
might be reciting,
Thou mightst be reciting,

You might be reciting,
He
might
be reciting.
Plural.
We might be reciting,
We might recite,
1.
Ye might recite,
You might recite,
They might
3.
Ye might be reciting,
You might be reciting,
They might
recite,
be reciting.
Prior Past Tense.

Singular.
I might have recited,
j
(
Thou
mightst have recited,
You might have recited,

He might have recited,
might have been reciting,
Thou mightst have been reciting,

You might have been reciting,
He
might have been reciting.
Plural.
We might have been reciting,
We might have recited,

(
(
Ye might have recited,

You might have recited,
They might
have recited,
j
\
Ye might have been reciting,

You might have been reciting,
They might
have been reciting.
VERBS CONJUG A TIOK
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
1.
j
*
3.
1.
j
'
\
3.
Singular.
If I be reciting,
j If thou be reciting,
( If you be reciting,
If he be reciting.
If I recite,
If thou recite,
If you recite,
If lie recite,
Plural.
If we be reciting,
j If ye be reciting,
If we recite,
If y e recite,
If you recite,
If they recite,
If you be reciting,
If they be reciting.
Past Tense.
Singular.
1.
j
(
'6.
Though I recite,
Though thou recite,
Though you recited,
Though he recited,
j
(
Though I were reciting,

Though thou wert reciting,
Though you were reciting,
Though he were reciting.
Plural.
1.
j
2
'
3.
Though
Though
Though
Though
we
ye
recited,
recited,
you
recited,
they
j
(
recited,
Though we were reciting,

Though ye were reciting,
Though you were reciting,
Though they were reciting.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
Singular.
j
I
Recite thou, or
Bo thou
recite,
Be
~ thou
Bo
reciting, or
thou be recitm^.
Plural.
Recite ye or you, or
'\Boje ot you recite,
j
Be ye
Bo ye
reciting, or
be reciting.
INFINITIVE MODE.
Present.
To
recite,
To
be reciting.
Prior Present.
To
have recited,
To
have been reciting.
PARTICIPLES.
Present.
Recitm^.
Raving
recited,
Prior Present.
Having been
reciting.
139
140
II
Paradigm of the Verb "Love."

Passive Yoice.
Active Voice.
Iioved.
Loving
iiove.
Loved,
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
Singular.
I love,
1.
Thou lovest,
You love,
j
(
He
3.
He
loves,
Plural.
Ye love,
You love,
j
(
They
3.
loved,
is
loved
We are loved,
We love,
1.
am
Thou art loved,

You are loved,
Ye are loved,
You are loved,
|
k
They
love,
are loved.

Singular.
3.
1.
We have loved,
j
I
I have been loved,

Thou hast been loved,
You have been loved,
He has been loved.
ham
loved,
Thou hast loved,
You have loved,
He has loved,
1.
Plural.
j
(
Ye have loved,
You have loved,
They have
3.
We have been loved,

j
Ye have been loved,

You have been loved,
They have
loved,
been loved.
Past Tense.
Singular.
I loved,
1.
Thou
loved^,
3.
You loved,
He loved,
1.
We loved,
Plural.
o
j
|
Ye loved,
You loved,
They
3.
I was loved,
Thou wast loved,
You was or were loved,
He icas loved.
We were loved,
>
Ye were loved,
You were loved,
They were
loved,
loved.
Prior Past Tense.

Singular.
I
1.
(
2.
(
3.
had loved,
Thou
hadst loved,
You had loved,
He had loved,
j
(
had been loved,
Thou
hadst been loved,
You had been loved,

He had been loved.
141
VERBS- CONJUGA TION.

Plural.
2
We
We had loved,
1.
Ye had loved,
You had loved,
j
j
They Aad
3.
had been loved,
Ye had been loved,

You had been loved,
j
(
They had
loved,
been loved.
Future Tense.
Singular
I shall love,
Thou waft love,
1.
3.
You weft love,

He will love,
1.
We shall love,
I shall be loved,
wilt be loved,
You will be loved,
Thou
j
(
He
Plural.
Ye will love,
You will love,
j
(
They
3.
will be loved.
We
shall be loved,
Ye will be loved,
You will be loved,
j
I
They
will love,
will be loved.
Prior Future Tense.

Singular.
I sftW have been loved,
I shall have loved,
1.
Thou
3.
have loved,
You tc#Z have loved,
He w# have loved,
1.
We shall have loved,
j
(
araft
Thou
Plural.
o
j
(
Ye will luive loved,

You will have loved,
They
3.
wilt have been loved,
You will have been loved,

He wilt have been loved.
We
j
(
shall have been loved,
Ye will have been loved,

You will have been loved,
They
will have loved,
will have been loved.
POTENTIAL MODE.
Present Tense.
Singular.
3.
may love,
Thou mayst love,
You may love,
He may love,
1.
We may love,
j
(
j
(
Plural.
j
(
3.
Ye may love,
You may love,
They may love,
may be loved,
Thou mayst be loved,
You may be loved,
He may be loved.
1.
We may be loved
Ye may be loved,
You may be loved,
They may be loved.
;
j
(
'
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
142
II

Singular.
3.
may have loved,

Thou mayst have loved,
You may have loved,
He may have loved,
1.
We may have loved,
1.
2
'
j
(
I may have been loved,

Thou mayst have been loved,
You may have been loved,
He may have been loved.
Plural.
o
j
'
3.
Ye may have loved,

You may have loved,
They may have loved,
j
\
We may have been loved,

Ye may have been loved,
You may have been loved,
They may have been loved.
Past Tense.
Singular.
I might be loved,
j Thou mightst be loved,
( You might be loved,
He might be loved.
I might love,
1.
Thou
mighist love
3.
You might love,

He might love,
1.
We might love,
'
Plural.
j
2
'
They might
3.
We might be loved,
Ye might love,
You might love,
(
(
Ye might be loved,
You might be loved,
They might
love,
be loved.
Prior Past Tense.

Singular.
I might have loved,

j Thou mightst have loved,
23-1
( You might have loved,
He might have loved,
3.
1.
might have been loved,

mightst have been loved,
y
\ You might have been loved,
He might have been loved.
I
Thou
Plural.
2,
We might have
We might have loved,
1.
j
'
Ye might have loved,

You might have loved,
They might
3.
have loved,
j
(
been loved,
Ye might have been loved,

You might have been loved,
They might have
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
1.
(
If I love,
If thou love,
?
3.
If
you
he
love,
love,
Singular.
If I be loved,
j If thou be loved,
\ If you be loved,
If he be loved.
been loved.
VERBS CONJ TJQA TIOK
143
Plural.
If we love,
1.
j
'
3.
If ye love,
If you love,
If they love,
j
\
If we be loved,
If ye be loved,
If you be loved,
If they be loved.
Past Tense.
Singular.
1.
j
{
3.
If I loved,
If thou loved,
If you loved,
If he loved,
j
(
If I were loved,
If thou wert loved,
If you were loved,
If he were loved.
Plural.
1.
j
*
3.
If we loved,
If ye loved,
If you loved,
If they loved,
If we were loved,
If ye were loved,
If you were loved,
If they were loved.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
Singular.
Love thou, or
'{ Bo thou
love.
Be
loved, or
Bo
thou
be love*?.
Plural.
Love
ye, or
'(Bo ye
love.
Be ye
Bo ye
loved, or
be loved.
INFINITIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
To
love.
To
have loved.
To
be loved.
To
have been loved.
PARTICIPLES.
Present.
Being loved.
LoYing.
Having loved.
Prior Present.
Having been loved.
Past.
Loved.
144
II
Synopsis op the Verb " Study."

Active Yoice.
INDICATIVE MODE.
First Person.
Declarative FormNegative.
Declarative Form.
Present
I study not, or I do not study.
I study
Prior Present. I have studied
I have not studied.
Past
I studied
I studied not, or I did not study.
Prior Past
I had studied
I had not studied.
Future
I shall study
I shall not study.
Prior Future. .1 shall have studied. I shall not have studied.
,
POTENTIAL MODE.
Present
I may study
I may not study.
Prior Present. I may have studied. I may not have studied.
Past
I might study
I might not study.
Prior Past
I might 7iave studied I might not have studied.
.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present
Past
If I study not
If I studied not.
If I study
If I studied
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Second Person.
Present
"
Study, or
Bo thou study,
Study
{Do
not, or
not study.
INFINITIVE MODE.
Present
To study
Prior Present. To have studied.
.Not
.Not
to
study.
to
have studied.
PARTICIPLES.
Simple
Compound
Study ing
Having studied
Not studying, or studying

Not having studied.
not.
VERBS CONJUGA TION.
145
Synopsis of the Verb "Turn."

Active Voice.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present
Prior Present
Past
Prior Past
Future
Prior Future
Declarative Form.
I turn
I have turn^c?
I turned
I had turned
I shall turn
I shall have turned.
Interrogative Form.
Do I turn ?
Have I turned?
Did I turn ?
Had
turn^ ?
Shall I turn ?
Shall I have turned f
POTENTIAL MODE.
May I
May I
I may turn
I may have turned
I might turn
I might have turned
Present
Prior Present
Past
Prior Past
Synopsis of the
turn ?
have turned f
Might I turn ?
Might I have turn^c?.?
Verb
" Sell."
Passive Voice.
Sold.
Sell.
Sold*
Selling.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Third Person.
Interrogative FormNegative.
Is it not sold ?
Has it not been sold ?
Was it not sold ?
Had it not been sold?
be sold ?
Will it not be sold ?
have been sold ? . Will it 7i<? 7ia^ been sold?
Interrogative Form.
Is it sold ?
Present
Prior Present Has it been sold ?
Was it sold ?
Past
Had it been sold?
Prior Past
.
Future
Prior Future.
Will
it
TW
it
POTENTIAL MODE.
2%mZ Person.
May
Present
Prior Present May
.
Past
Prior Past
be sold
Jf&?/ it not be sold ?

?
have been sold?. .May it not have been sold ?
Might it ?z^ fo sold ?
Might it be sold ?
Might it fawe foe/i sold ? Might it ?w Aare faera sold ?
it
it
* The Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive

Interrogative Sentences.
Modes
are not used in
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
146
II.
Paradigm of the Irregular Verb

See,
Saw,
Seeing,
Declarative Form.
" See."
Seen,
Interrogative Form.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
SINGULAR.
j
See I
I see,
1.
Thou
seest,
3.
You see,
He sees.
1.
We see,
j
(
Seest thou ?
See you ?
Sees he ?
Plural.
j
\
They
3.
Obs.
Ye see,
You see,
j
(
see.
See we ?
See ye ?
See you ?
See they ?
The
Sentences,
above is the Simple form, which, in Interrogative

not much used, the Intensive form being commonly
Thus,
Present Tense.
is
employed.
Singular.
DÎsee?
I do see,
o j Thou dost see,
1.
3.
You do see,
He does see.
Dost thou see?-
Do you
see
Does he see
?
?
Plural.
We do see,
1.
Ye do see,
You $? see,
They
3.
do
j
1
Do we see ?
Do ye see ?
Do you see ?
D<? they see ?
see.
Singular.
3.
I have seen,
Thou Aas see^,
You have seen,
He has seen.
1.
We have seen.
1.
j
"
j
*
3.
kw
I see^ ?
Hast thou
Have you
see?i ?
see?i ?
Has he seen ?
Plural.
Ye have seen,
You have seen,
They
Have
j
see?i.
Have we see^ ?
j
(
Zfetf ye seen
Have you see?i ?

Have they seew ?
'
VERBS CONJUGATION.
Past Tense.
147
Simple Form.
Singular.
Saw I?
I saw,
1.
j
Thou
3.
You saw,
He saw.
1.
We saw,
o
'
j
(
s&west,
j
(
Saw you ?
Saw he ?
Plural.
Ye saw,
You saw,
They saw.
3.
S&west thou
Past Tense.
Saw we ?
Saw ye ?
Saw you ?
Saw they ?
Intensive Form.
Singular.
I did see,
Thou didst see,
Bid I see ?
D^tf thou
3.
You did see,

He did see.
Did you see

DZ he see ?
1.
We did see,
1.
j
(
Plural.
I
Ye did see,
You
see,
efo'rf
They
3.
see
did see.
Bid we see ?
jD2 ye see V
ZH'd you see ?
-Did! they see ?
Prior Past Tense.

Singular.
I
1.
j
'
had
Thou hadst seen,

You had seen,
He had
3.
We had seen,
j
22
Ye had seen,
You had seen,
'
They had
seeft ?
Hadst thou
seett
Had you
seen.
1.
3.
Had I
seen,
ifeZ he
seeTi ?
seeft ?
Had we
see?i ?
Plural.
I
seen.
ilad ye see ?i ?
Had you seen ?
J9M they see?i?
POTENTIAL MODE.
Present Tense.
Singular.
1.
j
'
3.
I can see,
Can
Thou
Ctettstf
c#tts see,
You can see,

He can see.
I see ?
thou see ?
Can you see ?

Can he see ?
ENGLISH QBAMMAEPABT
143
Plural.
We can see,
1.
J
'
Can we
Ye can see,
You can see,
They can
3.
II.
(7an
see
ye see
?
?
Can you see ?

Cto they see ?
see.

Singular.
1
i;
can have seen,
Thou
3.
canst have seen,

You can have seen,
He can have seen.
1.
We
j
\
Can I have seen ?

Canst thou 7ia^ seen \
Can you 7^^ seen ?
(7an he 7iaw seen ?
Plural.
3.
can have seen,

Ye can have seen,
You can have seen,
They can have seen.
C^?i
j
j
we
have seen
Can ye have seen ?

(7a n you 7i6we seen ?
Can they 7*az^ seen ?
Past Tense.
Singular.
1.
I could see,
Thou couldst see,
3.
You confcZ see,

He could see.
1.
We could see,
'
(
'
Could I see ?
Couldst thou see
CWo* you
see
Could he see ?
Plural.
Could we see ?
Could ye see ?
Ye could see,
You could see,
They
3.
CW&Z you
see ?
Cbwfc? they see ?
could see.
Prior Past Tense.

Singular.
Could I have seen?

k6 seen
CWo* you have seen ?
(7<?n&Z he have seen ?
I could have seen,
Thou
Couldst thou
couldst have seen,

ccnZo* have seen,
You
He c<?n/a*
j
'
3.
seeî.
We could have seen,
1.
7*aw
Ye could have seen,

You could have seen,
They
'
could have seen.
Plural.
j
(
OnZo* we have seen ?

Could ye 7m^ seen ?
Could you Aa^ seen ?
CawZo* they 7mw6 seen?
Let the Pupil give the other Modes and Tenses of
this
-referring to pp. 142-3 for corresponding declarative forms.
Verl
VERBS EXERCISES.
149
Exercises.
(i.)
Let the Pupils give the Class, Voice, Mode, Tense, Person, and
Number of the following Verbs and complete the Sentences
:
am writing a
couldst love to study.
are reading poetry.
has walked to Boston.
didst see the eclipse.
hast w andered from home.
had known duty.
shall learn wisdom.
may the worm.
will improve in writing.
ought to study.
could recite lessons.
7. couldst have favored him.
canst be false to any man.
thou love me.
wish to see home.
have returned my books.
shall have returned from Europe.
1.
letter,
2.
10.
3.
11.
4.
12.
5.
feel
13.
6.
14.
8.
16.
15.
17.
ilt
18.
(n.)
Repeat the First Person Singular of each Mode and Tense of

the following Verbs
Am,
Eat,
Neglect,
Receive,
Arise,
Fly,
Need,
Reject,
Begin,
Go,
Hold,
Owe,
Select,
Ought,
Squander,
Yoke,
Touch,
Blow,
Come,
Know,
Practice,
Cut,
Lay,
Purchase,
Do,
Lie,
Quiet,
Use,
Drink,
Make.
Qualify,
Wish.
Repeat the Third Person Plural of the same.

(ni.)
Let the appropriate Auxiliary Verbs be inserted in the blank

spaces indicated.
Now
1.
"
2.
"
3.
in flames."
heart encrusted with the world."
" Everything in the life of such persons
misplaced."
" Science
raise thee to eminence."
" But I alone
guide thee to felicity."
4.
5.
6.
7.
the shades of night
The bell's deep tones

" The palace
wrapped
"
How
my
8.
"
Ten years
9.
"
10.
gone."
swelling."
allot to the
attainment of knowledge."
vengeance thou
" The injuries of Fortune
not
chieftain's
feel."
affect the
mind."
ENGLISH GRAMMARPAET
150
II
(iv.)
Let two Auxiliary Verbs be inserted in the following Sentences

1.
John
2.
We
3.
4.
5.
The
earth
we
The boy
No
reconciled
thought
9.
10.
dissolved like snow.
How
Who
8.
7.
to the river.
finished our task at five.
You
He
You
6.
gone
not
it ?
fatigued.
not
frightened.
brought my letters.
been injured by
made
doctor
that
it.
man
well.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Eem.
Verbs
The following are
the
Irregular and
the
Kedtjndant
of the English language.
Present.
Fast.
Abide
Present. Participle.
Past Participle.
abiding
abode or abided.*
Am or be
abode,
was,
being
been.
Arise
arose,
arising
arisen.
awaking
awoke
bearing
born.
Awake.
.....
.awoke or awaked,
Bear
bore or bare,
Bear, to sus.
tain
bore or bare,
bearing
borne,
beat,
beating
began or begun,
beginning
beholding
beaten or beat.
begun.
Beat
Begin
Behold
Belay
beheld,
belayed or belaid,
bent or bended,
bereft or bereaved,
Bend
Bereave
Beset
Beseech
..beset,
Bid
bet or betted,
betided or betid,*
bade or bid,
Bind
bound,
Bite
bit,
Bleed
Blend
bled,
Betide
Blow
Break
Breed
Bring
.'.
blended or blent,
.blessed or blest,
blew or bio wed,
broke,
bred,
brought,
*
beheld.
bereaving
belayed or belaid.
bent or bended.
bereft or bereaved.
besetting
beset.
belaying
bending
besought or beseechecL,* beseeching
Bet
Bless
or awaked.
betting
betiding
bidding
binding
besought or beseeched.*
bet or betted.*
betided or betid.
bidden or bid.
bound.
biting
bleeding
bled.
blending
blended or blent.
bitten or bit.
blessing
blessed or blest.
blowing
breaking
breeding
blowed or blown.
broken.
bringing
brought.
Obsolete forms.
breed.
VERBSIRREG ULAB.
Present.
Present Participle.
Past.
151
Past Participle.
Build
built or builded,*
building
built or builded.*
Burn
burned or burnt,
burning
burned or burnt.
Burst
burst or bursted,*
bought,
bursting
burst or bursted.*
bought.
Buy
Cast
Catch
Chide
cast,
caught or catched,*
chid,
Choose
chose.
clove or
buying
casting
catching
chiding
choosing
cast.
caught or catched.*
chidden or chid.
chosen.
cloven or
Cleave
Cleave
Cling
Clothe
clung,
clothed or clad,
cleaving
cleaving
clinging
clothing
Come
came,
coming
come,
Cost
Creep
cost,
costing
creeping
cost.
cleft,
cleaved or clave,
crept or creeped,*
crowed or crew,
Crow
crowing
Dig
dug or digged,*
Dive
dived or dove,
cursing
cutting
daring
dealing
digging
diving
Do
did,
doing
Draw
Dream
drew,
dreamed or dreamt,
drawing
dreaming
Curse
Cut
cursed or curst,*
Dare
dared or durst,
Deal..
cut,
dealt or dealed,*
cleft,
cleaved.
clung.
clothed or clad.
crept or creeped.*
crowed.
cursed or curst.*
cut.
dared or durst.
dealt or dealed.*
dug or digged.*
dived or diven.
done.
drawn.
dreamed or dreamt.
dressed or drest.
drunk or drank.
dressing
drinking
Dwell
Eat
dressed or drest,
drank,
drove,
dwelt or dwelled,*
ate or eat,*
driving
dwelling
eating
dwelt or dwelled.*
eaten or eat.*
Fall
fell,
falling
fallen.
Feed
fed,
feeding
fed.
Feel
Fight
felt,
feeling
felt.
.fought,
fighting
fought.
Find
found,
finding
found.
Flee
Fling
fled,
fleeing
fled.
flung,
flinging
flung.
flew,
flying
forbore,
forbearing
forgot or forgat,
forsook,
froze or freezed,*
forgetting
flown.
forborne.
forgotten or forgot.
forsaken.
frozen or freezed.*
gelded or gelt.*
got or gotten.*
Dress
Drink
Drive
Fly
Forbear
Forget
Forsake
Freeze
Geld
Get
Gild
Girt
Give
Go
Grave
Grind
Grow
gelded or gelt,*
got or gat.*
gilded or gilt,
girded or girt,
âve,
went,
graved,
ground,
grew,
forsaking
freezing
gelding
getting
gilding
girding
giving
going
graving
grinding
growing
driven.
gilded or gilt.
girded or girt.
given.
gone.
graved or graven.
ground.
grown.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
152
Past.
Present.
Hang..
Have
Hear
Heave
hung or hanged,
had,
heard,
heaved or hove,*
Hew
...hewed,
Hide
hid,
II.
Present Participle.
Past Participle.
hanging
having
hung or hanged.
had.
hearing
heaving
heard.
hiding
heaved or hoven.*
hewed or hewn.
hidden or hid.
hewing
Hit
hit,
hitting
hit.
Hold
Hurt
held,
held or holden.*
hurt,
holding
hurting
Keep
kept,
keeping
kept.
Kneel
Knit
kneeled or knelt,
kneeling
kneeled or knelt.
knit or knitted,
knitting
knit or knitted.
Know
knew,
knowing
known.
Lade
Lay
Lead
Lean
Leap
laded,
Learn
Leave
left,
Lend
lent,
lading
laying
leading
leaning
leaping
learning
leaving
lending
Let
Lie
Light
let,
letting
Lose
lost,
Make
Mean
made,
laid or layed,
led,
leaned or leant,
leaped or leapt,
learned or learnt,
hurt.
laded or laden.
laid or layed.*
led.
.'.
leaned or leant.
.leaped or leapt.
learned or learnt.
left.
lent.
let.
lying
lain.
lighting
losing
lighted or
lost.
meant or meaned,*
making
meaning
meant or meaned.*
Meet
met,
meeting
met.
Mow
mowed,
mowing
mowed
Mulct
Outdo
Pass
mulcted or mulct,*
mulcting
outdoing
passing
paying
penning
pleading
proving
putting
mulcted or mulct.*
Pay
Pen
Plead
Prove
Put
Quit
Pap
Read
Rend
lay,
lighted or
lit,
outdid,
passed or past,
paid or payed,*
.penned or pent,*
pled or pleaded.
proved,
put,
quitted or quit,
rapped or rapt,
read,
rent,
quitting
rapping
reading
rending
ridding
Rid
Ride
Ring
rid,
Rise
rose,
Rive
Roast
Rot
rived,
Run
Saw
ran or run.
sawed,
running
sawing
Say
said,
saying
rode,
rung or rang,
roasted or roast,
rotted,
riding
ringing
rising
riving
roasting
rotting
lit.
made.
or
mown.
outdone.
passed or past.
paid or payed.*
penned or pent.*
pled or pleaded.
proved or proven.
put.
quitted or quit.
rapped or rapt.
read.
rent.
rid.
rode or ridden.
rung.
risen.
riven or rived.
roasted or roast.
rotten or rotted.
run.
sawn or sawed.
said.
VEBBSIBBEG TJLAB.
Present.
See
Past.
Seek
seeing
seeking
Sell
sold,
selling.
..sent,
Past Participle,
Present Participle.
saw,
sought,
Send
153
seen.
sought.
....sold.
sending
sent.
Set
set,
setting
set.
Shake
Shape
Shave
shook or shaked,*
shaking
shaping
shaving
shaken or shaked.*
shaped or shapen.
shaved or shaven.
shedding
shed.
Shine
shaped,
shaved,
sheared,
shed,
shone or shined,
shining
shined or shone.
Shear
Shed
shearing
sheared or shorn.
Show
showed,
showing
showed or shown.
Shoe
Shoot
Shred
Shrink
Shut
Sing
Sink
shod,
shod.
shrunk,
shoeing
shooting
shredding
shrinking
shut,
shutting.
shut.
sung or sang,
sunk or sank,
singing.
sung.
sinking
Sit
sat,
sitting
sat.
Slay
Sleep
slew,
slain.
Slide
slid,
Sling
slung,
shot,
shred,
Slink
slunk,
slaying
sleeping
sliding
slinging
slinking
Slit..
slitted or slit,
slitting
Smell
Smite
smelled or smelt,
smote,
sowed,
spoke or spake,
smelling
smiting
Sow
Speak
Speed
Spell
slept,
.sped,
spelled or spelt,
shot.
shred.
shrunk.
...
sunk.
slept.
slidden or slid.
slung.
slunk.
slitted or slit.
smelled or smelt.
smitten or smit.
sowed or sown.
sowing
speaking
speeding
spoken.
spelling
spelled or spelt.
spent.
sped.
Spend
spent,
spending
Spill
spilled or spilt,
spilling
spilled or spilt.
Spin
spinning
spun.
Spit
spun,
spit or spat,*
spitting
spit.
Split
split,
splitting
split.
Spoil
spoiled or spoilt,
spread,
spoiling ....
spoiled or spoilt.
spread.
sprung.
stood.
stove or staved.
staid or stayed.*
Spread
Spring
Stand
Stave
Stay
stood,
stove or staved,
staid or stayed,*
spreading
springing
standing
staving
staying
Steal
stole,
stealing
stolen.
Stick
stuck,
stuck.
Sting
Stink
stung,
sprung or sprang,
String
strung or stringed,
sticking
stinging
stinking
striding
striking
stringing
Strive
strove,
striving
stunk or stank,*
Stride
strode or strid,
Strike
struck,
stung.
stunk.
stridden.
....
struck or stricken.
strung or stringed.
striven.
ENGLISH GBAMMABPABT
154
Past Participle.
Present Participle.
Past.
Present.
II
strowing
swearing
sweating
strowed or strown.
sworn.
sweated or sweat.
swept,
sweeping
Swell
swelled,
swelling
swept.
swelled or swollen.
Swim
swam,
swimming
swam.
Swing
Take
Teach
swung,
swinging
swung.
took,
taught,
taking
teaching
taken.
taught.
Strow
Swear
Sweat
strowed,
swore,
Sweep
sweated or sweat
Tear
tore,
tearing
torn.
Tell
told,
telling
told.
Think
thought,
thrived or throve,
threw or thro wed,
thinking
throwing
thought.
thrived or thriven.
thrown or throwed,
thrusting
treading
trodden or trod.
Thrive
Throw
Thrust
Tread
thrust,
thriving
trod,
Wake
waked
Wax
waxed,
waxing
Wear
Weave
wore,
wove,
wearing
weaving
Wed
wedded
Weep
Wet
Whet
Win
wept,
waking
or woke,
or wed,
Work
whetted or whet,
won,
wound or winded,*
worked or wrought,
Wring
wrung
Wind
Write
Obs.
before
2.
A Yerb often
it;
woven or wove.
wedded or wed.
whetted or whet.
writing
Words in the above

used by modern writers.
Obs.
much
or waxen.
worn.
wept.
wrote,
1.
or woke.
wetting
whetting
winning
winding
working
wringing
or wringed,
waked
waxed
wedding
weeping
'
wet or wetted,
thrust.
list,
wet or wetted.
..won.
wound
or winded.
worked
or wrought.
wringed or wrung.
written or writ.
marked with
(*),
are not
has a Preposition or other prefix placed
the conjugation, however, remains the same.
Examples.
Take
.Mistake
took
mistook
Overtake
overtook
overtaken.
Misunderstand
misunderstood
misunderstood.
taken.
mistaken.
Rem. The class should repeat this list in concert prefixing to

each Yerb one of the Personal Pronouns. For the Third Person
a Noun may be used thus
I have written
John does
John did
you have trod

he has swept
John has done
Men
men
I write
You tread
He sweeps
sit
Some hear
They see
wrote
you trod
he swept
sat
...
some heard
they saw
men have
sat
some have heard

they are seen
having written.
having trod.
having swept.
having done.
having sat.
having heard.
being seen.
VERBS IRREGULAR.
To
the Transitive Verbs, Objects
We saw
wood
Birds build nests

John wiites letters
Thou
seest
me
may
155
be attached
thus
we pawed wood
we have sawn wood.
birds built uests
birds have built nests.

will write letters.
thou wilt see me.
John wrote
letters
thou sawest
me
John
Other variations in these concert exercises may be profitable

such as placing the words now, to-day, etc., after the Present yesterday, etc., after the Fast Tense
and heretofore, recently, etc., after
the Prior Present thus
began yesterday
I begin to-day
The wind blows now

The bell rings often
the wind blew then

the bell rang lately
William writes
now
have begun recently.
the wind has blown often.

the bell will ring to-morrow.
William will write often.
William wrote then
Unipersoâl Verbs.
Def. 150.
A Unipersonal Verb
as the Predicate of the Indefinite
is a Verb used only

Pronoun "it?
Examples.It snows. It rains.It seems.It becomes.It behooves.It
is
evident.
Methinks
is
an anomalous form of the Yerb think.
Exercises for Review.
Rem.Let
Number
the Pupil give the Voice, Mode, Tense, Person, and

of the Verbs in the following Sentences
:
Science strengthens mind.
20.
Thou canst not have been understood.
2.
Do you
21.
Sevastopol could
see the large ship traversing
the ocean by the force of the

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
wind ?
William has visited Europe.
22.
Have we exercised discretion ?

I, John, saw these things.
Did Washington secure, renown
Ye had accomplished purposes.
23.
24.
?
11.
understand you.
Will Warner study Greek ?
Thou wilt not comprehend it.
Ye will have accomplished much.
12.
We may receive instruction.
8.
9.
10.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
I shall
Canst thou guide Arcturus ?

Shall William accompany us ?
I will study Greek.
They are not appreciated.
Could it not be accomplished ?
Mary might have been misinformed.
Wisdom should be honored.
not
have
been
taken.
25.
26.
27.
Meteors might have been seen.

What should have been done f
Who can be trusted?
Have you been reading poetry ?
Cora will be writing letters.
Stephen could not have been giving
attention.
28.
29.
30.
31.
Might Clara have been admitted f

Boys had been reciting lessons.
e will not be enslaved.

Pupils might not have been giving
attention.
Caroline will have visited Syria.

33. Hear me for my cause.
34. Be silent, that ye may hear.
35. Bid her give me new and glorious
hope*.
32.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
156
II.
ADVERBS.
Rem. As actions are modified by circumstances, and as qualities

vary in degree, so words expressing actions, and words denoting
qualities, are modified by other words, denoting time, place, degree,
mangier, cause, &c. Hence,
Def. 150. An Adverb is a Word used to modify

the signification of a Verb, of an Adjective, or of another
Modifier.
Obs.
1.
Adverbs may consist of Words, Phrases, and Sentences.

Examples.
men
1.
Adverbial Words. The very best
2.
Adverbial Phrase." In the beginning,
sometimes commit faults.
God
created the heaven and the
earth."
3.
Adverbial
Sentence.'"''
They kneeled
before they fought."
Obs. 2. Adverbial Words are of great utility in rendering the

language concise and spirited. They are commonly substituted for
Phrases.
Examples.
11
Brilliantly"
" Solemnly"
"Vainly"
"Here
11
"Now"
1.
2.
3.
" With a brilliant appearance."

" In a solemn manner."
for ..." In a vain attempt."
for
for
for
"In
this place."
for
"At
this time."
" Brilliantly the glassy waters mirror back his smiles."
" Solemnly he took the earthly state."

" Vainly we offer each ample oblation."
5.
" Here sleeps he now" in this place, at this time.

" The waves are white below" below him.
6.
" Heat
7.
" Willie has come
4.
Eem.
me
these irons hot."
early hour.
" Below" " me" " home" and
for Adverbial Phrases.
Obs.
Heat for me these irons hot.
home early" at an
3.
[See Part
I.,
pp. 23
" early," are substituted
and
173.]
Words are also substituted for Adverbial Sentences.
Examples. 1.
" While there,
we
visited the prison ;" for, while
Auburn, we visited the prison.

2.
" Then,
when
lam
thy captive, talk of chains."
we were
at
ADVERBSCLASSES.
Obs.
4.
An Adverb often modifies a Phrase.
Example.We went
"
To Boston"
Wordused
Obs.
5.
157
to
almost to Boston.
an Adverbial Phrase. " Almost" is an Adverbial

modify the Adverbial Phrase " To Boston."
is
The Words which
Adverbs properly modify are some-
times understood.
Example. Thou canst but add one
To
Obs. 6.
modify.
those
bitter
woe
already there
which are
there.
Adverbs sometimes take the place of Yerbs, which they
Examples."
" To arms!"
Off, off, I bid you."
" Back to thy punishment, false fugitive 1"
Obs.
7.
Words
generally used as Adverbs sometimes take the
place of Nouns, and hence
become P?^nouns.
Examples. 1. " Till then" for,

2.
3.
4.
till
that time.
"From there"for, from that place.

" And I have made a pilgrimage from far."Hosmer.
" Oh, let the ungentle spirit learn from hence
small unkindness is a great offense.
1 '
Obs. 8. Participles become Adverbs when they indicate the manner of an action, or modify a quality, or are substituted for an Adverbial Phrase.
Examples.1. "
2.
3.
Obs.
9.
'Tis strange,
"A virtuous
"'tis
passing strange."
household, but exceeding poor."
" The surging billows and the gamboling storms

Come, crouching, to his feet."
in a crouching attitude.
[P. 183, Obs. 9.]
A few Words, commonly used as Prepositions, are some-
times used Adverbially.
Examples.1. " Thou didst look down upon the naked

2. " And may at last my weary age
earth."
Find out the peaceful hermitage."Milton.
Classification of Adverbs.
Rem.
The classes of Adverbs are very numerous.
ing are the most important
The
follow-
ENGLISH GBAMMARPABT
158
I.
II.
Of the Forms of Adverbs.
Ors. 10. Some Words are used almost exclusively as Adverbs,

and are generally Primitive Words.
Examples.Evenherenownot thenthere.
Obs.
But most Words used as Adverbs are DerimtiveWords
11.
their Radicals being used
commonly
as
Nouns or
as Adjectives.
Examples.1. From ]ouns. Always nigh tly hourly aloft ashore.

2. From Adjectives. Brilliant??/ rightly softly virtuous^/.
Obs.
12.
Many
Prepositions,
etc.,
Examples. 1.
Words, commonly used as Nouns, Adjectives,

become Adverbs by representation or substitution.
" William rises early"
You have come
at an early hour.
2.
"
3.
" Warner will come
4.
"He
5.
" The captain had gone below r
6.
" Is the agent within
will return
too late" at too late a day.
home" to
the house.
2.]
Of the Functions of Adverrs.
II.
Prin.
below deck.
f" within
[Seepage^, Ohs.
mary
his home.
to-morrow" on the morrow.
Adverbs
are
commonly divided
into two pri-
classes
1.
2.
Adverbs of Manner, and

Adverbs of Circumstance.
Adverbs of Manner
How ?
Def. 151.
are
those which
ask or answer the question,
Adverbs of Manner are such as indicate

Aycertainlydoubtlesssurelyverily,
Doubt. Perchance perhaps possibly,
Mode. Aloud asunderhow so together thus,
Negation. Naynotnever.
Ors. Phrases and Sentences often indicate the manner of an
Ors.
1.
1.
etc.
Affirmation.
etc.
2.
etc.
3.
4.
2.
act,
and are therefore Adverbials.

Examples.
Phrases.
1.
2.
"
God moves
in a mysterious way."
How?
" Silence now

Is brooding like a gentle spirit o'er
The still and pulseless world."
How ?
AD VERBS CLASSES.
"He
Sentences.S.
died as he lived & devotee of
159
mammon."
" There are departed beiDgs that I have loved as

shall love in this world."
How ?
4.
never again
Def. 152. Adverbs of Circumstance are such as

ask or answer the questions, When? Where? Whither?
Whence ? How much? Why? indicating Time, Place,
Degree, Cause.
I.
Def. 153.
All
Of Time.
Words used
to ash
"When?" or ",Hozo
Adverbs of Time.
questions,
called
answer the
or to
are
often?"
Examples. 1. Preset.Instantly now presently yet,
properly
etc.
2.
Past. Already heretoforehithertolately.
3.
4.
Future. Henceforthhereafter soon,

Absolute.Always ever never, etc.
5.
Repeated. Continually often rarely sometimes.
etc.
Phrases and Sentences also perform the

of Adwhenever they ask or answer the questions, when
how often?how long?
Obs.
1.
office
verbs of Time,
Examples.
Phrases.1. " In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth."
3.
Sentences.
The Christmas rose is in bloom during the month of January"

How long ?
" At midnight, in his guarded tent,
The Turk was dreaming."
dreaming when f where ?
lJ
And as Jesus passed by, he saw a man who was blind"
saw
a blind man when?
" I think of the friends who had roamed with me there,
When the sky was so blue, and the flowers were so fair.",,,,
roamed with me when f
"
2.
4.
5.
II.
Of Place.
Def. 154. All Words used to ash or to answer the

Where? Whither? or Whence? are classed as
Adverbs of Place.
questions,
Examples.1. In a Place.Herethere where

2.
3.
etc.
To a Place.Hither thitherwhither ? etc.

From a Place. Hence-thencewhence ? etc.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
160
Obs.
1.
II.
Most Adverbs of Place are in the form of Phrases.

fin the cars,
Examples.Mary went
from Rochester,
through New York,
to Norfolk,
{via Baltimore.
Obs.
2.
And many Adverbs of Place are in the form of Sentences
Example.
" Where wealth and freedom reign, contentment fails."

Of Degree.
III.
"Words which
Def. 155.
Hoiv much ?
Hotv far
ask or answer the questions,

To what extent ? are classed as
Adverbs of Degree.
Examples. Altogether hardly
little
muchquitemerely so too-
very, etc.
Of
IV.
Def. 156.
Words
Why?
tions,
Causij.
used to ask or to answer the ques-
Wherefore?
etc.,
Adverbs
are classed as
of Cause.
Examples.Accordingly consequentlyhence therefore wherefore,- etc.
" Let others brave the flood in quest of gain."
V. Interrogatives.
Def. 157.
Adverbs
used to ask questions are called
Interrogative Adverbs.
Examples.
Obs.
Where have you been 1How can we escape
Interrogative
Adverbs are found in each of the above
classes.
Modification of Adverbs.
Prin".
Some Adverbs
Comparison.
are modified, like Adjectives, by
Examples.
Pos.
1.
2.
By use of Suffixes
"
"
Soon
Auxiliary Adverbs. ..,. Wisely
Comp.
Sooner
More wisely.
Superl,
Soonest
Most wisely.
AD VERBS CLASSES.
161
Kecapitulatiok.
f
A Word.
of
Manner
Affirmation.
Doubt.
Mode, or
Method.
\
|
An Adverbial Element
may consist of
A Phrase.
-Classes.
Negation.
{Time.
Place
Decree.
Cause.
A Sentence.
What is an Adverb ?
See
The Adverbial Element may consist of what ?.. .See
Make a Sentence having an Adverbial Word.
Def. 150.
Obs.
1.
See Obs.
See Obs.
2.
See Obs.
4.
phrase.
Sentence.
What
effect
Adverbial
What
have Adverbial Words on
Words
Class of Elements do Adverbial
often modify
Words
what
3.
Words
generally used as Adverbs are often sub-
stituted for
When
style
are often substituted for
what ?
do Participles become Adverbs
See Obs. 7.
See Obs. 8.
See Obs. 10, 11.
What is said of the Forms of Adverbial Words ?

What is said of Adverbial Words by representation
See Obs.
What are the two General Classes of Adverbs ?. See

See
What is an Adverb of Manner ?
See
What Sub-classes of Adverbs of Manner ?
Make a Sentence having an Adverb of Affirmation.
.
"
"
"
"
Doubt.
"
"
"
"
Manner.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Obs.
1.
See Def. 152.

See Def. 153.
a Sentence having an Adverb of Time.

"
"
a Phrase Adverb of Time.
"
What
Def. 151.
"
Negation.
a Phrase Adverb of Manner.
a Sentence Adverb of Manner.
What is an Adverb of Circumstance ?

What Sub-classes have Adverbs of Circumstance ?
What is an Adverb of Time ?
Make
12.
Prin.
"
is
an
Adverb
l<
a Sentence
of Place
Adverb of Time.
See Def. 154.
162
II
PAGE
159.
Make
a Sentence having a
"
"
"
Word Adverb
of Place.
Adverb of Place.
"
"
a Sentence Adverb of Place.
See Def.
What is an Adverb of Degree ?
Make a Sentence having a Word Adverb of Degree.
"
u
"
a Phrase Adverb of Degree.
"
"
"
a Sentence Adverb of Degree.
What is an Adverb of Cause ?
See Def.
Make a Sentence having a Word Adverb of Cause.
"
"
"
a Phrase Adverb of Cause.
"
"
"
a Sentence Adverb of Cause.
a Phrase
t(
160.
What
Make
"
an Interrogative
is
Adverb ?
156.
157.
See Def. 158.
a Sentence having an Interrogative

a
a
Adverb of Manner.
u
Time
Place.
"
"
"
"
"
Degree.
Cause.
In what respects are some Adverbs modified
Exercises.
OP Let the following Adverbs be classified
and
their Modifica-
tion given
How,
In a moment,
In flower,
Already,
Quickly,
Not,
There,
Soon.
Vilely,
O'er the ruins,
Eagerly.
At home.
KIP Let the Adverbial Words, Phrases, and Sentences, in the

following Examples, be pointed out and parsed after the following
Model.
1.
" E'en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend,

I sit me down, a pensive hour to spend ;
And placed on high, above the storm? s career,
Look downward, where a hundred realms appear"
Now
Modifies " sit"
^dasiscenV.^"
Down
Modifiesi "
Ve h Ur t0
spend
denoting
Modifies " sit" denoting place
hence, an Adverb.
hence, an Adverb.
M difies " sit ' denoting cause hence, an Adverb.

Modifies " placed' denoting place hence, an Adverb.
(-Modifies " placed denoting place; hence, an Adverb.
Modifies " look denoting place ; hence, an Adverb.
1
On high
time
sit" denoting place; hence, an Adverb.
16 St
rmS
Career*
Downward
11
11
Mo difies
êdnis^peai-
"look 11 -denoting place; hence, an Adverb.
163
PREPOSITIONS.
" Earth keeps
2.
Awhile
yet I shall leave
On fairer wings than
it,
me
and
here
phall rise
thine, to skies
more clear.'
''
Modifies " keeps

denoting place ; hence, an Adverb of Place.
Modifies " keeps 11 denoting time ; hence, an Adverb of Time.
11
Modifies " rise
denoting means ; hence, an Adverb of Means.
(" On fairer wings than thine, 11 is the Modified Adverb.)
11
Than thine.. Modifies " fairer
denoting degree ; hence, an Adverb of Degree.
To skies
Modifies " rise 11 denoting place ; hence, an Adverb of Place.
(" To skies more clear, 11 is the Modified Adverb.)
More
Modifies " clear 11 denoting degree ; hence, an Adverb of Degree.
Here
Awhile
On wings
1 '
Obs.
1.
Let
it
be remembered that the term
"
Adverb"
plied to a distinct element in the structure of Sentences
is
ap-
that
the
function of that element may be performed by a single Word or by
a combination of Words, constituting a Phrase or a Sentence. In
analyzing Sentences containing these three distinct forms of the
Adverbial Element,
Obs.
have
proceed according to the
Models given
2.
The
Words composing an Adverbial Phrase or Sentence

Thus, the Adverbial
also their distinct individual offices.
Phrase, "
Above
an Adjective,
So
we
But,
above.
the storm's career," consists of & Preposition, (above)

an Adjective, (storm's) a Noun, (career).
(the)
also the Adverbial Sentence,
Where
pear," consists of a Conjunction, (where)

jective,
(hundred)
a hundred realms ap-
an Adjective, an Ad(a)
a Noun, (realms) and a Verb, (appear).
Hence,
Obs. 3. In Proximate Analysis, it is sufficient to discuss the Elements of Principal Sentences ; while, in Ultimate Analysis, each
separate Word composing an Element is to be parsed separately.
PREPOSITIONS.
Remark.
In the
English language, two or more
Words
often
an individual Element [See Def. 8] in the

These combinations are generally introstructure of Sentences.
duced by Words used to show some relation of the words which
follow to some preceding words. Hence,
combine
to constitute
Def. 159. A Preposition is a Word used to introduce a Phrase, showing the relation of its Object to the
Word which the Phrase qualifies.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
164
Obs. A
Preposition
a Sentence.
1.
2.
To
To
is
Its office is
generally an Element in a Phrase
not in
introduce a Phrase,
indicate the office of its Phrase,
lation of the words connected.
The following Words

sitions
II.
by showing a
peculiar re-
are sometimes or generally used as Prepo-
LIST.
(a.)
"Wild winds and mad waves
Abaft
" The ropes were coiled abaft the

" They came aboard ship.''''
Aboard
About
Above
about town."
" There is a ferry above the falls."
" Across the ocean came a pilgrim bark."
Adown
'"He let fall adown his silvery beard some tears."

"I took position afore the windlass."
"He that cometh after me, is preferred before me."
" He that is not for me, is against me"
'.." Winds that run along the summits of their hills."
" We stowed them amidships."
"Amidst the mists, he thrusts his fists."
Afore
After
Against
Along
Amid
Amidst
"He became a great favorite among the boys."

" We made diligent search amongst the rubbish."
" The last measure of misery anear us is seldom seen."
" The chill dews of evening were falling around me."
" That England can spare from her service such, men as him."
"It struck aslant the beam.''''
" He sat astride the beam."
Among
Amongst
An ear
(c.)
Around
As
Aslant
Astride
"He was
At
Athwart
(c.)
Before
Behind.
"
Beside
Besides
Between
Betwixt
Beyond
But
(c.)
" The captain was below decks."

" Beneath the mouldering ruins."
" Beside its embers, red and clear." (By the side of.)
" There was a famine in the land, besides the first famine"
(In addition to.)
" Between ivhom,, perfect friendship has existed."
" There is no difference betwixt tJiem."
" Beyond all doubt." " He lives beyond the lake."
" All went but me."
"To sail by Ephesus."" They stood by the cross"

Concerning.." Concerning ivhom I have before written."
"
Despite
He will rise to fame, despite all opposition."
" This has occurred many times during the year."
During
"
Ere
And ere another evening's close."
" Except the*e bonds."
Except
Excepting.. " Excepting that bad habit, the teacher was faultless."
For.
" For me your tributary stores combine."
By
(c.)
at work at noon."
The dolphin leaped athwart her bows."
" He stood before the people."

" She stood behind a rick of barley."
Below
Beneath
(c.)
wreck"
beamy
JtWe_ walked
Across
(c.)
drive the vessel a
"
"
165
PREPOSITIONS.
LIST.
" Playful children, just let loose
From
(a.)
from
school."
11
.."In dread, in danger, and alone.
In
Into
" Into these glassy eyes put light."

" An hour like this may well display the emptiness of
human grandeur.
" This, mauger all the world, will I keep safe.
"His residence is near the church."
" Plural nominatives should be placed next their verbs"
" Come not nigh me"
Like
1 '
1 '
Mauger.
(ad.)
Near
Next
Nigh
Notwithstanding. ."Notwithstanding
(ad.)
Off
On
(a.)
this,
we remain
friends.
" Of the arts of -peace."

" He fell off the bows."
" On a bed of green sea-flowers.
" Our friend lives opposite the Exchange."
" High o'er their heads the weapons swung."
Of
Opposite
Over
Past
Pending
Per
Respecting
"
We came past
(c.)
Since
Avon."
remained at court, pending the negotiations."
"Twelve hundred dollars per annum."
" Nothing was known respecting him."
"He went round the parish, making complaints."
" Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything."
" Since Saturday he has not been seen. 11
(a.)
Save
Saving
" All, save this little nook of land."

" With habits commendable, saving only this he chews
(c.)
Than
" Than whom none higher sat."

"He labored hard till noon."
" We purpose to go to Rochester to-day."
" Touching these things, whereof I am accused."
"They returned towards evening ."
" Then they went under the cloud."
" And underneath his feet, he cast the darkness."
" Unlike all that I had ever before seen."
" We shall not return until Saturday."
" Unto him who rules the invisible armies of eternity."
" The whole fleet was sailing up the river."
(a.)
(a.)
(a.)
(a.)
"He
Round
Sans
tobacco.
Till
To
(a.)
Touching
Towards
Under
Underneath
Unlike
(c.)
Until
Unto
Up
Upon
"He stood upon the highest peak."

" John Doe versus Richard Roe."
" This stage is for Buffalo, via Batavia."
" With cautious steps and slow."
" Peace be within these walls."
" Without it, what is man ?"
Versus
Via
With
Within
Without
Rem.
11
Words marked
(a.)
are also used as Adjectives.
Words marked (c.) are also used as Conjunctions.

Words marked (ad.) are also used as Adverbs.
Obs.
1.
The
following Words,
when used
together, are often
called Double Prepositions
"
Aboard of
According to
As
for
..
We
could not get aboard of her."
."He came according to agreement,"

" As for me and my house."
ENGLISH GRAMMARPABT II
166
As
"
to
But
.From among
From between.
off
.From under
Instead of
In lieu of
Out of
Over
Obs.
Words
have nothing to say."
against.
to.
would have been a
" He came contrary to expectation.'

" You live devoid of peace."
" From among thousand celestial ardors."
Contrary to
Previous
to that, I
but for these vile guns, he

soldier."
Devoid of
_From
As
"And
for
. .
''
" He came from between the lakes"

" This lady-fly I take from off the grass."
"He rushed from under the falling tower."
" Instead of the thorn shall come up the fir."
"She has that sum in lieu of dower."
" Out of the cooling brine to leap."
." Every one worked over against his own house."
"Previous to this, his character had been good."
.
Most of these, however, may be

making complex Phrases.
2.
Examples. 1. Aboard of on board
resolved into separate
of.
He came on board of the ship.

From between.
He came from [his home, situated] between
2.
the lakes.
Instead ofin place of.

In the stead [place] of the thorn.
3.
Previous to
4.
previously to.
Previous^ to
this his character
had been good.
A few other words are sometimes used as Prepositions.

Obs. The antecedent term of relation the word which the
Phrase, introduced by a Preposition, qualifies may be
A Noun. The house of God. The land of the blessed.
A Pronoun. Who of us shall go I care not which of you.
An Adjective. It good for nothing.
to study. We delight in improvement.
A Verb. We
A Participle. Jumping from a precipice. " Rushing through
the valleys."
and
good to be unkind."
An Adverb. " He
wise to
Eem.
3.
is
love
is too
Obs.
4.
Phrase which
Preposition
it
err,
commonly
too
indicates the office of the
introduces.
In, on, under, above,
indicate a relation of place, including
etc.,
the idea of rest.

(
Examples.William's
hat
is <
(
in the hall,
on the stool,
under the table.
167
PREPOSITIONS.
From,
into, tlirough,
to,
out
indicate a relation of place,
etc.,
of,
with the idea of motion.

Examples.
We came
New York,
to Boston,
through Springfield.
{from
<
Of, generally indicates a relation of possession.
Example." The
As,
like,
than,
lay of the last minstrel" the last minstreVs lay.
etc.,
used as Prepositions, indicate a relation of
comparison.
" It
Examples. 1.
is
To
"All great, learned men, like me,

Once learned to read their A, B, C."
2.
"
3.
During,
not lit for such as us

with rulers of the land. ' W. Scott.
sit
Than whom,
earth holds
since, etc., indicate
till,
Examples. 1.
2.
"
no better man."
a relation of time.
We have vacation during the whole month of July."
" Since Saturday,
we have not seen him."
But, as the kind of relation expressed by a given Preposition

not uniform, no perfect classification can be made.
Obs.
5.
Prepositions
is
are sometimes incorporated with their
Objects.
Examples.I go a-fshmg.Re
fell
a-sleep. Come a-board.
Obs. 6. Words commonly used as Prepositions are sometimes

used in Predication with Verbs.
Examples.1.
2.
Its idle
hours are
o'er.
That was not thought
of.
For other observations on Prepositions,
see
Part
III.
Prepositions.
Exercises.
1.
Of
Where streams of earthly joy exhaustless
Shows a
relation of "streams"
position.
rise.
and "joy."
Hence, a Pre-
168
"
2.
II.
refuge,
Meet for fainting pilgrims.''''
Shows a
For
relation of " meet"
and
" pilgrims."
Hence, a
Preposition.
"On
3.
the plains,
spangled fields, and in the mazy vales,

The living throngs of earth before Him fall,
With thankful hymns, receiving from His hands
Immortal life and gladness."
And
On
relation of [existing understood, which qualifies]

throngs" and " plains and fields." Hence, a Prepo-
Shows a
11
sition.
relation of [existing understood, which qualifies]

" throngs" and " vales."
Hence, a Preposition.
Shows a relation of " throngs" and " earth." Hence, a
Shows a
In
Of
Preposition.
Before. .Shows a relation of " fall" and " him."
Hence, a Prepo-
sition.
With. .Shows a relation of [worshiping, or some equivalent w ord

understood, which qualifies] " throngs" and " hymns."
Hence, a Preposition.
T
several
ggir Let the Pupils point out the Prepositions, with their
Antecedents and Objects, in the following
in the style, which has been justly objected to, on account o/its obscurity, general turgidness of diction, and a profu1
sion of new-coined double epithets.
4.
"
The
chief
fault of Coleridge lies

'
5.
To him, who, in the love of nature, holds

Communion with her visible forms, she speaks
A various language
:
6.
For
his gayer hours
She has a voice of gladness, and a smdle

And eloquence of beauty
;
7.
And she glides

Into his darker musings, with a mild
And gentle sympathy, that steals away
Their sharpness, ere he is aware.
169
CONJUNCTIONS.
CONJUNCTIONS.
Rem. It should be remembered that Prepositions connect Words

by showing a relation.
have another class of Words, used simply to connect Words
We
and Phrases similar
in construction,
and
to introduce Sentences.
Hence,
Def. 160. A Conjunction is a Word used to join

Words, Phrases, and Sentences, or to introduce Sentences.
Examples.Mary and Anna have
perfect lessons, because they study
dili-
gently.
Rem.
In this example,
1.
"
two words
and" connects "Mary" and "Anna"

and " because" intro-
having the same construction

duces an Auxiliary Sentence.
List.
The following
are the principal
Words which
are
commonly
used as Conjunctions
After*
Again,
Either,
Moreover,
Than*
Else,
Nay,
That,
Also,
Except*
Neither,
Then*
Although*
And,
For*
Nor,
Therefore,
Further,
Now,
As*
As
Furthermore,
well as* Howbeit,
Because*
Before*
Being*
Besides,
Both,
But,
Rem.
2.
1.
Unless*
However,*
Howsoever,*
Or,
Otherwise,
When*
Provided,*
Wherefore,
If*
Since,*
While*
So,
Whilst,
Still,
Yet.
Inasmuch
Lest*
as *
Likewise,
A few other words are sometimes used as Conjunctions.

marked thus
comThe words in the above
Rem. 3.
monly introduce Auxiliary Sentences.
Obs.
Though*
Notwithstanding,* Thus,
Conjunctions
List,
(*),
used to introduce Auxiliary Sentences,
and some others, constitute also an index or type of the

the Sentences which they introduce,
office
of
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
170
II.
Examples. 1. "If he repent, forgive him."

2. " As you journey, sweetly sing."
In these examples, " if renders its Sentence conditional"^"

its Sentence ("you journey ') modifies "sing"
in
'
indicates that
respect to time.
Note. When, as, since, and many other Conjunctions used to

introduce Auxiliary Sentences, are called, by some grammarians,
Conjunctive Adverbs. "And the rest will 1 set in order when I
come."
are told that " when," in the above example, is an Adverb of Time, relating to the two Verbs, " will set" and " come."
We
We are also told (and properly) that " Adverbs of time are those
which answer to the question when t"
But does " when," in the above example, " answer the question
wlien f"
Certainly not. Then it can not be an Adverb of Time.
But the Auxiliary Sentence, " when I come," does answer the question " when." It tells when " I will set the rest in order." Hence the
Sentence, " when I come," is an Adverb of Time and the Word
" when"used only to introduce that Sentence connecting it
to
;
" will set,"
Obs.
2.
is
a Conjunction.
A Word
fore a Conjunction.
Adverbial in
office,
[See the preceding observation.]
used chiefly to introduce a Sentence is thereIf the Sentence introduced by it is Auxiliary

it may properly be called an Adverbial Con-
junction.
Let the Pupil remember that it is the Sentence that

Word used to introduce the Sentence.
is
Adverbial
not the
The Conjunction nor generally

that of a negative Adverb.
Obs.
office
3.
Example." Man wants but little

Nor wants that little
performs a secondary
here below,
long."
this example " nor" introduces the Sentence, and also gives
a negative signification.
In
it
The Conjunction
" lest"
Example." Love not
has sometimes a similar construction.
sleep, lest thou
come
Obs. 4. Double Conjunctions.
to poverty."
Two Conjunctions are some-
times used to introduce the same Sentence.

Examples. 1. " It seems as if they were instructed by some
2. " And yet, fair bow, no fabling dreams.
1 '
secret instinct."
CONJUNCTIONS.
As
though, but that,
171
and some other words,
are often used as
Double Conjunctions.
Obs. 5. But, when an Auxiliary Sentence precedes a Principal
Sentence, the Conjunctions introducing them are not to be regarded
[See this Obs.]
as double, although they may be in juxtaposition.
Obs.
6.
we have
In addition to those "Words properly called Conjunctions,

other words used to introduce Sentences as a secondary
office.
Examples. 1. " The
grave, that never spoke before,
Hath found at length a tongue

2.
"
Whose
Rem.
1.
The
light
" That never
introduced
to chide.'"
We are watchers of a beacon,
by the word
must never
die."
spoke before,"
is
" that"
principal office of "that"
the Subject of
introduces Sen-
Substantive
is
Its secondary office is Conjunctive
"spoke."
tence and connects
it
with
its
its
Principal.
Rem. 2. In Example 2, the Word " whose" has a Principal office

Adjunct of " light ;" and a secondary office introduces its Sentence and connects it with its Principal.
All Relative Pronouns serve the office of Conjunctions, in addition to their Substantive office.
[For other observations, the student

Conjunctions.]
is
referred to
Part
III.,
Exercises.
il
And".
God
created the heaven
Connects " heaven" and
and
the earth."
" earth."
Hence a Conjunction.
"Temperance and frugality promote health and secure happiness."

f
And".
Connects " temperance" and
" frugality."
Hence, a Con-
junction.
"
And". .. Connects "promote" and "secure."
Hence, a Conjunc-
tion.
" And
the eyes of the sleepers
waxed deadly and
chill."
"And".. .Introduces a Sentence. Hence, a Conjunction.

Hence, a Conjunction.
I And". .Connects " deadly" and " chill."
.
" And hoary peaks that proudly prop the
Thy
dwellings are."
skies,
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
172
" And".. .Introduces a Sentence.
II.
Hence, a Conjunction.
Hence, a Substantive.
Sentence, and connects it with
" That"... Is the Subject of " prop."
introduces
It also
its
" peaks."
11
My heart is awed within me when I think

Of
the great miracle that
still
goes on
In silence round me."
" When"..Introduces the Auxiliary Sentence.
Hence, a Conjunc-
tion.
"
Sentence
Its
is
Adverbial in
Hence, an Ad-,
its office.
verbial Conjunction.
"When"
is
not an Element
structure of
its
Part, nor an Adjunct;
it
arily, indicates the office
it
i. e.,
Sentence.
bears no part in the
It is neither a Principal
'primarily connects: second-
of
its
Sentence.
[See Obs.
1,
above.]
" That".
the subject of " goes."
Hence, a Substantive a Pronoun.

As a secondary office, " that" introduces its Sentence, and
connects it with "miracle."
Hence, a Conjunctive
Pronoun.
..Is
EXCLAMATION.
Def. 161.
An Exclamation
is
Word used
to ex-
press a sudden or intense emotion.

Obs.
1.
Exclamations may consist
2.
Of Letters as, Of Oh! Ah! Lo!

Of Words commonly used as Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs,
and Adverbs as, Woe ! Strange ! Hark ! Really ! Be*
3.
Shocking!
Of Phrases For shame !
Of Sentences " 0, Ephraim !
1.
hold!
4.
How
can
I give
Exclamations are followed by

" O, Liberty " Ah, the treasure
Phrases " O, for a lodge in some vast wilderness
Sentences " O, bear me to some solitary
Rem. The term Exclamation preferred to
Obs.
thee
up!"
2.
Words
!"
!"
cell
is
more appropriate
to its office.
!"
!"
Interjection, as
being
WOEDS OF EUPHONY.
173
" to cry out." This we do with the use of ExclamaInterject " to cast between."
We very seldom cast these words
"between others they are generally placed before other words.
Exclaim
tions.
WORDS OF EUPHONY.
Def. 162. A
Word
of
Euphony
chiefly for the sake of sound, or to
is
Word
used
change the position,
emphasis of other Words in a Sentence.
accent, or
Examples. 1. "
think there is a knot of you,

Beneath that hollow tree.
1 '
" There!''
"
is
ject,
knot"
"
is
Me"
used to allow the Predicate " is" to precede

In this Sentence it is not used Adverbially.
Obs.
1.
is
" These were thy charms, sweet village sports like these,
With sweet succession, taught e'en toil to please. 11
!
used to
Words
some other
of
Sub-
2. " I sit me down a pensive hour to spend."

used to throw the accent on the word " down"
3.
" E'en"
its
make
of
" toil" emphatic.
Euphony
" part of speech."
are such as
commonly belong to
called Words
But they are properly
Euphony when they do not perform their usual grammatical

They are, then, in their offices chiefly Rhetorical being
offices.
used,
(1.) To render other Words emphatic.
Examples. 1. " Even in their ashes live their wonted
2. " The moon herself is lost in heaven."
(2.)
To change
fires."
the position of the parts of a Sentence.
Examples. 3. " There are no idlers here.

4. "Now, then, we are prepared
1 '
(3.)
To
to take
up the main question."
preserve the rhythm in a line of poetry.
Examples. 5. "
6.
I sit me down a pensive hour to spend."

" His teeth they chatter, chatter still."
as most grammarians do
the
an Adverb, modifying " live ;" for its
sole office is to render the phrase '* in their ashes" emphatic.
Such
not Grammatical.
office is Rhetorical
Rem.
Word
1.
It is quite idle to call
even, in
Example
1,
ENGLISH GRAMMARPABT
174
Rem. 2. To
of Place,"
is
call the word " there," in

manifestly absurd since the
Example 3, an " Adverb

Verb " are" is modified
and hence can not, at the same time, be
;
by the Adverb " here,"

modified by a Word of directly the opposite
in
Rem. 3. The same remark

Example 4.
Obs.
other
2.
II.
is
signification.
also applicable to the
word "
then,"
Words are often transposed, lengthened, shortened, and in
ways changed
[See " Euphony," in
for the sake of sound.
Part III.]
WORDS VARYING
IN
THEIR
ETYMOLOGY.
Rem. 1. Words are similar in Orthoepy when they are pronounced with the same sound of the same letter.
Examples. There, theirall, awlant,
aunt.
Rem. 2. They are similar in Orthography when they

by the same letters, similarly arranged.
Examples.Bead, readex' tract,
Rem.
3.
They
are formed
extract' wind, wind.
are similar in Etymology
when they perform
similar office in the construction of a Phrase or of a Sentence.
4.
Bat it is plain that words similar in Orthoepy differ in
Orthography and words of similar Orthography perform
widely different offices in different connections.
Rem.
their
Gp~ It should always be remembered by the Pupil that the office

of a word not its shape determines its Etymology.
Obs.
their
Among
Etymology
A
A
Above
Above
After
After
After
Adj
Prep.-.
. .
. . .
Prep
. .
the
Words
of similar Orthography that differ in
are the following
Webster wrote a Dictionary.

Wild winds and mad waves drive the vessel a wreck.
He
Prep
stands above us.

the terms above specified.
He that cometh after me is preferred before me.
Conj
Adj
He came after you left.

He was in the after part
Adv
By
of the ship.
OBSERVATIONS.
Prep. To redeem such a rebel as me. Wesley.
Conj . .Just as the twig is beut the tree's inclined.
Adv .Nature, as far as art can do it, should be imitated.
Pron. .Such as I have, give I unto thee.
Prep. He stood before the people.
They kneeled before they fought.
Conj
Adj .... Situated on both sides of the river.
Pron.. .Lepidus flatters bothof both is flattered.
Conj . .And now he is both loved and respected.
Prep ...All but me were rewarded.
Conj . .1 gobut I return.
If we go, we can but die.
Adv
Verb. .1 can not but rejoice at his unexpected prosperity.
Prep. .And ere another evening's close.
Conj .And ere we could arrive [at] the point proposed.
As
As
As
As
. .
Before
Before
. .
. .
Both
Both
Both
But
Bat
But
But
Ere
Ere
For
For
Like
Like
Like
Like
Near
Near
Near
Near
. .
Prep. . They traveled for pleasure.

Conj .He can not be a scholar, for he will not study.
Prep. .Nature all blooming like thee.
Like causes produce like effects.
Adj
Verb. .We like whatever gives us pleasure.
Noun . We shall never see the like again.
Adj ... .At the near approach of the star of day.
Prep .We live near the springs.
Books were never near so numerous.
Adv
Verb. .We shall near the light-house.
Neither ...Adj. .. .He can debate on neither side of the question.
Neither .. .Pron.. .We saw neither of them.
Neither ..Conj. .The boy could neither read nor write.
The next generation.
Adj
Next
Prep. .Adjectives should be placed next their substantives.
Next
.The off ox should keep the furrow.
Adj
Off
Prep. .William fell off the load.
Off
Love and love only is the loan for love.
Adj
Only
Only observe what a swarm is running after her.
Adv
Only
On the opposite bank of the river.
Opposite. .Adj
Opposite. .Prep. .We stood opposite the Exchange.
.A past transaction.
Adj
Past
Prep .It was past mid-day.
Past
Like the round ocean.
Adj
Round
Flxmg.round the bier.
Prep
Round
Still waters reflect a milder light.
Adj
Still
.
. .
. .
Still
Still
Still
Since
Since
So
So
So
Than
Than
Than
. .
he tries to stand.
the reflection has troubled me.
Noun .The loafer lounges about the still.
Prep. .Since yesterday, we have taken nothing.
Conj. .Since I can not go, I will be contented here.
Solomon was wise we are not so.
Adj
So calm, so bright.
Adv
Conj ..." I'll say thee nay, so thou wilt woo."
Conj... She is more nice than wise.
Prep. Than whom, Satan except, none higher sat.
have more than heart can wish.
Pron.
Adv.
Conj
Still struggling,
..Still,
.
We
175
ENGLISH OBAMMARPABT
176
That
That
That
That
That book
Adj
Bel. Pron.
Pron. Adj
Conj
Adv
Then
Then
Then
Conj
Till
Pron
Prep
Till
Conj
Till
Until
Until
What
What
What
What
is
II.
mine.
" Him that cometh unto me, I will in no wise cast out."
.Forgive me my foul murder ? that can not be.
I am glad that he has lived thus long.
Then, when I am thy captive, talk of chains.
Then, I'll look up.
. .
Till then.
....
They labored hard
night.
till
come, give attention to reading.

Noun
He kept his money in the till.
Prep
From morn, even until night.
Conj
Until the day dawn.
Adj
At what hour did you arrive ?
Bel. Pron.
What Beason weaves, by Passion is undone.
Inter. Pron. What does it avail ?
Exclam
What ! is thy servant a dog ?
Prep
To inscribe a circle within a circle.
Adj
Beceived on the within bond, five hundred dollars.
Till I
. .
Within
Within
Obsebyations on some of the Foregoing Words.
When
As
this Word introduces a Sentence,

a Conjunction.
Example. "As ye journey, sweetly sing."
it is
properly called
When
it introduces a Phrase, it is a Preposition, and

generally equivalent to the Preposition for.
is
then
Examples.1. " He gave me

2.
"I
this as the latest news from the army."

always fearful lest I should tell you that for news
with which you are well acquainted."
am
The above examples clearly indicate
that as
is
sometimes a Prepo-
sition.
Rem.
Many grammarians
lar examples, "
insist that as, in the
must be a Conjunction, because,
above and simimost cases, it
in
connects words in apposition.
The same
is
often true of other Prepositions.
Examples.1. In
2.
the city of
"
New
York.
thy shadowy hand was seen
Writing thy name of Death." Pollok.
We
do not claim that these examples contain words precisely in

apposition as much so, however, as any words claimed to be connected by as.
As
[See
1.
is
often used (by ellipsis of one or
more words)
as a
Pronoun.
Rem. on than below.]
But.This word,
like
most Conjunctions,
is
derived from a
OBSER VA T10NS.
Saxon Verb signifying " except""
Webster' s Improved Grammar.]
set
Ill
aside""
fail,"
etc.
[See
In the list above given, the Word retains

and office.
Example. "I can not but rejoice.
its
original signification
1 '
Equivalent.I can not fail omit to rejoice.

2.
But
is
also used instead of the words, if
it
were not, or were
it
not.
Example. "And
but for these vile guns, he
would himself have been a
sol-
dier."
3.
But sometimes
supplies the places of a Relative
Pronoun and
a Negative Adverb.
Example." I
scarce can
meet a monument but holds
Equivalent.I scarce can meet a
Like. .When
it
this
word
represents
when
it
its
shows a
monument
" Yet
1 '
Noun, it is an Adjective when

an Adjective Pronoun.
But
of two words, it is a Preposition.
qualifies a
Noun,
it is
relation
Examples. 1. " These armies once

2.
my younger.
my younger.
that holds not
lived,
and breathed, and
felt like us.
11
great learned men, like me,

learned to read their A, B, C."
all
Once
Than. .This word always

.
expresses comparison, and comparison

implies a relation. When this relation is expressed by
Words, than is a Preposition. When it is expressed by
Sentences, and when Words, Phrases, or Sentences are
merely connected by it, it is a Conjunction. The use of
it as a Preposition is sanctioned by good authority, ancient
and modern.
Than
always introduces a Word, a Phrase, or a Sentence, which

a comparison of inequality.
constitutes a second term of
Examples. 1. " She

I
2.
"
is
more nice than wise."
Than" connects words, and

"
is
therefore a Conjunction.
Than whom none higher
Than" introduces a Phrase, and

3.
"
is
sat.
1 '
therefore a Preposition.
We have more than heart could wish.
1 '
Than" is the object of " could wish," and introduces the Senwhich limits " more," hence by virtue of the ellipsis it is a
Relative Pronoun.
Supply the words suppressed by ellipsis, and
" than" becomes a Preposition.
"
tence
178
II.
Obs. 1. Many words are used as Prepositions or Conjunctions,

according as they introduce Phrases or Sentences.
Examples. 1: John
"
Before
me"
.Is
arrived before me.
a Phrase, used to modify " arrived
;"
hence, Ad-
verbial.
" Before"
Is a Preposition.
2.
John arrived
before I did.
" Before I did". Is a Sentence,
used to modify
" arrived ;" hence,
Adverbial.
" Before"
Is a Conjunction.
3.
"As
John arrived
Is a
I"
as soon as
I.
Phrase used to modify " arrived
;"
hence, Ad-
verbial.
4.
"As
I did"
John arrived as soon as

Is a Sentence,
I did.
used to modify "arrived;" hence,
Adverbial.
Obs.
2.
Of the many words thus used as Prepositions and Contwo as and than to be followed by
junctions, custom allows
Pronouns in the Nominative form.

Examples. 1. " Thou art wiser than I."
u Thou art as tall as I."
2.
Obs.
3.
But the Objective form
is
also used
by our best
writers.
Examples. 1. " It is not fit for such as us

To sit with rulers of the land. 11 W. Scott.
11
2. " Than whom none higher sat. Milton.
Worth
This word
a contraction of worthy, originally an

commonly indicates value; it
often has the force of a Preposition.
is
Adjective, and
Example." He possessed an
Equivalent."
Rem.
He
This word
Example.
estate worth five
hundred pounds per annum."
has an annuity of five hundred pounds. 1 '

is
used also as a Noun.
" He was a man of great worthy
composed
Nor
retains
of not and other
the offices of
its ele-
ments.
Example." Nor
Here
gation.
" nor,"
will I at
my humble lot
repine. 11
being used to modify " repine" is an Adverb of NeBut because it introduces a Sentence additional to a former
SUBSTITUTION OF ELEMENTS.
Sentence,
it is
a Conjunction
like
dicates the office of the Sentence
many
179
other Conjunctions,
which
it
in-
making
it
Element of one form
is
it
introduces,
negative.
Substitution of Elements.
Obs.
In the structure of Sentences, an
often substituted for that of another.

1.
A Letter is substituted for a
Example.'Tis
r~~
Rem:.
Word.
strange.
jf
'T
^^
strange
is
Here " T," as an Element in the Sentence, a representa Subject of the Sentence. Hence,
is
of "it," and is a Pronoun

in the Nominative Case.
tive
But
nant
" T," as
an Element in the word " it,"

its vowel " Z"
a Conso-
a Letter
is
Mute Subsequent to
2.
Word
is
substituted for a Phrase.
Example 1. These crowd around
These
ask him of his health.
to
jT
crowd
ED
Rem. 1. " Around," as an Element of the Sentence, is an Adverb

of Place being used as a representative of the Adverbial Phrase
around him.
Phrase,
Element of
the Leader a Prepo showing a relation of " crowd" to him understood.
" Around," as an
sition
is
its
2.Anna has gone home.
Anna
has gone
"Y"
home
Rem.
of Place
"
))
" Home," as an Element in the Sentence,

being used as a representative of the Phrase
2.
Home,"
as
an Element in
its
Phrase,
is
the
is
an Adverb
to
her home.
Subsequent "Word
Noun Common Objective Case Object of
to
understood.
ENGLISH GBAMMABPABT
180
Example
3.
Clara has come to school early.

C
Y
jT
Clara
haSjCome
come
has
[/to)
school)
;
Eem. 3." Early,"

Time being used
of
II.
Jj
~3^~-"
~S'
an Element in the Sentence, is an Adverb

Phrase at an early
as
as a representative of the
hour.
" Early," as an Element in its Phrase,
Adjective and limits hour understood.
is
For
further illustrations, see Obs. 1
and
2,
an AdjunctWord-
page
22.
Rem. A
guage
careful examination of the genius of the English lanwill disclose the fact, that a great majority of words perform
at the
same time two or more
representative.
The Rule
distinct offices as individual
be observed in parsing
to
should be parsed first according

tence,
then according to
Exercises
Rem.
to its
and as
that a word
representative office in the Sen-
individual
its
is,
office.
the Analysis of Sentences.
Teachers will find the use of the blackboard of great
ser-
and of Phrases.
Analysis, used by successful Teachers,
vice in the Analysis of Sentences
Of
the
many Models
for
the following are given, in addition to those found in
Part
I.
First Model.
"
An hour like
this
may
well display the emptiness of humaa grandeur.'*
ELEMENTS.
An hour
The Modified* Subject

The Pure Subject
ma
The Logical Predicate

-J
The
The
The
The
may
may
Modified^ Predicate
Pure Predicate
Modified Object
Pure
like this
hour.
e
display
eur
the
em P tiness
of
kuman
well display
display.
the emptiness of human grandeur.

emptiness.
Object
ADJUNCTS.
Of
Of the Predicate
Of
J
well
the Object.
J
...... * Seepage
i
1
31.
**"*
of
a
rd
a Phrase.
a Word.
a Word.
a Phrase.
iuL'M*
like this
the Subject
'',
human grandeur
.
..,...,
t See
page
32.
'
EXERCISES ON THE CHART.
181
Second Model.
"
How dear to my
Principal Elements.
heart are the scenes of my childhood."
Modified Elements.
Adjunct Elements.
my childhood.. l^kidhood.l E*e.

\
Are how dear to my heart ....{
?^y i^rt' \l Se.
Sub.... Scenes".. .The scenes of
Fred.
"Are dear"
\ \ \
Third Model.
" The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea."
The Modified Subject.

" The lowing herd"
Grammatic
The Modified Predicate.

" winds slowly o'er the lea."
Grammatic
Adjuncts.
Subject.
Herd.
Tê
lowing
Predicate.
(-Winds
winds
},
j-
EXEECISES
OJST
Adjuncts.
slow| y
,
o'er the lea.
THE CHART.
Rem. 1. The following Exercises will exhibit the proper

of using the Chart in Etymological Parsing.
Rem.
If the large
method
Chart is used, the attention of the whole

one of the students using a " pointer,"
as he repeats the construction of each word, according to the formulae given below.
2.
Class should be directed to it
Rem.
3.
It is well for
beginners in Etymological Parsing to have

first placed in Diagram on the black-
the Sentence to be parsed
board.
1.
f
Animals
Run
jf
Animals
An Element
in the
run
"""}
Sentence Principal Element Subject
Word Noun Common Masculine
Gender-^THiRD Per-
sonPlural Number Nominative Case.

An Element in the Sentence Principal ElementPredicate Verb Indicative ModePresent Tense.
2.
Q
Mary
Animals run.
Mary
Mary
An Element
in the
is
reading.
reading
ia
t

Gender Third Person
WordNounProperFeminine
reading
Reading
Singular Number Nominative Case,

An Element in the Sentence Principal Element Predicate Verb and Participle Verb is in the Indicative
Mode Present Tense.
An Element in the Sentence Principal Element used in
Predicate with "is."
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
182
3.
He might
C He
have been respected.
Y might
An Element in
He
the
II
have been
respected

Gender Third
WordPronounPersonalMasculine
Person Singular NumberNominative Case.

Principal ElementPredij An Element in the Sentence
Might have
is in the Pobeen respected 1 catetwo Verbs and two ParticiplesVerb
tential ModePrior Past Tense.
4.
His palsied hand waxed

Ywaxed
hand
Hifejl
An Element
His
strong.
strong
"
Pals^d)
SentenceAdjunct PrimaryWord-
in the
Adjective SpecifyingPossessive.
An Element
Palsied
in the
SentenceAdjunctPrimaryWord-
AdjectiveVerbal Intransitive.
An Element in the SentencePrincipal Element Subject
Hand
WordNounCommonNeuter Gender Third Person
Singular Number Nominative Case.
PrediWaxed strong... An Element in the Sentence-Principal Element
cate Verb and AdjectiveVerb is in the Indicative Mode
Past Tense.
An Element in
Strong
with " waxed.

5.
SentenceAdjective used
the
in Predicate
1 '
That good men sometimes commit faults, can not
be denied.
(That )
men
ycommit Y
{ good)
(somet's)
iaults
]f
can
(^
nof,
be
denied
the SentencePrincipal ElementSubject

-Sentence-Substantive-Simple-Transitive.
ISmmii tofts,
PrediCan be denied.'..An Element in the SentencePrincipal Element
cate two Verbs and a ParticipleVerb is in the Potential
ModePresent Tense.
An Element in the SentenceAdjunct PrimaryWordNot
That good men
An Element in
Adverb
6.
He
of Negation.
hears the thunder ere the tempest lowers.
He
hears
thunder
the
"tempest^ lowers j
the
EXERCISES ON THE CHART.

An Element in
He
the
183
SentencePrincipal Element Subject

GenderThird
WordPronoun PersonalMasculine
Person Singular NumberNominative Case.

An Element in the SentencePrincipal ElementPredicate VerbIndicative Mode Present Tense.
An Element in the SentenceAdjunctPrimaryWord-
Hears
The
Adjective Specifying Pure.

An Element in the SentencePrincipal Element Object
WordNoun CommonNeuter Gender Third Person
Singular Number Objective Case.
Thunder
the tern- An Element in the SentenceAdjunctPrimary Senpest lowers... f tenceAdverbIntransitive.
Ere
7.
Too low they build who build beneath the
stars.
An Element in
Too
the
SentenceAdjunct SecondaryWord
Adverbof Degree.
An Element in the Sentence AdjunctPrimaryWordAdverb of Place.

An Element in the SentencePrincipal Element Subject
Low
They
WordPersonalMasculine
Build
Who
build be-
neath the stars
Who
Build
Beneath the
stars
Gender Third Person

Plural NumberNominative Case.
An Element in the SentencePrincipal ElementPredicateVerb Indicative Mode Present Tense.
An Element in the SentenceAdjunctPrimary Sentence
Adjective SimpleIntransitive.
An Element in the Auxiliary SentencePrincipal Element
SubjectWordPronoun Relative Masculine Gender Third PersonPlural Number Nominative Case.
An Element in the Sentence Principal Element VerbIndicative Mode Present Tense.
An Element in the Sentence Adjunct SecondaryPhrase
AdverbialPrepositionalIntransitive.
Rem. In the analysis of a Complex Sentence (see Obs. p. 62), an

Auxiliary Sentence is found to perform an individual office, and
accordingly it is parsed as one Etymological Element of the Principal
Sentence. After it has been thus parsed, it should itself be analyzed, and the Words and Phrases of which it is composed be
parsed according to their respective offices. The same remark is
applicable to Phrases.
[See Exercise 7, above, and 2, below.]
184
" Scaling
8.
I saw an
X
(
yonder peak,
near its broio"
eagle wheeling
scaling
II.
Baw
Peak
yonder
eagle
\J [
Jj^jj^f )
H^
bG3
XJEJ
brow
An Element in the Sentence an Adjunct Primarya

Phrase Adjective ParticipialTransitive.
An Element in the Sentence Principal Element Subject
I
Wo rd Pronoun Person al Masculine Gender First
Person Singular Number Objective Case.
An Element in the Sentence Principal ElementPrediSaw
cate VerbIndicative Mode Past Tense.
An Element in the Sentence an Adjunct PrimaryWord
An
Adjective Specifying Pure.
An Element in the Sentence Principal Element ObjectEagle
WordNoun CommonMasculine GenderThird Person
Singular Number Objective Case.
Wheeling near An Element in the Sentencean Adjunct Primary
f Phrase Adjective Participial Intransitive.
its brow
Near its brow... An Element in the Phrase an Adjunct SecondaryPhrase Adverbial PrepositionalIntransitive.
Scaling yonder
peak
Analysis of Phrases by the Chart.

Exercises.
1.
In
the beginning (a Prepositional Phrase).

[injT
beginning
I
th *
.An Element in the Phrase Principal Element the Leader
jn
a Preposition.
An Element in the Phrase an AdjunctWordAdjective.
An Element in the Phrase Principal Element the Subt
sequent a W ord Noun Object.
The
Beginning
" Scaling yonder peak'' (a Participial Phrase).

1
2.
scaling
peafr
^
Scaling
yonder
An Element in the PhrasePrincipal Element the Leader
a Participle Transitive.
PHRASEiZ-ANALYSIS.
An Element in the Phrase an AdjunctWord Adjective.

An Element in the Phrase Principal Element the Subsequent a Word Noun Object.
Yonder
Peak
3.
"
The time having
Independent Phrase).
arrived?' (an
time
^j
V Tbe J [having
arrived)
An Element in the Phrasean Ad junctWordAdjective.

An Element in the Phrase Principal Elementthe Leader
The
Time
185
a NounIndependent Case.
Having
arrived
4.
An Element in the Phrase Principal Element the

quent a ParticipleIntransitive.
Subse-
To bestow many favors (an Infinitive Phrase).

(J
bestow""""^
favors
^ many j
To
An Element in
the
a Preposition.
Bestow
An Element
the
Many
Favors
Phrase Principal Element the Leader
in the Phrase Principal Elementa part

Subsequent a Verb Infinitive Mode Transitive.
of
An Element
in the Phrasean AdjunctAdjective.

An Element in the Phrase Principal Element a part
the Subsequent Object Word Noun.
Rem.-Exercises
of
above are well calculated to prepare

Syutax and when he shall have
learned the Rules of Syntax, he should combine the above Exercises
like the
the Student for Exercises in
with the application of those Rules.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
186
PART
III.
III.
SYNTAX.
Rem.1.In Part II. we have discussed
Elements of Language embracing,
Words
considered as
The
The
1.
Classification of Words,
according to their
offices.
Modification of such Words as vary their forms to correspond with changes in their offices.
2.
Rem. 2. We have now to consider the Relations of the various

Elements of Language to one another, in the construction of Sentences.
Def. 163. Syntax treats of the construction of Sentences by determining the relation, agreement, and arrangement of Words, and of other Elements.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND FACTS

To
~be
noticed in the Analysis
and Synthesis of Sentences
and Phrases.
CLASSIFICATION.
A Sentence is an assemblage of
an
Words, so arranged
as to express
entire proposition.
L-Sentences have..
Grammatical
BhetoHcal mstinctions
Distinctions, and
.
Grammatical Distinctions.
distinctions are suggested by the struc
mutual dependence of the Sentences, and are indicated bj
the Diagrams of the Sentences.
Rem. The Grammatical
ture or
II.
In
its
structure
c
Sentence
is
1
(
Transitive,
Intransitive, or
Mixeel.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND FACTS.

III.
In
its
form
A Sentence
IV. The
is
parts constituting a
Complex
Auxiliary
Simple,
Compound,
Complex.
\
(
Sentences
are
in
their
^ces
VI.
AnJntransitive Sentence has no
or
Substantive,
Adjective
Adverbial, or
Independent.
Object.
Kip
Let the Pupil make an Intransitive Sentence.
VII.
A Transitive Sentence has an
HP
Let the Pupil make a Transitive Sentence.
VIII.
A Mixed
more
or
Principal, or
Auxiliary.
<
Sentence are
v.
187
Object.
Sentence has one or more
transitive
and one
intransitive Predicates.
Ep Let
make a Mixed
the Pupil
IX.A Simple Sentence
has
Sentence.
all its
Principal Parts single.
WW Let the Pupil make a Simple Sentence.

X. A Compound
Sentence has some of
its
Principal Parts com-
pound.
%W Let the Pupil make a Compound Sentence.

XL A Complex
Sentence contains one or more Auxiliary Sen-
tences, as Constituent Elements.
WW Let the Pupil make a
Complex Sentence.
XII.A Principal Sentence
asserts a Principal Proposition.
XIII.An Auxiliary Sentence
asserts a
Dependent Proposition.
HP
Let the Pupil make a Complex Sentence, and distinguish the

Principal Sentence from the Auxiliary Sentence.
XIV.
Substantive Sentence is used as the Subject or the
Object of a Sentence, or as the Object of a Phrase.
(Bri^
Let the Pupil make a Substantive Sentence.
XV.An
Adjective Sentence
is
a Sentence that
Adjunct of a Substantive.
KIP Let
the Pupil
make an
Adjective Sentence.
is
used as an
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
188
XVI. An Adverbial Sentence
III
a Sentence that modifies a
is
Verb, an Adjective, or an Adverb.

d^lp Let the Pupil
make an
Adverbial Sentence.
XVII. An Independent Sentence is not grammatically connected with any other Sentence or it constitutes a Logical Adjunct of a Substantive.
2|p Let the Pupil make an Independent Sentence.
Ehetorical Distinctions.
Kemakk The
Rhetorical distinctions are suggested rather by a

arrangement of the words composing the Sentences : They
are not indicated by Diagrams.
different
XVIII.
In their Rhetorical distinctions

(
Sentences are
Declarative,
Conditional,
Interrogative,
Imperative,
k
XIX. A
Declarative Sentence
or
Exclamatory*
a sentence that asserts a
is
proposition.
^
o
Sentence may be..,
A Declarative
.
Positive, or
Negative
IW Make a Declarative SentencePositiveNegative.

XX. A
Conditional Sentence
is
a sentence that asserts a con
ditional or hypothetical proposition.
(Ef Make
a Conditional Sentence.
XXLAn Interrogative Sentence is a sentence, so arranged
as
to ask a question.
flgp~
Make an
XXILAn
mand,
|[gf
Interrogative Sentence.
Imperative Sentence
is
a sentence used to com
exhort, or entreat.
Make an
Imperative Sentence.
XXIILAn Exclamatory
Sentence
is
a sentence that expresse
a sudden or intense emotion.
flgr
Make an Exclamatory
Sentence.
XXIV.Analysis of a sentence
its
Constituent Elements.
is
the act of resolving
it
int
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS.
XXV. Synthesis
and placing together
XXVI. A
of a sentence
Elements.
ff"
and
<
Adjunct Elements.
Principal Elements of a Sentence are those
necessary to
Make
Principal Elements,
Sentence consists of
XXVII. The
the act of properly selecting
its
'
Words
is
189
make
the unqualified assertion.
a Sentence having Principal Elements only.
XXVIII. The Adjuncts

to
of a Sentence are the Elements used

modify or describe other Elements in the Sentence.
Make a Sentence having Adjuncts.
&p
XXIX
The Principal Elements

of a Sentence are
The **#**
The Predicate,
(
)
(The Object.
XXXThe Subject of a Sentence

is
is
which something
that of
asserted.
XXXI The
Predicate of a Sentence
Word
the
is
or
Words
that assert something of the Subject.
XXXII.The Object of a Sentence

expressed by the Predicate terminates.
IW Let each Pupil make a

Predicate,
and the
is
on which the act
that
Sentence, and
name
the Subject, the
Object.
XXXIII. The Subject of a Sentence maybe
XXXIV.-The Object
of a Sentence
maybe
A Word,
A Phrase,
or
(A Sentence.
make a Sentence having a Word Subject.

Let each Pupil make a Sentence having a Phrase Subject,
Let each Pupil make a Sentence having a Sentence Subject.
Let each Pupil
Pupil make a Sentence having a Word Object.

Let each Pupil make a Sentence having a Phrase Object.
Let each Pupil make a Sentence having a Sentence Object.
tW* Let each
XXXV. A Word
used as
the Subject or the Object of a
Sentence
may
be
\gomrrwn OT
A Noun,9
or
Proper,
Personal,
atlw '.
XEronoun,\fl
Interrogative,
7
{ Adjective.
190
fl^~ Let each Pupil

1.
2.
3.
make
III
a Sentence having for
A Common Noun.
A Proper Noun.
A Personal Pronoun.
its
Subject
A Relative Pronoun.
4.
An
An
5.
6.
Interrogative Pronoun,
Adjective Pronoun.
same words as Objects of Sentences.

UST" Let the Pupil use the
_.
,
^
XXXVL-NorasandPKONOUNS
T
-,
are of the
Masculine Gender,
Neuter Gender.
F&minine Gender,or
XXXVIL-KowsandPs <
are of the
^
XXXVIILNouns
nouns
and
Pro-
are of the
<
I
'
%*,
or
Third Person.
Singular Number ,
Plural Number.
or
for their Subjects Nouns

|y Let the Pupil make Sentences having
Persons, and Numbers.
and Pronouns of the
GUP Now
different Genders,
use the same words as Objects of Sentences.
XXXIX. The Subject of a Sentence is in the Subjective

XL.The Object of a Sentence is in the Objective Case.
"
XLLThe Grammatical
Predicate of a Sentence is
<
)
Verb, with
or without
^
Case.
Another Verb,
A Participle,
An Adjective,
A Noun,
A Pronoun, or
A Preposition.
elements of each
GST Let the Pupil make Sentences containing
yariety of Predicate mentioned.
'Prior Past Tense,
Past Tense,
Prior Present Tense,
Indicative
Present Tense,
Mode,
Prior Future Tense,
Future Tense.
XLILA Verb
Predicate
may be
in
the
Potential
Mode,
"Prior Past Tense,

Past Tense,
Prior Present Tense,
Present Tense.
Subjunctive,
Mode,
Imperative
Mode,
Past Tense,
Present Tense.
Present Tense.

make
Let the Pupil
Sentences having Verbs in each of the
Modes and Tenses mentioned.
XLIII-A Verb
agree with
its
must
in Predicate
Subject in
TeTS
j
__
XLIV. The Adjuncts
of a Sen-
XL V.Primary Adjuncts
ancl
T
Number.
tence are
191
Trimary or
Secondary.
are attached to the Principal Parts
of a Sentence or of a Phrase.
XLVL Secondary Adjuncts

XL VII.
Adjuncts may
are attached to other Adjuncts.
consist of.
Words,
<
Phrases,
Sentences.
or
W Let the Pupil make Sentences containing
Word Adjuncts.
Let the Pupil make Sentences containing Phrase Adjuncts.
Let the Pupil make Sentences containing Sentence Adjuncts.
{Compar.
Posif
Dimin.
(
Specifying, \
XLVIILWords,
Phrases, and Sentences

used as Adjuncts are.
.
or
Verbal,
Pure.
Numeral.
Possessive.
Trans.
Intrans.
Time,
t
Place,
Adverbs,
Degree,
Manner,
Cause,
w
XLIX. Conjunctions
Phrases,
introduce Sentences and connect Words,
and Sentences.
k.A Preposition shows

Which
its
etc., etc.
Phrase
a relation of
LI.An Exclamation has no dependent
LIL A Word
its
object to the
word
qualifies.
of
Euphony
is,
in
construction.
its office,
chiefly Rhetorical.
ENGLISH GBAMMAE-PABT
192
ILL
Phrases.
II.
a combination of Words not constituting an

the structure
entire proposition, but performing a distinct office in
of a Sentence or of another Phrase.
LIIL A Phrase
is
LIV.
A Phrase consists
LY The
Trincipal Elements
and
of.
Adjunct Elements.
Principal Elements of a Phrase are those words
necessary to its structure.
(HP Let the Pupil make a Phrase having Principal Elements

L VI. The Adjuncts of a Phrase are Elements used to modify
only.
or
describe other Elements.
g2f Let the Pupil make a Phrase having Adjuncts.

LVII. The Principal Elements of a < The Leader and
< The Subsequent
Phrase are
LVIII. The Leader
of a Phrase
is
the
Word used
to introduce
the Phrase.
LIX The
Subsequent of a Phrase
is
Element which
the
fol
lows the Leading Word as its Object.

Let the Pupil make Phrases, and distinguish the Leaden
from the Subsequents.
HP
LX.-The Adjuncts may
of
IET" Let the Pupil

Phrases Sentences.
_,
is
LXIL A Phrase
Principal Element,
Qt^
is
Let the Pupil
Adjective
'
)
f
Words
p HRASES? 1
( Adverbial ) Sentences,
make Phrases having Adjective Wor
TW
LXL-A Phrase
consist S
Transitive
intransitive.
or
having a Transitive Verb or Participle as

a Transitive Phrase.
make a
Transitive Phrase
1.
Participial
2. Infinitive.
LXIILA Phrase whose
Subsequent
is
Noun
or a Verb or a Participle having no Object,
or a Pronoun,
an Intransitive
is
Phrase.
GST Let
the Pupil
make an
Intransitive Phrase
2. Participial 3. Infinitive 4. Independent
1.
Prepositional
LXIY. A Phrase
is,
in
193
Prepositional,
Participial,
form
Infinitive, or
Independent.
LXV. A
Preposition
(j|p
Prepositional Phrase
is
one that
having a Substantive Element as
is
its
introduced by a
object of relation.
Let the Pupil make a Prepositional Phrase.
LXYI. A
ticiple,
Participial Phrase is one that is introduced by a Parbeing followed by an Object of an action, or by an Adjunct.
BJp Let
the Pupil
make
a Participial Phrase.
An Infinitive Phrase one that introduced by the

Preposition to having a Yerb in the Infinitive Mode as
Object
LXVII.
is
is
its
of relation.
HP Let the Pupil make an Infinitive Phrase.

LXYIII.
a
An Independent Phrase
is
one that
Leaders or Subsequents.
|p Let the Pupil make a Compound Phrase
ers
Compound Subsequent.
LXX. A Phrase
is
is
introduced by
Noun or a Pronounhaving a Participle depending on

IP Let the Pupil make an Independent Phrase.
LXIX. A Phrase is Compound when it has two
is
Complex when one
qualified
by another Phrase.
IP Let
LXXI.
the Pupil
make
A Phrase
and one or more
is
it.
or
Compound
of
its
more
Lead-
Principal Parts
a Complex Phrase.
Mixed when it has one or more
Transitive,
Intransitive, Subsequents.
Gp~ Let the Pupil
make
a Mixed Phrase.
Words combined into a Sentence, have a relation to

a relation which often determines their forms. The
Principal Modifications of words, as treated in Part
of this
work, are those of form and these forms vary according to their
Rem.
1.
each other
II.
relation to other words.
But the form does not always determine the
office
of words in a
Sentence.
I
may
say, " Frederick assisted James,"

and " James assisted Frederick."
Here, although I use the same words and the same form of those
words, I make two widely different assertions. The difference in
9
"
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
194
III
the assertions in these examples is caused by the change of position

of the Words. Hence the following laws of Agreement and Ar-
rangement
of words in the construction of Sentences.
2.
As Diagrams are of great service in constructing Senby serving as tests of the grammatical correctness of a composition, they are inserted in Part III.
It is hoped that the
Teacher will not fail to require the Class to write Sentences which
shall contain words in every possible condition, and in every variety of modification.
Young Pupils and beginners should be re-
Eem.
tences,
quired to place the Sentences in Diagrams.
SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.
Of the Principal Elements.
Eem.
While a single Word may be the " sign of an idea,"
it can
not alone constitute a Sentence. This can be done only by a com
bination of Words, properly arranged. Hence, only in their cornbi
nations are Words subject to Syntax.
Prhst.
The basis of every Sentence is the Substantive Word representing the person or the thing subjected
to discussion.
By Grammarians,
I.
PKIST.
1.
this
Word
is
called the Subject.
Material of the Subject.
-The Subject of a Sentence must be a Sub
stantive.
ject
may
Noun or
A Word,
Pronoun.
A Phrase, Substantive.
A Sentence, Substantive.
Inform the Sub-
Peiist. 2.
be
Examples.
1
A Word \ ^ Noun 1.
(b) Pronoun.^.
A Phrase
3.
'
"I
2.
" Virtue secures happiness.
He plants his footsteps in the sea."

" His being a minister, prevented his rising to
:t
civil
3.
A Sentence
4.
"To
5.
" That
power."
give good gifts and to be benevolent, are often

very different tilings."
all
men
truth."
are created equal,
is
a self-evident
SYNTAX OF THE SUBJECT.
195
Obs. 1. The Subject of a Sentence may be ascertained by its

answering the Interrogatives Who? or What? placed before the
Predicate.
Thus, in the Examples above
What
" secures
Who
" plants
?"
happiness
Ans.
his footsteps in
Ms
ed
*38i powIrr
ing
r
.
!!
A s -"
!
.
" is a self-evident truth?'
What
tt
Ans. Me.
/
j-
thesea?"
" Virtue"
7
.
^^
.Ans. " TAotf aW
***"
7?26?i
ar cre-
ated equal."
COMPOUND SUBJECTS.
Obs.
Two
2.
or
more Subjects may be common
to the
same
Predicate.
Examples.
Words
" Revelry and Blot pervade the city. 11

" Receiving calls and returning them occupy the entire day."
Where he went and when he will return are alike unknown to
1.
Phrases
Sentences
.2.
..3.
me.
Rem.
Whatever
discussed under the

proceed to discuss what is common
peculiar to Pronouns,
is
for Pronouns.
We now
Nouns, Pronouns, Phrases, and Sentences, considered as Sub-
Rule
to
is
jects
of Sentences.
II.
Obs.
Limitations of the Subject.
The Subject may be described or limited
3.
1.
2.
By declaring an attribute of it and

By assuming an attribute of it.
;
Examples.
Arthur
1.
Declared. Arthur
2.
Assumed.Sleepy Arthur has no
P MN !.-The
.
2.
Pri^".
sleeps,
Subject
is
is sleeping,
limited
j
Every
Arthur
is sleepy.
lesson.
J 5-*
j*
Subject must have a Predicate ex-
pressed or implied.
Examples. 1.
Who
(1.)
(~~ô
Obs.
x" stndies
4.
studies
Grammar ?
X^^^D
2.
John.
John
X"
X~ x
The Subject may be limited by Adjuncts.
And
tog, or Verbal Adjectives, and
may be.
as
.\
these Adjuncts are Specifying, Qualify- \
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
196
III.
Examples.
1.
Words. (a) One Word... A man met me.

(2.)
fîm
CO
(b)
^Y
^t
~~^--^-
^ " A"
is a Specifyinj
Adjective.
'
Two Words. .A poor man met me.

.
(3.)
man
Clj
-(c)
"~
me t
~"^
~Y
me
" poor" is a Quali-
*)
fymg
(poor)
Three Words. .A poor wayfaring

.
Adjective.
man met me.
(4.)
man
Y~h^ m^TY
(
CTKv^y^y^^
CêI~"
(d)
"
wayfaring" is a
Verbal Adjective.
Three Words and a Phrase. .A poor wayfaring

hath met me.
.
man
(5.)
(e)
Three Words, a Phrase and a Sentence.

"
A poor wayfaring maa of grief

Hath often met me [on
Who sued
[That I
my
way],
humbly] for relief,

could never answer Nay].
[so
1 '
(6.)
man
hath,
met
jfxne
(A Xpoor X^yfarli^ ^^^loftgsr
who
su ed
Exercises.
Let each Pupil make a Sentence having

1.
Its
Word
2.
3.
Subject limited
by aneV'
< 2.
Reifying
f
A Qualifying Adjective,
A Verbal Adjective.
Adjective,
(3.
Subject limited by two Words.
Its Subject limited by three or more Words.
Its
C 1. Prepositional,
4. Its
Subject limited by a Phrase
< 2. Participial,
( 3. Infinitive.
of grief
AD VERBS- CLASSES.
5.
Its
Subject limited by a Sentence
transitive,
*'
Intransitive,
I 2.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
197
Subject limited by a Word and a Phrase.

Subject limited by a Word, a Phrase, and a Sentence.
Its Subject limited by a Logical Adjunct Word.
(See p. 34.)
Phrase. (See p. 34.)
Its Subject limited by a Logical Adjunct
Its
Its
Its
Subject limited by a Logical Adjunct
Sentence.
(See
pp. 34, 48.)
III.
The Cokditiox
of the Subject.
(70
Subject
jT
Kule 1. The Subject

Subjective Case.
of a Sentence
must be in the
SUBJECT WORD.
Pki;n".
A Subject Word must be a Noun or a Pronoun.

(a.)
Rem.
The Form of the
Subject.
Because English Nouns are not varied in form
to
denote
Case can not be determined

Hence, much attention is required in giving them
the Case (except the Possessive), their
by
their forms.
their
proper position in a Sentence.
But when the Subject of a Sentence
is
the Relative or the Interrogative who, the

i
ject.
Note
j
a Personal Pronoun, or
form indicates the Sub-
1.
The Subject
o? a Sentence should have its
appropriate form.
Examples. 1. "/come not here to talk."
2. " You know too well the story
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
of our thraldom."
" Thou art perched aloft on the beetling crag."
" Heeds he not the bursting anguish ?"
" She could not pass the Regents' examination.1 '

" It came and faded like a wreath of mist."
" We are watchers of a beacon.'"
my
8.
" Ye have set at naught
9.
10.
" Theij have gone from their mountain-home."

" Who will show us any good ?"
11.
"
When
all
counsel."
Greek meets Greek, comes the tug of war."
"
198
Errors in
Rem.
Form
the
of
flic
III.
Subject
1.
2.
Let the Pupils correct the errors of the following
Errors in the forms of the Subject are limited to Pro-
nouns.
Rem.
Sen-
and give the authority for every criticism, by a proper reference to Rule I., or to Notes and Observations under the Rule.
tences,
1.
" I must protect those "boys, for them are
my friends."
That, is not proper, because " them,'" which is intended for the Subject of " are
friends," has not the form of the Subject. Change "them" to " they" " the appropriate form" for the Subject, and the sentence will read they are my friends.
Ggp~
Thus
correct the following errors
by Note
2.
"
My
sister
3.
"
We
have not learned
4.
" Scotland and thee did each in other live." Dryden.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
1-2.
me
1.
and me were both invited."
ll
Tell
Him I most loved
"
Them
in sadness
are the boys
whom
wjuom
fell
else
were invited."
she you \oYC."Shakspeare.
is
at Gettysburg."
we saw."
The rustic's sole response was, Them's my sentiments.'

" Has thee been to the yearly meeting ?"
w John and me go to the same school."
u Mother, do you care if us girls have a little dance in the parlor ?"
" Anna says that her and me can never learn much unless we study
l
evenings."
13. " Let's you and
14.
15.
16.
17.
me take a walk in the grove."

"You are the masters, and not me."
a He will in nowise cast out whomsoever cometh unto him."
" He feared his men would be cut otf, whom he saw were off their guard."
" }Vhomsoe\ev will compel thee to go a mile, go with
Essays.
him twain." Dy-
7)ion (Ts
18.
19.
We are to blame,
and not them.

" The king of the Samaritans, whom we may imagine was no small prince,
restored the prisoners."

20.
"I
know
not
whom else
(b.)
Note
2.
are expected."
Position of the Subject.
In position, the Subject of a
monly precedes the Verb.

Examples. 1. Anna
sings.
(S.)
(AnnaY"~
are developed.
2.
Resources
3.
Sentence com-
SYNTAX OF THE SUBJECT.

1.When
[on
cedes the Subject.

Example. Turn
Verb
the
the Imperative Mode, it pre-
is in
my
rs, turn vk, at
199
reproof.
11
()
yo
turn
[*J
Exception
When
2.
word
the
reproof^
there
used only to introduce
is
the Sentence;.
11
for those who ireep.
" There breathes not a oi
While friendt in their sadnesi are gathering round. 11
" There
Example*. i.
2.
Exception 8.By
is
calk
the poets and public speakers, for rhetorical
'effect.
Examples,
"
l.
4 A
Exception
Predicate,
is
Loud jteofc the thi vdsb."
M Perish the groveling
2.
Sentence having a Noun
often transposed.
Examples.1.
t:
thought. 11
(See
or a
Pronoun
The proper study of mankind i- man."

A train-band captain, eke was he"
2.
"
3.
"Hie pavilion were dark waters and thick cloud's."
Exception
5.
ia
555.)
p.
The
Subject follows the Predicate, or the
first
Word
of the Predicate, in Declarative Sentences, when the Conjunction ij\ used to introduce a conditional or modifying Sentence,
fa
omitted.
Example.
''
thou not, Bassan, lay these dreami aside,

plunge thee headlong In the whelming tide. 11
Dost
I']]
Exception
6.
In
Interrogative Sentences, the Subject
is
placed
after the Verb, first.
Examples,
;t
Heeds re not the bursting anguish V*
j.
2. is
J
Obs.
1.
But
be injured
leave thee
8,
Is
she kind
go
? G. May
1 A he
a scholar
5.
Must
'(
the [nterrogatiyes who, which, .and
W///./,
used as
Subjects, precede their Verbs.
Examples. Who
1
0ns.
'
will show as
lt
What
11
Which dto#
any good
can compensate
&e
/v//y//, (frst
2.When one word

the same
others, expressed in
f'
for lose
of character f 11
includes
in
its
signification
connection, the general term
proper Subject of the Verb; aud the included terms
many
is
may be
the
re-
200
III.
garded as explanatory, and, therefore, independent in construction.

(See Independent Case, p. 88.)
Examples. "All sink before it comfort, joy, and wealth.''
(10.)
comfort ~)1 (
(
Some
fov
joy
wealth )1
(
)? (
V_2.
teachers prefer to supply the ellipsis
-J
which
is
not im-
proper.
OMITTED SUBJECT.
Note
3.
the sense
The
is
Subject
Example." Washington, when
When
lie
may
sufficiently clear
was a boy.
This
be suppressed only when

without it.
a hoy,
is
was remarkable
for his manliness."
correct, because
it is
sufficiently
clear.
Error. " William came to school early but lost his books on
had no lesson. Say having lost his books on the way, he
had no lesson.
;
the way,
Obs.
The
3.
Subject of an Imperative Verb
is
commonly
sup-
pressed.
Example."
Take each man's censure, but
reserve thy judgment."
Obs. 4. But it is sometimes expressed.

Example. " Go ye into all the world."
Obs. 5. It is sometimes accompanied by an explanatory word.

Example." Ye rapid floods, give way." (See " Independent Case.")
(11.)
C~
ye
floods
Note
4.
rapid
jT
give
j^
way~J
J
)
Unnecessary repetition of the Subject should
be ayoided.
Obs.
6.
This principle
1.
3.
is
violated in the following Examples.
The people they are

Our boys they all go
foolish.
to school.
Obs. 7.But this practice is allowable, when necessary to a

proper rhetorical effect, or to complete the Rhythm in verse.
SYNTAX OF THE SUBJECT

Examples. 1. Our
Obs.
8.
the Propliets, do they
His teeth they chatter, chatter
2.
And
Fathers, where are they?
live forever
The agent of an action
is
still.
commonly
the Subject of the
by an
Sentence, but the agent of an action expressed
Verb,
may
201
Infinitive
be in the Subjective or in the Objective Case.

Examples.
1.
Subjective.
2.
Objective.-2.
Obs.
9.
John was invited to go.

I invited him to go. 3. It
The
commonly
is
best for
me
to remain.
agent of an action expressed by a Participle
is
in the Possessive Case.
Examples. 1.
2.
'
1.
heard of your going to Boston.
John's joining the army was unexpected by his friends.
it may be in the Subjective, in the Objective, and

Independent Case.
Obs. 10.But
in the
Examples.
Subjective.
1.
Objective.-2.
Independent.
"Scaling yonder peak, /saw an eagle

Wheeling near its brow."
3. The hour having arrived, we commenced the exercises.
SUBJECT PHRASE.
Obs. 11.
A Subject Phrase constitutes
one distinct Element

and should be construed and parsed in
a Subject Word. Thus,
the structure of a Sentence,

the
same manner
as
"
1.
To
"
steal is base.
(13.)
T
[
"
To
steal" is a
ject of "
2.
is
Phrase
steal
basoj
J Tis
inform,
Infinitive ;
in
Substantive ; for
office,
it is
the Sub-
base."
"Writing letters constitutes
my most
agreeable employment.
(14.)
^WritingXletters )
constitut es
3C
I
em P lo y ment
^
"
Writing
letters" is a
Phrasein form,
in
office,
Subject of" constitutes employment."
9*
m y Jl agreeable )
most j
Participial ;
Substantive ; for
it is
the
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
202
Obs.
12.
A Phrase used as the Subject
in the Third Person, Singular
III.
of a Sentence
is
always
Number.
Obs. 13. After a Phrase as such has been parsed, it should be

analyzed, by resolving it into its constituent Elements. Thus, in
the Phrase " to steal," "To"... is the Leader... a Preposition.
" Steal".
the Subsequent. .a Yerb. .Infinitive Mode. .Pres.and Object of the Preposition " to."
And in the Phrase " writing letters," " Writing". .is the Leader
" Letters". .is the Subsequent
.a Participle. .Active Present.
...a Noun. .Common. .Third Person. .Plural Number. .Ob.
.is
ent Tense.
jective Case.
Form of the Subject Phrase.
Obs. 14. The Phrases commonly used as Subjects of Sentences,

are the Infinitive and the Participial Prepositional and Independent Phrases being seldom thus used. (See Clark's Analysis,
page
109, note.)
Participial.-1.
Infinitive.
2.
Examples.
Making Sentences is a profitable exercise.
To make Sentences according to order requires some
skill.
Up Let each Pupil make a Sentence having a Participial Phrase

for its Subject.
Let each Pupil make a Sentence having an

its
Infinitive
Phrase
as
Subject.
Position of the Subject Phrase.
Note
In
5.
precedes
its
Position, the Subject Phrase
commonly
Predicate.
Examples. 1. To do good is the duty of all men.

% Managing the household affairs now constitutes
my
Obs.
Exception.
15.
Predicate.
sum
of
The Subject Phrase sometimes follows
its
Example." The
than
the
employments.
sure
way
to be cheated
is, to fancy
ourselves
more cunning
others.''''
Rem.
Subject.
1.
" To fancy
" Is way,"
is
ourselves
more cunning than others"
is
the
the Predicate.
Rem. 2. This position generally obtains, when the Indefinite

Pronoun it is placed instead of the Phrase. "It" precedes, and
the Phrase follows the Yerb.

Example. It
the duty of all
is
to
do good
203
to others.
(140
c~
foj
it
do
duty
*Y~~^
Xg od
others
Rem. 8. In parsing Examples like these, we parse " if as the

grammatical Subject of the Sentence and the Phrase as explanatory of the Pronoun it used to define the Indefinite Word- and
is, in its office, analogous to a Word .used to explain a preceding
Noun. (See Independent Case, Obs. 2, p. 88.)
;
SUBJECT SENTENCES.
44
That I have taken
this old
man's daughter
(15.)
CT^D
*
y
j^have takenj ( daughter
[
man's
~j
16.
most
true."
^
true
is
K^_JL
I most j
\thisJlo1dV/
Obs.
is
In Examples like the above we have two
Sentences
one, Principal, the other Auxiliary or Subordinate, both together
Complex Sentence. (See p. 42.) The Auxiliary

Sentence is an Element in the Principal the Subject, and should
be parsed accordingly.
Thus, in the above complex Sentence, the Principal Sentence is
Simple, Intransitive, having one Subject " That I have taken this
u
old mail s daughter ;" one Predicate
is true ;" and one Adjunct
" most"
constituting a
Obs. 17. A Sentence used as the Subject of another Sentence,

always in the Third Person, Singular Number.
is
After an
Auxiliary Sentence has been parsed, as one

it should be analyzed by resolving it into its constituent Elements. Thus, in the Auxiliary Sentence given above,
Obs.
18.
Element in
"
its
Principal Sentence,
That"
Introduces the Sentence
hence, a Conjunction.
" I"
Is the Subject of its Sentence hence, a Substantive.
" Have taken" Is the Predicate
a Verb and a Participle.
" This"
Is an Adjunct of " man" ['s]
hence, an Adjective.
;
"
Old"
Is
an Adjunct of " man"
['s]
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
204
III.
" Man's"
Is an Adjunct of " daughter ;" hence, an Adjective.
" Daughter".. .Is the Object of "have taken ;" hence, a Substantive.
Obs. 19. The Subject Sentence is commonly not always

troduced by the Conjunction " that." (See Examples below.)
in-
Position of Subject Sentences.
Note
6.
Predicate.
Examples. 1.
Subject
Sentence
placed before
is
" That ive differ in opinion is not strange."

" How he came oy it, shall be disclosed in the next chapter."
2.
Obs. 20. Exceptions. When the Pronoun it

a Subject Sentence, the
which
stands
is
Example." It
is
it
(16.)
its
Pronoun
placed after the Verb.

probable that John will come.'
is
j(
It
substituted for
is
and the Sentence
precedes,
for
''
possible
( that)
l
^John )(
will
come )
Obs. 21. In parsing Sentences like the above, we are to parse

" it" as the grammatical Subject of the Principal Sentence, and the
whole Auxiliary Sentence as explanatory of the word

Logical Adjunct of " it." (See " Logical Adjunct," p. 34.)
"
it"
Exercises.
EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
$W
Let the Class make Sentences, which shall be correct examples of the several Notes, Observations, and Remarks, under
Hule 1.
MODEL.
1.
(17.)
Friend
after friend departs.
Friend
departs
IterJ l
frientf)
ANALYSIS.
Principal Elements
\
(
Adjunct Element
g***"
Fnend"
Simple Sentence,
departs.
Intransitive.
w %*%*-,
..\%
the Predicate
Of f
'.
The Leader
The Subsequent
'"
Predicate,
After
Friend
,
u A "
After friend"
Phrase.
a P1
.
a Preposition.
a Noun.
;:
205
PARSED BY THE CHART.

" Friend"
is
an Element in the Sentence.
Principal Element.
Subject.
Word.
Noun.
Common.
Third Person.
Singular Number.
Subjective Case according to
The Subject of a Sentence must be in the Subjective Case.
Rule
1st.
$W Thus analyze
the Sentences in the following Examples,
all
and parse the Subjects of each.

2.
There is no union here of hearts,

That finds not here an end
3.
Were
4.
Thus
this frail world our final rest,

Living or dying none were blest.
star by star declines,
Till all are

5.
6.
passed away
As morning high and higher

To pure and perfect day
shines,
Nor sink those
stars in empty night,

But hide themselves in heaven's own
light.
" Rewarding and punishing actions by any other rule, Would appear much
harder to be accounted for by minds formed as he has formed ours." Bishop
7.
'Butler.
8.
"
9.
" That every day has
What time he
10.
"
11.
"
took orders, doth not appear.

its
pains and soitows,
'Life of Butler.
is universally
My hopes and fears start up alarmed."

Who
The
shall tempt,
with wandering
feet,
dark, unfathomed, infinite abyss ?"
drum was
12.
" Not a
13.
" Not half of our heavy task was done."
heard, nor a funeral note"
14.
"
Few and
15.
"
A chieftain's daughter seemed the maid"
16.
" Her satin snood, her silken plaid,
short were the prayers
Her golden
we
said."
brooch, such birth betrayed."
experienced."
ENGLISH GBAMMARPABT
206
III.
SYNTAX OF THE PREDICATE.

(l 8.)
'1.
REM.-The
Predicate
\
declares
X^
1>redicate
Subject
Absolutely,
1.
Existence,
p^J^f'
2.
State,
3.
4.
Condition,
Change, or
5.
Act performed
4 Imperatively, or
Interrogatively,
5.
or received.
I.
Pri]*.
Material of the Predicate.
There can be no Predicate without a Verb.
Obs. 1. The Verb in Predicate

other words before or after it.
may
stand alone, or
it
may
have
Obs. 2. The various forms of Predicates are exhibited in the

following
Examples.
Boys study.
1. A Verb
We recite.
2.
A Verb
3.
A Verb and an Adjective
4.
A Verb and a Noun
5.
A Verb and a Pronoun
It is I.
6.
A Verb and two Participles
Was it you?
Boys have been studying.
7.
A Verb,
8.
A Verb, a Participle,
Boys are studying.
and a Participle
.
Lessons are recited.

Boys are studious.
Lessons are difficult.
Boys are students.
Books are helps.
Lessons have been

a Participle,
and an Adjective
and a Noun
We have been boys.

They have been
9.
A Verb, a Participle,
10.
AVerb and a Verb
11.
A Verb, a Verb,
and a Pronoun
classmates.
been we?
It had been we.
Boys do study.
Had
it
We can recite.
and a Participle
12.
A Verb, a Verb, and an
13.
A Verb,
a Verb, and a
recited.
Boys have been studious.

Lessons had been difficult.
Adjective
Noun
Boys may
be studying.
Lessons should be recited.

Boys should be studious.
Books may be beneficial.

Boys slwuld be students.
Books may be companions.

A Verb,
a Verb, and a Pronoun
207
Can
17.
it be you ?
might be he.
A Verb, a Verb, a Participle and a Participle Boys should have been studying*
Lessons will have been recited.
A Verb, a Verb, a Participle and an Adjective Boys should have been studious.
Lessons may have been difficult.
A Verb, a Verb, a Participle and a Noun. .Boys might have been students.
18.
A Verb,
14.
It
15.
16.
. .
We should
have been friends.
may have been he.

Who could it have been ?
a Verb, a Participle and a Pronoun.lt
Obs. 3. From the above complete

English Sentences, we see,
of Predicates of Simple
list
1.
That the Predicate may consist of
2.
words.
That a Yerb
may
one, two, three, or
four
be a complete Predicate.
That more frequently a Yerb is only a part of a Predicate.

That the first word must be a Verb.
That the last word may be a Verb, a Participle, an Adjective, a Noun, or a Pronoun.
That the last word in Predicate is the Principal Word.
That the other words are Auxiliary indicating Voice,
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Mode, or Tense in addition to the
office
of asserting the
existence, the attribute, the office, or the act of the Subject.
Hence,
Obs. 4. In parsing a Predicate, we should first parse the entire

Predicate as one individual element, and then distinguish the various
[See Model, p. gcg.]
offices of its several words.
Obs.
5.
Besides the above forms and
Predicate,
we have
combinations of words in
which
certain idiomatic forms of Sentences, in
Phrases occur in Predicate.
Examples. 1.
for I
2.
Equivalent.
4.
"
And
'
to go,
must
John was
C~~\
go.
j am
to
i
must
j~gQ
go
")
in hopes of receiving the prize,
John hoped to receive the prize.

"
3.
am
To
feel is to
be fired,"
')
to believe, Lorenzo, is to feel,"
EquivIf we believe, we feel, and

we are filled.
if
we feel
'
\to|
feel
^to/believe
${
Is
)Yis
fa/"be
\y>)
fired
feel
^
)
208
III.
Rem. The use of Phrases in Predicate is not often elegant, and

should generally be avoided when other equivalent forms will express the
same thought.
Exercises.
Let each Pupil
3.
4.
5.
6.
8.
9.
10.
Predicate
One
One
One
One
Verb and two
Participles.
17.
Verb, a Participle, and an Adjective.

Verb, a Participle, and a Noun.
Verb, a Participle, and a Pronoun.
Two Verbs, a Participle, and an Adjective.
Two Verbs, a Participle, and a Noun.
Two Verbs, a Participle, and a Pronoun.
18.
Two
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
II.
Verbs and two Participles.
Modifications of the Predicate.
As the Subject
by
is
limited (see p. 000)>

Predicate,
1.
Logically,
2.
Grammatically, by
Prin.
its
Two Verbs and a Participle.

Two Verbs and an Adjective.
Two Verbs and a Noun.
Two Verbs and a Pronoun.
11.
Rem.
a Sentence having for
2. Two Verbs.
One Verb.
One Verb and a Participle
One Verb and an Adjective.
One Verb and a Noun.
One Verb and a Pronoun.
1.
7.
make
its
its
and
Adjuncts ; so
The Predicate may be modified,

by
1.
Logically,
2.
Grammatically, by
its Object,
its
and
Adjuncts.
Def. 164. Predicates that have Objects

Transitive Predicates.
are
called
Examples. 1. Boys study Grammar.

Columbus discovered America.
2.
Def. 165. Predicates that have no Objects

Intransitive Predicates.
Examples. 1. Boys play.
3.
2. I might have been studying

America was discovered.
'.
are called

Def. 166.
Predicates
209
that have Adjuncts are called
Modified Predicates.
Exa3Iples. 1. Charles
2.
"
calls often.
We have come from the mountains."
Words,
Phrases,
or
Sentences.
Examples.
Words
"
1.
" On, still on, he presses, and forever."

" Time slept on flowers."
2.
Phrases
We shall soon go hence."
3.
4. " I have been sitting by the hillside."

Sentences .. 5. " IVhere'er we turn, thy glories shine."
6. " If you have a proper self-respect, you will not be lavish of
your company to any one."
Pri^.
All
AdBut Nouns and ProPredicate may be modified or limited by

modifications of Verbs, Participles, or
jectives in Predicate are Adverbs.
nouns in
Adjectives.
Peik.
may
Adjuncts of the Predicate
be
j
(
Logical and
Grammatical*
Obs. 1. Logical Adjuncts of Predicates generally consist of Independent Phrases substituted for Adverbial Sentences.
Examples.
1.
The
dinner
2.
When
to (
had rung, we went
to (
'
we
we
")(
itote^
went
QvW
Xhad
" The bell having rung,"
""")
went
Aap
the bell
dinner
we went
having rung,
bell
)
I
fl'-^meO
rung )
an Independent Phrase. (See

an Auxiliary Sentence. (See
In the above examples, both the Sentence and the Phrase
p. 45.)
alike modify " proceeded," as to time.
But
Rem.
p. 25.)
"
When
the bell
is
had rung,"
is
The Phrase, having no word making a grammatical connection

with the Predicate,
The
is
said to be a Logical Adjunct ; whereas,
being joined to the Predicate by the Adverbial Conjunction " when" a Grammatical Adjunct.
Sentence
is
210
III.
Exercises.
Let each Pupil make a Sentence* whose Predicate shall have

1.
No
2.
Anna sings.
One Object.
3.
4.
5.
Object
Clara studies
Grammar.
Two
Objects
We invited
we
invited
^=-=
Jr
Ânna
Lucy and Jennie.
One Word Adjunct

Anna sings sweetly.
Two Word Adjuncts
Lucy comes here
6.
C Ann a X >sul * a
Clalir"X^^gYRrammar"
- ^^
often.
One Phrase Adjunct
X studliT)
CIara
Clara studies at home.

7.
8.
9.
C Father
office
at
C
Ernest Y
v
and one Phrase

speaks
well at
C often->
y7
y?
JK
<
LI
)
.
One Intransitive Sentence Adjunct.

I will go if you will.
11.
One Transitive Sentence Adjunct.,

John studies when he attends
-^
>
J()hn
^
QQ
Phrase
seldom succeed in school unless
we obey commands.
v^
One Logical Adjunct

The cars having departed, we
studies
"
"
<
One Word, one Sentence, and one
^^
>,
'
We *v
we
re-
^
Y
returnecl
3C
(
,-
a 3
;-
)
'
,)
CluJ ^ having
Subject
)|j n )
v/
turned.
Prut. The same
"\
*
Bncceed
We
13.
>
speaks
v
10.
school.
Two Words
Lucy
~- c alls
generajly
school.
_t
One Word and One Phrase

Lucy often calls on us.
Ernest
12.
VUcomes )
'>
Two
Phrase Adjuncts
Father comes from the
noon.
8ip g 8
X\__X
/gg^
3
Lucy
le{<T^)
may have more than
one
Predicate.
Examples.
Two
Predicates.." It came and faded like a wreath of mist."

"
Three
" The boys respect, obey, and love their teacher."
"
Four
" He bounds, pervades, controls, encircles all."
[Sec Diagrams, pp. 44, 55, 58.
.
III.
Note
pressed
scured.
1.
Suppeessed Predicates.
One or more words in Predicate may be sup-
when
the sense
is
not thereby weakened nor ob-
"
211
Examples.
The
1st
Word.
" Most happy
1.
it is the knell of my departed hours."

" Til to the woods away."
" They may and should return to allegiance."
" May you never be deceived as I have been."
" If heard aright,
2.
The 2d Word
they whom least his arts deceive."
.3.
4.
The Zd Word.. 5.
The entire Predicate..^. "
To arms." " To your tents, O Israel I"

thus Eve ."
"To whom
7.
" Where's the boy but three feet high,

That's made improvement more than I ?"
8.
Exercises.
Let the Pupils name the words in the following Predicates whose
suppression will contribute to conciseness, force, or elegance.
1.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
2. Go back to thy punishment, false traitor.

go to the city and shall buy me a hat.
John went and James went and George went to the city.
I can go and will go to the lecture.
Ernest has studied and has recited his lessons well.
The other boys can learn and should learn the same lessons,
You can go and can return on the same day.
Anna can sing better than Ernest can sing.
I wish Harmon were as much interested as Arthur is interested.
Is Mary taller than Albert is tall?
The stars are as bright as the sun is bright.
I'll
go away.
I shall
Note 2. No part of the Predicate should be

when the sense is thereby altered or obscured.
UUP Let
omitted,
the Pupils correct the following

Errors.
1.
2.
3.
can be
" Illustrations make more vivid impressions than can beby reasoning."
" A poet, by force of genius alone, may rise higher than a public speaker
" I shall avoid
it
altogether
if it
1 '
5.
William assisted George more than Charles

" A squirrel can climb a tree quicker than a boy"
6.
John obeys his teacher as
7.
8.
William secured his position before Ernest

" Ralph assisted his father more than James"
9.
"
4.
10.
11.
I studied my lesson
cheerfully as
since school opened."
" I see you again to-morrow."

" You ask for my opinion ?"
James
"
212
IV. Active
Obs.
1.
Predicates. Passive Predicates.
The Predicate may declare an act

Done
Done
1.
2.
III.
by
its
to its
" Active Voice"
Subject
Subject
"
Passive Voice"
Examples.
(
(1.)
Action of Us Subject
(2.)
Action
1.
< 3.
(
4.
1.
to its Subject < 3.

/
4.
We love.
We see.
2.
Columbus discovered America.

John is building his house.
We are loved.
2.
We are
seen.
America was discovered.

John's house
is
being
built.
Obs. 2. Taste and judgment should be exercised in deciding

which form Active or Passive should be used. But,
Obs. 3. Generally we use the Active form when the principal

thought centers on the Agent.
Examples." Virtue secures happiness. " Temperance promotes health.
Here
" virtue"
and
" temperance" indicate the
prominent thoughts.
Obs. 4. We use the Passive form, when the principal thought

centers on the recipient of the action, or when we do not know or
do not care to mention the agent.
Examples. 1. "Manhood
is
disgraced by the consequences of neglected
youth.
2.
"
The crew were
saved, but the ship
was
lost.
1 '
Here, "manhood," "crew," and "ship" are most prominent in

thought.
Note 3. When
ject,
the Agent of an act

the Active Voice should be used.
Examples.1. Mr. Dewey has examined his class.

2. " The village master taught his little
Note
4.
is
made
the Sub-
school."
When the recipient of the action
is
made the
Subject, the Passive form should be employed.

Examples.1. The class has been examined.
2.
The
school ivas taught
by Dewey.
Obs. 5. An Active Transitive Predicate may be changed to the

Passive Intransitive form without materially altering the sense.
Examples.
Active.
.1
(21.)
saw him.
Passive. .He
was
seen
by me.
r~
Ho
^y^
X^
saw
was
^
seen
55
him
"^
1

K~ote
5.
Only the
213
direct object can properly
become
the Subject of a Passive Predicate,

Examples. 1. The teacher gave John a long lesson.
Wrong.. 2. John was given a long lesson by the teacher.
Correct.. 3. A long lesson was given to John by the teacher.
Exception. But an Intransitive Predicate modified by a Phrase,

sometimes takes the Passive form the Leader of the Phrase being
retained in Predicate.
(See p. 117.)
Note
its
6.
The progressive form in the Active voice has
corresponding progressive form in the Passive.*
Examples. 1. John
Active..
2.
3.
Passive. A.
"
is reciting his lesson.
While he was harvesting his wheat, the flood came and

swept it all away."
John's lesson
is
being recited.
While his wheat ivas being harvested, the flood came and
swept it all away.
We have certain idiomatic
forms of expression in which

pnt for the other.
2. " You are come too late,"
1. " You are mistaken"
1. The Passive
for You have come too late.
for the Active.
for You mistake.
1. The bell is tolling,
2. The Active
for the Passive.
for The bell is tolled ; i. e.,
Some one is tolling the bell.
Obs.
one Voice
is
2.
I have a lesson to learn this evening,
for I
I
3.
4.
have a lesson to be learned, or

have to learn a lesson.
"American marble polishes better than the

" Basswood cats easier than oak."
Italian."
* By a modern error unfortunately sanctioned by some authors action is

sometimes improperly predicated of a Passive Subject.
Examples. "The house is building" for the house is being built; which
means, the house is be[com]ing built, i. e., people are at work upon it but the
house does not act.
This error, extended, would show itself more palpably. Thus The field is
plowing the grass is mowing the wood is chopping the lesson is studying
r while the boy was whipping by the parent, the room was sweeping, the dinner
was eating, the cow was milking."
Let us decide that all these are wrong, and go back to the sensible doctrine
that a Subjectbeing not the agent but the recipient of the action requires the
;
Passive form.
" While the boy was being whipped, the room was being swept, and the cow
was being milked'' by some one, are pure English, sanctioned by our best
writers, English and American. The feeble argument against this construction,
u that it brings two like verbs or a verb and its participle together in the same
Predicate," is sufficiently answered by the fact that the same is true of other
" Robert would not will his farm
verbs. I did do it, John has had the measles.
1
to his
nephew."
ENGLISH GBAMMARPART
214
^T Let
Erkors. (See Note

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
8.
9.
5.)
has been given a severe reprimand by the teacher.
Silas
Our minister was donated a horse and carriage.

we have been given very good advice.
I have often been asked my opinion on that subject.
William was given a hundred dollars to test his economy.
I was told that story when I was a little boy.
Since then
Progressive
7.
III.
Form. (See
Note
6.)
While John's dinner was eating, his corn was planting.

His barn was raising on the day his hay was cutting.
These sentences are writing to show what an effort is making to confound
the Active with the Passive Voice. " Pray you avoid it."
The Verb
V.
Kem. While
that of making
all
ik Predicate.
Verbs in Predicate have one
the assertion
they
office in
common
differ as to the force
of their
Predications.
Obs.
Some Verbs have
1.
Objects,
and hence are called Transi-
tive Verbs.
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE.
Note
7.
Verb which
is
necessarily Transitive re-
quires an Object in construction, expressed or implied.
Obs. 2. The appropriate Object of a Sentence should not be

the Object of a Phrase.
made
Example. " Transitive Verbs do not admit

Grammar, p. 91, edition of 1847.
of a Preposition after them.'"
Bullion's
Corrected. Transitive Verbs do not admit Prepositions

them [to complete the Predicate].
Obs.
Some Yerbs have no Objects, and
3.
after
hence are called InA
transitive Verbs.
Note
8.
Verb necessarily Intransitive should not
have an Object, except dy poetic
license or for other rhetor-
ical purposes.
Example. " I
Obs.
4.
sit
me down,
a pensive hour to spend."
Some Verbs may have
to their connections
Objects or
with other words.
may
If the
not
mind
according
rests
simply
SYNTAX OF THE PBEBICATE.

on the
on the time,
act, or
itransitive
place, or
if
thought
act, the
the act,
it
may
be
as,
Clara studies at
But
manner of
215
Verb
is
is
home Anna
reads well.
directed to a being or thing as the object of the
Transitive
Clara studies algebraAnna reads her Bible often.
Obs.
own
5.
Some Verbs have their Objects limited to words of their
signification.
Examples.1. " I dreamed
Obs.
6.
Some
Transitive
by
dream
that
wai not
3.
4.
Obs.
7.
a dream."
Verbs,
commonly used
Intransitively,
become
virtue of a Prepositional Prefix.
Examples. 1. John goes to school

2. John undergoes punishment
is
all
" I have fought a good fight."
2.
The tower
The tower
"goes"
is Intransitive.
looks well
" undergoes" is Transitive.

" looks" is Intransitive.
overlooks the city
" overlooks"
is Transitive.
In such examples of Compound Verbs in Predicate,

not always the Preposition in Composition that makes
it
generally
the
Verb
Transitive.
Obs. 8. Verbs made Transitive by this use of Prefixes, can not

elegantly be used in the Passive Voice.
Examples. 1. "John undergoes punishment." We may not say punishment is undergone by John.
2. " The tower overlooks the city."Nor, the city is overlooked
by the tower.
Obs.
bute,
9.
In
their
and hence are
Rank, Verbs
differ.
Some
declare the Attri-
called Principal Verbs.
Examples.We study. They
recite.Boys should study.
Obs. 10. Some Verbs in Predicate indicate the circumstance of

Mode, Tense, Voice, or some modification of the assertion, and hence
are called Auxiliary Verbs.
Examples.I do study.You have studied.Boys should
study.
9.
In the construction of Sentences, those AuxVerbs should be used that will best express the
Voice, Mode, and Tense intended.
Xote
iliary
216
The Auxiliaky Verb
We
III
be.
use the Auxiliary Verb be in all its modifications

Obs. 1.
before a Present Participle, to make the progressive form of the
Active Voice.
Examples.
1.
Robert
2.
The gardener was trimming vines.
is
attending lectures.
Obs. We use the Auxiliary Verb be in

modifications
before a Past Participle, to make the Predicate Passive.
2.
all its
Examples.
The lectures were well attended.

The grape-vines are trimmed.
1.
2.
Obs.
3.
We
use the Verb be
Adjectives, Nouns,
in
modifications
all its
and Pronouns in Predicate,
before
as a Copulative
Verb, to give a declarative expression of the Attribute.
Examples.Ellen
Obs.
4.
The
is fair. It is
Verb be
/.He
in
is
3.
are.
" Before
2.
forms used as a complete

always Intransitive.
all its
Predicate, asserts simple existence.
Examples. 1. They
a poet.
It is
am.
Abraham was,
am.
1 '
Rem. The Verb be is never properly followed by another Verb

same Predicate.
in the
Have had.
Obs. 5. The Auxiliary Verb have

used to indicate a Prior Tense.
in
all its
modifications
is
Examples.
Prior Present.I have finished my work.
Have you been to church to-day
Prior Past.
Had your coming been

Prior Future.
Participle.
John had gone before I arrived.

previously announced
John will have finished his studies.
" Having seen the elephant, the rustic was satisfied.'*
Infinitive. We ought to have attended the lecture.
Obs. 6. As a Principal Verb, have in all its modifications

used to assert possession. It is always Transitive.
Example." The
is
pupil has his rights as the teacher has his."
Rem. This Verb have, is never properly followed by another

Verb in the same Predicate.
SYNTAX OF THE PBEDICATE.
217
Do diddone.
Obs.
7.
The Auxiliary Verbs
do and did are used
pilosis or intensity to their Principal
to give
em-
Verbs.
Examples.
Present, do. We do greatly
rejoice in
Past, did.Bid Claudius waylay Milo
Mary's good fortune.

?
Obs. 8. In colloquial style the Auxiliary Verbs

modifications
are often
used as a
substitute for the
in
all their
Verbs or Par-
ticiples in Predicate.
Examples.
done.
2.
M Clara studies more diligently than you do than you study.''''

" Waste not your time as I have done as I have wasted mine.
have.
3.
Had you studied as faithfully as I have, you would have had your lesson.
4.
Louis
do
1.
are
can
.5.
is
not quite so old as you are.
Anna played
that piece as well as
you can.
Obs. 9. As Auxiliary Verbs, when shall and will are used

simply to assert a predication, they are signs of the Indicative Future,
But when used to assert a present volition or enforce an obligation,
they are signs of the Potential Present.
In the Indicative Mode, shall is properly used with the First Perand will with the Second and Third.
son,
In the Potential Mode
this order is reversed,
Examples.
Indicative Future.We shall have our lessons before the bell strikes.
You will soon see who has the lesson.
John will soon be here.
Potential Present.We will
You
good lessons, or none.
leave
do
shall not
John
it.
shall go to the lecture
with you.
But,
Obs. 10. In modern practice shall and will are interchangeable,

one being often used for the other sometimes not inelegantly, but
often improperly.
I will
drown
No one shall help me
\
;
drown.
one will help me.
I shall
No
Obs. 11. The Auxiliaries may, can, must (in the Present), and
might, could, would, and should (in the Past), are signs of the
Potential Mode.
10
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
218
Obs.
12.
III.
All the Auxiliary Verbs except " be" and
"
have,"
re
quire Predicate Verbs after them.
Obs. 13. Those Auxiliary Verbs that are also used as Principal
Verbs, have not the same force and signification in each condition.
Examples.
As an
Auxiliary.
Bo ... I do love you.
Have.. I have seen him.
Will you come to-morrow
Will
"
Shall I he carried
. . .
.We
Principal Verb or Participle.
do as John does.
I have had the ring.
John willed me his watch.

To be, contents his desire.
Our wood is being sawn.
. .
Be
As a
are sawing our wood.
Mode.
Note
will
That Mode of a Verb should be used which
10.
most
convey the sense intended.
clearly
Indicative.
Obs.
When we declare or predict an actual
1.
tional event
assumed
Examples. 1. God
,
as true,
lives.
2.
we
Man
event, or a condiproperly use the Indicative Mode.
is
mortal.
John has gone, he has gone
3.
If
4.
Thou
art a scholar.
5,
The
at
your request.
eclipse will occur to-morrow.
Potential.
Obs.
We assert
2.
by words
desire, duty, probability, possibility,
in the Potential
Examples. 1. Desire." I would thou wert

2.
Duty.
5.
volition
cold or hot."
We should have perfect lessons.
3. Probability."
4.
and
Mode*
Possibility.
Volition.
may do what
I shall
be sorry for."
You can learn this lesson easily.
" I will be honest
if I
cannot be rich."
Subjunctive.
A Verb
used to denote a conditional fact or a contingency should have the Subjunctive form.
Obs.
3.
Examples.
1.
" Were I Alexander, I would accept these terms."
2.
"So would
I were I
Parmenio."
Obs. 4. But if the condition is assumed as unquestionable, the

Verb should be in the Indicative Mode.
Examples. 1.
2.
" If the boat goes, I shall go."

If
John has offended you, he
will
make due
apology.
For a List of Auxiliary Verbs that are signs of the Potential Mode, see
p. 132.

Rem. 1. The Subjunctive Mode
219
found only in Auxiliary Ad-
is
verbial Sentences.
Obs.
5.
A Sentence
By
1.
is
made conditional
the Subjunctive
form of the Verb, without a
Conditional Conjunction.
Example. Were
I a teacher I
By
would require perfect lessons.
being introduced by the Conjunctions if,

though, unless, etc., when the Mode may be Indic-
2.
its
or Subjunctive.
ative, Potential,
Examples.
Indicative. 1. "
If the earth turns over,
Though Ernest
2.
Potential.3.
If
4.
Subjunctive.5.
6.
we would
is
why do we
young, he
be wise,
is
we must
not
fall
off?"
not boyish.
study.
" Though thou shouldst bray a fool in a mortar.'*

" If I were rich, I would build a hospital.' 1
" Were I not Alexander, I would be Diogenes."
Imperative.
We
Obs. 6.
express command, entreaty, or advice in the use of the
Imperative Mode.
Examples.
Command. .1. " Make way

Entreaty
2.
3.
4.
Advice
Obs.
7.
Obs.
8.
for Liberty."
" Charge, Chester, charge."
" Give us this day our daily bread."

" Angels, and ministers of grace, defend us."
5.
" Avoid
6.
Let
it,
turn from
it
and pass away."
the ends thou aimest at be thy country's, thy God's,

and Truth's.
all
The Imperative Mode limited to the Present Tense.

The form of the Imperative often elegantly used for
is
is
the Future Indicative.
Examples. 1. Let us
2.
Hem.
2.
sing, for
"Let there be
We will sing.
light,
'
for Light shall be.
In analyzing and parsing Sentences like these we are to
proceed as in ordinary Imperative Sentences.

you find it.
Obs.
9.
We have
certain forms of expression
gous, if not equivalent to the Imperative
the form.
Parse a Sentence as
which
are analo-
having the force without
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
220
III
Examples.
Indicative. 1. "Fall he that must, beneath his
And live
Potential.2.
Obs. 10.
'
Thou
rival's
arms,
the rest, secure of future harms.'"
shalt not take the
The Imperative Mode
is
name
of the
Pope.
Lord thy God in vain."
found only in Principal Sen-
tences.
Obs.
11.
The Infinitive Mode
is
not used as a Predicate Verb.
HP Let the Pupils correct the following

Errors. (See
p. 218.)
2.
" I wish I was a gipsy.

" If I was a teacher, I should give shorter lessons."
3.
" Take care lest the boat leaves before you shall get up."
1 '
1.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
" The boy looks as
if he was discouraged.'"
was the king, I would conciliate the Commons."
" Shall you promise obedience in future, if I be lenient now ?"
" I should think you ought to be more attentive to your studies."
"It would seem that John has incurred the displeasure of the teacher."
" If I was a Greek, I should resist Turkish despotism."
If you was in my place, you would the better appreciate my motives.
If he be as wise as he seem, he shall prove a good teacher.
" If I
12. If
13.
Watch
16. If I
me
away, I will be miserable indeed.
was angry.
take heed lest he makes
as if he
bade him
14. I
15.
thou sendest
He spoke
to
life
a failure.
the thoughts of thy heart, lest thou sinnest with thy lips.
was
to decide,
your hopes would brighten.
Exercises.
Let the Pupils determine the Voice, Mode, and Tense of each
Verb
in the following Sentences
The study
4.
of science tends to make us devout.

I have a temple in every heart that owns my influence.
I have loved this vain world too much.
You will have accomplished a noble deed before you go hence.
5.
Who
1.
2.
3.
can observe the careful ant, and not provide for future
want ?
6.
May
7.
We
8.
one be pardoned and retain the offence

not have this man to rule over us.
" Make way for Liberty,' he cried,
made
icill
'
and died"
9. Were
I as rich as Croesus, I
would not
be
way
for Liberty,
thus extravagant.

10.
When
gold comes
down
to par, specie
payments
221
will be re-
sumed.
one dollar will bay twelve pineapples, what will buy two ?
pineapples were as common as apples, would we prize them
as highly ?
13. " Then turn we to her latest tribune's name."
11. If
12. If
Tekse.
Rem. 1. The time of an act or event is represented generally by

the/arm of the Verb, and definitely by the use of Adjuncts. Hence,
Note
will
11.
most
Obs.
1.
That form of the Verb should be used which
clearly express the time intended.
A proposition which
the past, the present,
and the
is
always true, or which includes

should be expressed in the
future,
Present Tense.
Examples. 1. " The

2.
lecturer demonstrated that the earth is round.
" Did he say that the
moon
revolves
1 '
from east to west ?"
Obs. 2. In Complex Sentences, the Tense of the Principal Sentence does not necessarily control the Tense of the Verb in the
Auxiliary Sentence.
Examples.
Past and Present. 1. "
2.
I said in my haste,' all men are li^rs."

" Copernicus first demonstrated that the earth
revolves upon its axis."

Present and Future. 3. " Those that seek me early shall find me."
Future and Prior Present. 4- You will never know how much I have loved you.
Present and Prior Past.5. I can not tell where I had seen him.
Exception.
In Auxiliary Sentences introduced by wnen, we use
the Present form for the Future
Sentence
Examples. 1.
2.
Obs.
3.
the
Verb
I shall
go when the boat
Will you be here
in the Principal
leaves.
when Ernest comes ?
An act or event in a time absolutely past,
in the Past
is
best expressed
form of the Yerb.
Examples.1. Time
2.
Obs.
when
is future.
4 By
slept
on flowers, and
lent his glass to
Hope."
Grant commanded the army of the James.
a figure of speech (see " Vision," p. 000) often used
in animated discourse, the Present
form
is
put for the Past.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
222
III
Examples. 1. Hark by the red lightning's fitful glare

What bark is plunging 'mid the billowy
!
2.
Now itmounts the
strife ?
wave, and rises threatening to the frown*
ing sky.
Obs. 5.= An act or event in a period of past time reaching to the

is best expressed in the Prior Present form.
Present,
Examples.
Obs.
6.
1.
" I have never seen the righteous forsaken."
2.
Grant has occupied the chair of state one year.
This
and
absolutely
form
is
never properly used in asserting an act
definitely past.
Examples.
Incwrect
.1.
Corrected.
.1.
I have seen William yesterday.

Phillips has lectured last evening
2.
Phillips lectured last evening
2.
Obs.
is
7.
on " the Lost Arts."
saw William yesterday.
An act or event predicted
on " the Lost Arts."
or promised at a future time,
best expressed in the Future form of the Verb.
Examples. 1.
2.
Exception.
We shall not all

Will
sleep.
Sherman be our next President
In Adverbial Sentences used
to
denote time, the Pres-
ent is often used for the Future and the Prior Future.
Examples. 1. I shall go when the train starts will start.
2. " Till I come, give attention to reading."
3.
"
'
And when we
O where
Obs.
8.
shall
are parted and when thou art dead,

lay thee V his followers said."
we
When we wish
at a future time,
Examples.1.
2.
we
to represent an act or event as finished

use the form of the Prior Future Tense*
completed
be published.
I shall have
my
sixtieth year before this
will have learned something of astronomy before the

next transit of Venus will occur."
Future and Present.
to
throw
'
I shall arrive there before
Prior Future and Future. " I

*
will
"You
Rem. 2. In familiar style it is sometimes allowable

back those Future Tenses one degree thus,
tors,
work
shall
you do"
for
have arrived there before you will."
are the common laws for the use of the Tenses. But poets, oraand speakers in animated discourse, and writers in easy colloquial style,
The above
often claim license to disregard these laws, provided the " thoughts intended"are thereby conveyed " without fraud or fallacy."
"

Obs. 9. The variations for the Potential
Mode
tions of form than to indicate distinctions of time
223
are rather varia-
this Mode being
generally indifferent as to time.
Example. " O, would the scandal vanish with ray life,

Then happy were to me ensuing death 1"
"
Would "
is
Past in form, but Future in sense.
ESP* Let the Pupils correct the following

Errors.
1.
The preacher declared
2.
During
all last
week
that
{See p. 221-2.)
God was
love.
have not seen George at school.
3.
If you will
4.
Clara has been taking lessons on the organ
5.
6.
Will that Alesma damage the hair
?I should
7.
What
8.
When
9.
" Mr. Smith, would you be so kind as to help
10.
go to the
may go to-morrow,
is
city
to-morrow, please
me.
summer.
call for
all last
but I could not go to-day.
the diameter of the earth
not think
" I could not
" I
tell.
it
could.
11
him yesterday.
me work that problem ?"
" At what hour to-morrow might we expect you to come ?"
did you see Albert last
see
12.
" I could n't say positively. It might be nine or ten.''

" I have read six books of Virgil before I went to college."
13.
Will
11.
we go to-morrow,
we wait another day ?
or do
The right Verb
Note
rectly
12.
and
That Verb
2.
Cotrecled.There
1.
2.
3.
4.
should be used which will cor-
fully express the fact intended.
Common Errors \.
%W* Let
in Predicate.
" There let
him lay." Byron.

To you Ijly for refuge." Murray.
him lie.To you ljlee for refuge.
"
let
Errors. {See Note 12.)

down in the field."
** I have no objection to your setting down occasionally."
" While I was talking, Sarah raised up to leave the hall."
" I expect you was out late last night."
" Respectable farmers never lay
6.
" William has been falling trees in the maple grove."

" I would avoid it altogether if it can be done."
7.
"
5.
8.
Thou sawedst every action." Guy's Grammar,

" What are become of so many productions ?"
11.
" Ought you to take those peaches without leave

" He had n't ought to do it. Had he ?"
" His face shown with the rays of the sun."
12.
"Bad you
9.
10.
rather go or stay
had
rather go."
p. 46.
do not think I had."
ENGLISH GRAMMAR- PART
224
Note
13.
III.
A Verb should not be used for
its participle
in Predicate.
Example. James ought not
to
have went.
Corrected.James ought not to have gone.
Note
14.
A Participle should not take the place of
its
Verb.
Example. " The work is imperfect you done it too hastily."
Corrected.The work is imperfect you did it too hastily.
;
$W* Let
Errors. (See Notes
12, 14,)
1.
" Julia
2.
" Ains worth has spoke twice and has wrote once. 1 *
is
always chose
first."
tl
The best apple was gave
4.
"
5.
"
You ought not to have broke that

I seen you when you done it."
3.
6.
" I
1.
Ernest has broke his sled.
&
9.
"Ten
had
rather have did
it
to
Anna."
chair."
myself."
have not been spoke to on that subject.

o'clock,
and
my
'
little
boy Blue' hasn't drove the sheep to pasture
yet."
10.
" I have ate
11.
" Gold has fell ten cents in ten days."
12.
" I have never sang in Church since."
all
I wish."
Peesok and Number.
to
Eem. Most Yerbs in Predicate are varied in form inflected

correspond with the modification of their Subjects. Hence,
Eule
2.
Verb in Predicate must agree with

Number.
its
Subject in Person and

Obs.
1.
This Rule requires
mined by
its Subject,
that the form of a Yerb be deteraccording to established usage : Thus,
In the Singular Number,
For the First Person, the Eadical form is used as I love, I walk.
For the Second Person^ Solemn style, the Suffix st or est is used
;
Thou
thou walkest.
For the Third Person the Suffix s is used
as
lovest,
asHe
loves,
John
walks,
225
as He hath, he doth, he walketh.
Exception 1. By an ancient idiom now seldom used, except

by the poets the termination etli is given to the Third Person
Singular
Example?. 1.
2.
"
How
"He
doth the busy bee improve each shining hour."
wine and
that lovetJi
Exception 2. The Verb foe has

ent Tense and in the Past.
Obs.
2.
oil shall
its
not be rich."
peculiar forms in the Pres-
(See Conjugation, pp. 134.-5.)
In the Plural
indicate Person
Number, Verbs are not varied inform

and Number.
Examples. We
to
wa ^' * ove
You
'
rec he, see.
TheyJ
Prik.
Only the
first ivord in Predicate is varied in
form, for any purpose.
Note
15.
quires its
Eem.
One
Verb
Subject in. the Singular
Number
re-
to be in the Singular.
This note applies alike to Words, to Phrases, and to Sen-
tences.
Examples.
Word
Subjects
1.
2.
Phrase Subjects
3.
4.
Sentence Subjects.. 5.
Earth keeps me here awhile.

" Knowledge reaches or may reach every home."
" My leaving home does not please you."
u To dispute the doctor requires fortitude. 11
"That all men are created equal, is a self"
1 '
evident truth."
6.
t;
How he came back again,
doth not appear."
|gp" Let the Pupils correct the following
Errors. {See Bule
my
2,
and Note
1.
"
2.
" Such a clatter of sounds indicate rage."
Where
are you,
boy
Here
15.)
I are."
made by commerce."
3.
" This addition of foreign words have been
4.
"
5.
" There are pupils in this class, whose progress haveheen astonishing."
And many
He
a steed in his stables were seen."
me
6.
"
7.
"Does thou love
8.
"I
9.
" I refer to this that yourself hath spoken."
10.
dare not
am
call
coward."
to go to school ?"
mindful that myself is strong."
" I have read what thou says of our peculiarities." The Friend.
10*
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
226
11.
"
When
12.
"
Thy
13.
"
Who
thoii
III.
most sweetly sings." Drummond.
nature, Immortality,
who
Tcnoiv est
?" Everest' s Grammar.
dare avow himself equal to the task ?"
my busy muse
14.
" Every error I could
find,
15.
" They pray together
much
16.
" Simply to give alms to the poor, do not constitute the

duty."
17.
" Receiving and secreting stolen goods, are punishable by our municipal
laws."
have
employed."
often er than thou insinuates. "
How the boys all escaped from
sum
18.
"
19.
" That Milton should love the dollars as he does, astonish
20.
" Variety of numbers still belong

To the soft melody of ode or song."
Note
15.
ivere a
wonder
to us all."
all
his friends."
Two or more Singular Subjects, taken sepa-
rately, require the
Eem.
drowning
of Christian
Verb
to be Singular.
This law applies alike
to "Words, to Phrases,
and
to Sen-
tences.
Examples.
Word
Subjects
8.
or Warner has my knife."

" Disease or poverty follows the lazy track of the
sluggard."
" My poverty, but not my will, consents."Shales.
4.
" Every
1.
2.
"
William
phrase and every figure which he uses

more lively and com-
tends to render the picture
plete." Blair.
Phrase Subjects...
5.
"Writing letters
or
reading novels occupies her
evening hours."
6.
"
7.
"
To be or not to be, is the question."

To shoot or to be shot, was my only alternative."
my client aided in the rescue, or that he was

present at the time of it, does not appear from
the evidence adduced."
Sentence Subjects.. 8. " That
IJF Let the Pupils correct the following

Errors.(See Note
15.)
1.
" Neither history nor tradition furnish such information."
2.
"Neither Charles nor his brother were qualified to support such a
3.
"
4.
"He
5.
" For outward matter or event fashion not the character within."
system."
6.
7.
8.
Nor war nor wisdom
To
yield our
Jews
or his deputy were authorized to
shoot or to be shot, were
my only
delight."
commit the
alternative.
Heading novels or lounging about the

moral character.
How we
could escape or where
culprit."
village are alike
we were
damaging to the
to go, were to be decided at once.

9.
That he
you are poor are not material
rich or that
is
227
to the question of
relative happiness.
10.
" Praise from a friend, or censure from a foe,

Are lost on hearers that our merits know."
Note
16.
Collective
Noun, indicating Unity,

Number.
re-
quires its Verb to be in the Singular

Examples.1. " A nation has been smitten."
2.
3.
" The Senate has rejected the

" Congress has adjourned."
bill."
Exception. The Logical Subject of a Sentence is sometimes

the Object of a Phrase used to qualify the Grammatical Subject.
Then, when the Object of the Phrase
cates that the parts of
severally, the
Verb should be
Example.A part
of the
is
Plural.
students
have gone.
and indiccmposed are taken
plural in form,
is
which the number
LJJ
[o tj
students )
have
gone
Here " students" the name of many taken severally is the

Logical Subject of " have left," and requires the Yerb to be Plural,
although "part," the Grammatical Subject, is Singular; or, we
may regard the Modified Subject as Plural made so by the Plural
Noun " students," in the limiting Phrase and the Yerb takes the
Plural form. (See Diagram.)
Obs.
3.
But Nouns not
Collective are
not varied in
number by
their Adjuncts.
Examples. 1.
"
The progress
(
of his forces ivas impeded."
pro gress
^Thejl
2.
The
3.
" All appearances of modesty are favorable and prepossess-
selection of
ing.'"
appropriate examples requires taste.
Blair.
Avoid the awkward and
improper use of Partitives

they properly belong in Phrase Adjuncts of the
Thus,
true Subjects.
Incorrect. "This sort of Adverbs commonly admit of comparisoD." Buchannan's Grammar.
Corrected. Adverbs of this sort commonly admit of comparison.
"Every kind of comfort and convenience id ere provided." Com. Sch. Jour,
Caution.
as Subjects,
when
Better. Comfort and convenience of every kind were provided.
" This species of words were numerous."

Better. Words of this species were numerous.
ENGLISH OBAMMABPABT III.
228
"
Let the Pupils correct the following

Erroes. (See Note
3.
16.)
"A series of exercises in false grammar are introduced
toward the end."
Frost's Grammar.
The number of the names were about one hundred and twenty." Ware's
Grammar.
tk
The number of school districts have increased since last year."
2.
3.
" In old English, this species of words were numerous."

" Have the legislature power to prohibit assemblies ?"
" Above one-half of them was cut off before the return of spring."
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The greater part of their captives was sacrificed."

" While still the busy world is treading o'er
The paths they trod five thousand years before."
"
number of inhabitants are, their poverty

number of bounty-jumpers are enormous."
" Small as the

" The
is
extreme.
Note 17. Collective Noun, indicating Plurality,

requires its Verb to be in the Plural Number.
Examples.1. " The people are foolish, they have not known me."
2.
" The peasantry are ever jealous of the nobility."
Obs. 1. Collective Nouns, which always require a Plural Verb

are the following
Gentrymankind nobilitypeoplepeasantry.
Obs. 2. Those which may have Verbs in the Singular or Pluaccording to the sense, are the following
ral,
Aristocracy army auditonj committeecongress-churchfamily
publicschool remnantsenate.
meeting
Eem. The Unity or Plurality of a Collective Noun is generally

determined by its Adjuncts, or by the nature of its Predicate Verb.
Examples. 1. " The committee was appointed by the rhair."
2. " The committee were unanimous in sentiment."
3. " The committee have never been able to
agree."

Erkors. (See Note
17.)
1.
The minority is attempting
2.
But the majority
3.
The rabble is prepared for any event.

The peaceable people watches their action with anxiety.
While the whole thoughtless youth is eager for the strife,
The nobility is alarmed, and
Mankind in general is apprehensive of a general anarchy.
4.
5.
6.
7.
is
to control the majority.
not disposed to submit to
its control.
'
"
Note 18. One Subject in the Plural

have a Verb in the Plural.
229
Number
should
Examples.
Word
Subjects
1.
"
The
boys are reciting."
2. " They that seek me early shall find me."

Exception 1. Nouns, Plural in form, often constitute the titles
Such names, used as Subjects of Sentences, require
of books.
their
Verbs
to
be Singular.
EXAMPLES.
1.
f Pleasures )
'Pleasures of Hope* teas f^rhe) |o i
iiope
I
recited by the class.
"The
^
)
1 '
2.
"The 'Lives of the

now out of print.
Exception
\
)
was
'
1st
Martyrs' is
recited
class
Cjh*
'
>
Plural Subject, modified by a Phrase whose

Subsequent is the Logical Subject of the Sentence, and Singular
in form, may have a Singular Verb.
2.
Example.
ft
off.
hird3
CT
Two-thirds of my hair has fallen
hair
^J3
"\
has faUen
"T"ofr>

ErpvOks. {See Note
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
18.)
" is those your sentiments J"
phenomena is not often witnessed."

Was there no spiritual men then ?"
" To him giveth all the prophets witness."
" There seems to be but two general classes." Day's Grammar*
" Hence arises the six forms of expressing time."lb., p. 3T.
" There was several other grotesque figures that presented themselves."
" Rills from the Fountain of Life' were published by Lippincott.
" Such
"
" Five times five is twenty-five."

" And five times six is thirty."
11.
" Three apples from twelve apples leaves nine apples."
12.
Three added to nine makes twelve.
13.
"Dickens'
Note
19.
require the
Household Words' are among the best of his works."
'
Two
Verb
or
more Subjects connected by and
to be in the Plural.
Examples.
Word
Subjects
1.
Anna
(
&)
Clara
Anna and
Y are
\
Clara are studying their lessons.
V*
studying
W
I
\
lessons
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
230
2.
Phrase Subjects
3.
The
boys and the girls were preparing for the examination.
" Chewing tobacco and smoking cigars disqualify a

young man for mental imp rovement."Cutcheon.
"To
4.
spin, to weave, to knit,

girl's
Sentence Subjects.
.5.
III.
and
were once a
to sew,
employments.
" Read of this burgesson the stone appear,
How worthy he! how
virtuous !
and how dear/"
Crabbe.
Exception 1. Two or more Singular Subjects so intimately

associated in thought as to constitute a logical unity, may have a
Verb in the Singular Number.
Examples.1. " The head and front
of
my
offending hath this extent."
/Shakspeare.
rv
head
^T~)
y(
USJ H
J\
" There
is
m7
extent
C^lJ
offending
C.
2.
hath
a peculiar force and beauty in this figure. 'Karnes.

1
Exception 2. Two or more Singular Subjects preceded by the

Adjectives each, every, or no, require the Verb to be in the Singular Number.
Q
C
boy
every
X*
Rem. The
Predicate of the
Subject is suppressed
being obviously under-
first
Rirl
"Y"
was
I every
eager
(for
stood.
recitation
" C,the_J
2.
3.
"Each day and each hour is fraught with consequences too

momentous for human contemplation."
"No fortune and no condition in life makes the guilty mind
happy."
Exception 3. Two or more Singular Subjects connected by

and one taken affirmatively and the other negatively require
the Verb to be in the Singular Number.
Examples. 1. " My poverty, but not my will, consents." Shakspeare.
Eem.
The Predicate of the second
Subject
Adverb
is
is
suppressed, while
retained.
its
SYNTAX OF TEE PREDICATE.

2.
"His moral
integrity,
and not
231
makes him
his wealth,
re-
spected."
Exception 4. Two or more Singular Subjects, indicating the

same person or thing, require the Verb to be in the Singular Number.
Example." The
saint, the father,
and the husband
prays.'*
Exception 5. Whenever a Verb immediately follows the first

of two or more Subjects, it must agree in Person and Number
with it, and it is understood after the others.
Example.Here joy
abounds, and gratitude and
love.
|ip Let the Pupils correct the following
Errors. {See pp.
Two and two
229-31.)
4.
and five is nine."

" The flax and the barley was smitten. 11
" The Mood and Tense is signified by the Verb."
" Every word and every member have their due weight and force."
5.
"Each day and each hour
bring their portion of duty."
6.
"No
no regulation are required
**
1.
2.
3.
law,
no
is four,
restraint,
to
keep him in
bounds."
7.
" Prudence, and not pomp, are the basis of his fame."
8.
"Not fear, but fatigue, have overcome him."

" The President, not the Cabinet, are responsible
9.
woman and
for the
10.
" Every old man, and every
11.
"
12.
Anna nor Ernest have permission to go."

" Neither Clara nor Ruby are remarkably beautiful."
" One eye on death and one full fixed on heaven,
child,
measure."
were removed to a place oi
safety."
13.
14.
What
is
the latitude and longitude of Boston ?"
" Neither
IT.
Becomes a mortal and immortal man." Young.

The designer and not the engraver are at fault.
" Our Maker, Governor, and Guide demand our homage."
" Each thought we cherish and each word we utter are known
18.
"
15.
16.
notice.
19.
No
vice of the heart
to
Him."
and no sin of the tongue have ever escaped His
11
" Dissipation and not late hours have
made him an
invalid."
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
232
"
III.
Persok.
Note
20.
Two or more Subjects, taken separately and

have separate Verbs, when
its Subject
differing in Person, should
the Verb
is
varied to denote the Person of
Example. You are

Q~
in error, or
/am.
ifou
are
( or
)r~
\î
nj
error
S3
Obs. But when the Verb

need not be repeated.
Examples. 1. You
2. The
or
/must
is
go.
doctors or you
Note 21. When

Number (or
not varied
x
to
denote the Person,
^~~orl
are
it
must so
in error.
the Subject of a Verb
differs in
Per-
both) from a Noun or Pronoun in

Predicate, the Verb should agree with its Subject rather
than with the word in Predicate.*
son or
Examples. 1.
3.
"
Thou
art the
man."
2.
Clouds are vapor.
A horse is an animal.
Grammatic Fallacies.
Rem.
Let
tences,
and give the authority
erence to
Rule
2,
or to
for every criticism,
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
by a proper refthe Rule.
Notes and Observations under
rapidity of his movements were beyond example. ' Wells.

u The mechanism of clocks and watches were totally unknown.
" The Past Tense of these Verbs are very indefinite with respect to time."
Bullion's Grammar, p. 31. 1840.
" Everybody are very kind to her.'" Byron,
" To study mathematics, require maturity of mind."
" That they were foreigners, were apparent in their dress."
" Coleridge the poet and philosopher have many admirers."
" No monstrous height, or length, or breadth appear.*" Pope.
" Common sense, as well as piety, tell us these are proper.'"
"The
1.
the Pupil correct the errors in the following Sen-
The young Pupil often finds it difficult to decide which of the two Substanand which the Noun in Predicate. The following test will
tives is the Subject
decide this point:
When
one term
is generic
and the other
specific,
the former belongs in Predi-
the latter is the Subject. Thus, in Example "animal" is a generic

term " horse" is specific. We can not say, an animal is a horse, for not every
cate
3,
is ahorse; but every horse is an animal.

Hence, "horse" is the Suband " animal" is in Predicate. (See Independent Case, p. 85, Obs. 5.)
animal
ject,
ORAMMATIC FALLACIES.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
233
" Wisdom or folly govern us."FisWs Grammar.

" Nor want nor cold his course delay."Johnson.
" Hence naturally arise indifference or aversion between the parties."
" Wisdom, and not wealth, procure esteem."
" No company likes to confess that they are ignorant."
" The people rejoices in that which should cause sorrow."
" Therein consists the force and use and nature of language."
" From him proceeds power, sanctiflcation, truth, grace, and every other
blessing we can conceive." Calvin.

" How is the Gender and Number of the Relative known ?"
"
Hill and dale doth boast thy blessing."Milton.
19.
20. "The Syntax and Etymology of the language is thus spread before the
learner."Bullion's Grammar.
21. " In France the peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use
of wooden shoes."Harvey.
22. " While all our youth prefers her to the rest." Waller.
23. " A great majority of our authors is defective in manner."
24. " Neither the intellect nor the heart are capable of being driven."
25. " Nor he nor I are capable of harboring a thought against your peace."
26. " Neither riches nor fame render a man happy."
Day's Grammar.
27. " I or thou art the person who must undertake the business."
2S. " The quarrels of lovers is a renewal of love."
29. " Two or more sentences united together is called a compound sentence."
18.
Day's
30.
31.
32.
Grammar.
" If I was a Greek, I should resist Turkish despotism."

" I can not say that I admire this construction, though it be
Priestly'
's
" It was observed in Chap.

Churchill's
33.
34.
35.
Grammar,
much
used."
p. 172.
3,
that the disjunctive or had a double use."
Grammar.
" I observed that love constituted the whole character of God."

"A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this was verse."
" Had I commanded you to have done this, you would thought hard of
it."J. Brown.
" I found him better than I expected to have found him."
37. " There are several faults which I intended to have enumerated."
38. " An effort is making to abolish the law."
36.
" The Spartan admiral was sailed to the Hellespont." Goldsmith.

" So soon as he was landed, the multitude thronged about him."
41. " Which they neither have nor can do."Barclay.
42. " For you have but mistook me all the while."Shalcspeare.
43. " Who would not have let them appeared." Steele.
44. " You were chose probationer." Spectator.
45. " Had 1 known the character of the lecture, I would not have went."
46. " They don't ought to do it." WatMns.
;
47. " Had I ought to place wise' in Predicate with makes r "Pupil.
48. " Whom they had sat at defiance."
Bolingbroke.
49. " Whereunto the righteously and are safe."
Barclay.
50. " She sets as a prototype, for exact imitation."
Bash.
39.
40.
'
Rem. After correcting the above examples, the Pupil should

analyze and parse them using the Model given on p. 205, or
those on pp. 183-4.
234:
III.
SYNTAX OF THE OBJECT.
Not all Sentences have Objects. This fact has led some
Rem.
authors to regard the Object of a Sentence, not as one of the Principal Elements of a Sentence, but as a sort of modifier of the Predicate.*
1.
Rem.
form,
2.
its
The
Syntax of the Object embraces

its position, and its relation.
I.
Pri^".
its
material,
its
modification,
Material of the Object.
The Object
of a Sentence
must be a Substan-
tive.
(
The Object may be
J
(
A Word,
A Phrase, or
A Sentence.
Examples.
A Word- A Noun. Virtue secures happiness.

2. A Pronoun.
Thee we adore.
A Phrase.3. Participial. I doubted his having the ring,
4. Infinitive.
We love to attend school.
1.
A Sentence. 5.
6.
Transitive.
Intransitive.
John said he had the ring.

Did you ascertain who went?
Word
f
Subject
A Word
Object
is
Object.
Predicate.
either
J
\
Object
A Noun or
A Pronoun.
Examples.
1.
A "Noun.Proper.
Grant conquered Lee.
Common.
Did you see the
Abstract.
Collective.
2.
commended
eclipse
his firmness.
Did you attend the convention ?
Verbal (Act.) 9L did not admire the singing.

Pronoun.Personal. " Help me, Cassius, or I sink."
* It is true that the Object does, in a sense, limit its Predicate but it is as
true that the Predicate limits its Subject by declaring an act or an attribute of
Hence, if we regard the Predicate as a distinct Element in a Sentence, we
it.
should for the same reason rank the Object of a Transitive Sentence as a Prin;
cipal Element.
To
say that the Object
is
simply a modifier of the Predicate,
is
to confounc
an Object with an Adjunct, a Substantive with an Adverbthus destroying the

fundamental principles of analysis.
SYNTAX OF THE OBJECT

Belative.
whom he sees, ot>ey him.

Whom seekest thou ?
All
Interrogative.
WJiat sought they thus afar
Adjective.
FORM
II.
when used
OF THE OBJECT.
Rem.English Nouns have

cept
235
the
same forms
in all the Cases
ex-
Hence,
as Adjuncts.
Obs. 1.
Noun is known to be the Object of a Sentence by its
properly answering the questions whom t or what f placed immediately after the Predicate.
Examples.1.
We visited Williamvisited whom?
2.
John gave me a bookgave what ? ..
Rem.
William.
.book.
Most Pronouns have peculiar forms to denote
(see p. 93).
the Object
Hence,
Pronoun is known to be the Object of a Sentence

Obs. 2.
generally by its form, and always by its answering the question
whom f or what ? placed immediately after the Predicate.
Examples.1. Eobert
visited
We had
2.
III.
usvisited whom ?. ..us.

himinvited whom ? ... Bobert,
invited
Limitations of the Object.
We
have seen (p. 195) that the Subject is limited by the

Rem. 1.
Predicate and by its Adjuncts and (in p. 208) that the Predicate is
limited by its Object and by its Adjuncts.
;
Rem.
2.
While the
limited only
by
its
The Adjuncts
and the Object susone another, the Object is grammatically
Subject, the Predicate,
tain logical relations to
Adjuncts.
of the Object consist of
Words,
<
Phrases,
Sentences.
Examples.
Words. 1. " The blossoms deck

2.
"
the
bough."
We have had our May-day garlands."
Phrases. 3. " I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow."

4. " The foam of the billows already I see."
Sentences. 5. I have been visiting the man who sent me to
6.
"
Them
that honor me, I will honor."
college,
or
236
III.
Obs. The Object maybe limited or defined by Logical Adjuncts.

Examples.1. " I thank thee, Boderic, for the word.
1 '
2.
There thou shalt find
my cousin,
Beatrice.
(See p. 42.)
Exercises.
fllp
1.
Let each Pupil make a Sentence
Whose Object has one

Word Adjunct
We saw the eclipse.
2.
Two Word
We
Adjuncts
saw
the
last
^~
V
A
eclipse.
3.
One Word and one r

Phrase
V
We
saw
the eclipse
of the moon.
4.
One Word and one

Sentence
We
~~
We
v~
V~
A-
saw the eclipse

which you pre-
dicted,
5.
One Word, one Phrase, f

^
and one Sentence
We saw the eclipse
.
. .
DC
oclipso
of the sun, ivhich
you predicted.
(
John
~"X
predicted
)fwhich
")
([UP Let each Pupil make a Sentence for each of the above
Diagrams.
Let each Pupil make a Sentence whose Object

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
by a Pure Specifying Adjective

by a Possessive Specifying Adjective.
by a Numeral Specifying Adjective
by a Qualifying Adjective
by a Verbal Adjective
by an Interrogative Adjective
by a Proper Adjective
by a Logical Adjunct
by a Prepositional Phrase
by a Participial Phrase.
by an Infinitive Phrase
by a Transitive Sentence
by an Intransitive Sentence
by a Compound Sentence
by a Complex Sentence
is
limited
See
.
p. 103
104
104
102
104
103
j
103
34
24:
25
25
42
41
43
46
SYNTAX OF THE
THE OBJECT.
IV. CO^DITKOT OF
Exile
3.
237
OBJECT.
The object of an action or

of a relation
must be
Obs.
in the Objective Case.

Action
1.
is
expressed by Verbs and
by
Relation
Predicate.
Subject.
C~
Obs.
2.
jf
Virtue
secures
Only the Pronouns
their Plurals,
Participles.
expressed by Prepositions.
is
I,
J[
hap piness
thou, he, she,
vary their forms for the
Objective.
it,
J
and who, and
(See pp. 93, 95.)
Note 1. Pronouns that are varied in form to denote

the Case, should have their appropriate forms for the
Objective.
Examples. 1. " Them

2.
"
that honor me, I will honor."
And must
I leave thee, Paradise ?"
Exception 1. The Possessive form of Nouns and Pronouns

sometimes, though rarely, used in the Objective Case.
Example.John
is
a friend of mine.
is
(See p. 90.)
$W Let the Pupils correct the following

Errors.
1.
2.
" They will not go without she and J."

" Who did Gertrude marry ?"
pomp and
3.
" Vain
4.
"
5.
" I took
6.
"
7.
"
There are a few who, like you and
8.
" All debts are cleared between you and
9.
"
And
10.
"
We
can not
glory of the world, I hate ye."
who
saw
there.'"
who we had visited at Homer."

do not remember who they are for."
is
Rem.
tell
it
to be he
/,
drink nothing but water."

I"."
most capital."
should discriminate between him who is the sycophant and he who
to poor we, thine enmity's
the teacher."
In constructing Sentences special
giving to the Object of a Sentence
its
attention
appropriate
is
required in
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART III.
238
Position.
Note
2.
In position, the
Object of a Sentence com-
monly
follows the Predicate.

Examples. 1. " Virtue secures happiness."
2.
Exception
ject
is
"
1.
The king of shadows loves a shining mark"
By
the poets,
and
for rhetorical effect, the
Ob
often placed before the Predicate.
Examples. 1. "Him, from my

2.
Exception
"
2.
New ills
childhood, I
that latter stage
have known."
await."
A Relative or Conjunctive Pronoun, being the Ob
is placed before its Predicate.

Examples. 1. " Mount the horse which I have chosen
ject of a Sentence,
2.
"
for you. 1 '
We serve a Monarch whom we love
A God whom we adore."
Two or more
Obs.
3.
A Sentence may have
are connected in construction
Examples. 1.
"
God created
2.
"
Now
Objects.
two or more Objects when they
by Conjunctions, expressed or implied

the heaven and the earth"
twilight lets her curtain
And
pins
it
down,
with a star."
Obs. 4. The Objects of a Compound Sentence sometimes conof different Words, indicating the same being or thing.
sist
Examples.1.
"
By
this dispensation,
we have lost
a neighbor, a friend, a
brother."
2.
" Thus she addressed the Father of gods, and
King
of men."
Obs. 5. But one Word used to limit the signification of another,

can not be in the same construction and hence, the two Words
are not Objects of the same Verb, unless they are compounded and^
parsed as one Element.
Examples. 1. Have you seen Coleridge, the philosopher and poet ?
2. " We visited Naples, the home of our childhood."
;
Rem.
jg
" Home"
is
Noun, used
to describe " Naples,"
not as an
name
of the same place.

"Philosopher" and "poet" are Substantive appellations of the man,
Adjective, but as an equivalent

" Coleridge.''
(See " Logical Adjuncts"
and
"
Independent Case,"
p. 88.)

Note
3.
239
Verbs of giving, and some others, are often

one of the Verb and the other
followed by two Objects
of a Preposition suppressed.
Examples. 1. Anna gave me
a rose.
2.
Charles asked
me my
3.
They
They
Rem.
Here
1.
it
opinion.
carried the child
home.
carried
will be seen that
child
child"
is
the proper Object
They did not cany the " home." But they carried
some place and that place was called " home."
of " carried."
In parsing examples like the above, the
the child to
Rem.
2.
be supplied. Thus, " to his home"

Hence, an Adverbial Phrase.
"
"
Home,"
Home,"
ellipsis
an Adjunct of
is
should
" carried."
is an Adverb.
an Element in the Phrase, is a Noun Object of
Hence, in the Objective Case. (See p. 180.)
as a Bepresentative of the Phrase,
as
understood.
to
The
Verbs make, esteem, regard, consider, elect, bid, dare,

and some others, are often followed by an Infinitive
Phrase, having its Preposition (and sometimes the Verb) understood.
Obs.
6.
feel, hear, see,
these are thoughts that make man man."

These are thoughts that make man [to be] man.
" Teach them obedience to the laws.'
Teach them [to tield] obedience to the laws.
Examples. 1. " Lorenzo,

2.
Rem.
In examples like these, the
second
Noun
or
Pronoun
is
the Object of the -Verb understood or used in Predicate with it.

Thus, " man" is used in Predicate with " to be," or " to become,"
understood, and " obedience"
is
the Object of" yield."
Examples. 1. " Intemperance makes

2.
C~
"He maketh the

He
storm
jf
man
maketh
[to
become] a
fool."
a calm."
~
storm
_)
Obs. 7. By another construction, in which the force of the

suppressed Preposition is still more obscured, the Verbs appoint,
call, choose, constitute, create, dub, elect, make, name, and proclaim,
sometimes have two Objects one direct, and the other indirect.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
24:0
III.
Examples.1. They named him John.
And
2.
Rem.
They
(^
/Simo?i
In Example
named Y~
he surnamed
1, "
him"
him
^Johnj
Peter.
the direct Object " John" the

remote Object and is, logically considered, a part of the Predicate
a title acquired by the action expressed by the Verb. The Verbs
above given do not, in such examples, express the full Predicate,
nor have we Verbs that can, unless, perhaps, in the following exis
ample
" They dubbed
him knight."
Equivalent." They knighted Kim."
Obs.
direct
8.
A Verb which, in the Active Voice, is followed by
and a remote Object, retains the remote Object as a part
of the Passive Predicate.

Examples.
1.
He
2.
North was
is
Rem.
named John.
(
elected President.
This construction
is
He
J^
Is
named John
analogous to that of a Substantive
in Predicate with a Neuter Verb.
Thou
Thou
art
who ?
art
Peter.
completes the Predicate
PeterRe
is
John.
He is named John.
the words "
The word " Peter"

named John" complete the
Predicate.
SUPPKESSIOST OF THE OBJECT.
Note 4. The Object of a Sentence or of a Phrase

should not be omitted when the sense is thereby obscured
or weakened.
Examples of Errors.
Of a Sentence.
1.
" In these cases, custom generally determines."
2.
"
Though thou
wilt not
acknowledgethou canst not deny
the fact."
3.
Of a Phrase
.4.
The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares"

"In conjugating you must pay particular attention
"
to
these signs."
5.
"
The
author, hastening to finish appears to write rather
carelessly."
6.
"
A verb signifying actively, governs the Accusative.
Obs. The same word can rarely be properly the Object of a

Sentence and of a Phrase in the same connection.
SYNTAX OF TEE
241
OBJECT.
Examples of Errors.
" The party entered, and passed quite through the cave."
Better The party entered the cave, and passed quite through
Obs.
tence,
it.
A Relative Pronoun, being the Object of an Auxiliary Senoften elegantly suppressed.
is
Examples. 1.
gave him allI had.
I gave him.
2.
Ernest placed in diagram
3.
History
4.
We receive from it a great part of the useful truths we have.
is all
all
the sentences
the light we have.
Object Phease.
Note
5.
Some
may
Transitive Verbs
have, as their
Objects, Substantive Phrases.

Examples. 1. " I doubted
J^
his having been
doubted
doubted ichat? Not

" a" nor " soldier" but the
having been a soldier."
I
2.
^V
soldier."
having been
bis
soldier)
I
"Ms"
fact
nor "Timing" nor " been" nor

asserted by the whole Phrase, " Ms
" His being a minister, prevented his rising

Prevented what f
power."
to civil
Object
Phrases are generally of the Participial Form,

commonly used as Adjuncts, and Independent Phrases as Logical Adjuncts.
(See p. 24,
Obs. 1 see also Clark's Analysis, p. 115.)
Obs.
1.
Prepositional and Infinitive Phrases being
Obs. 2. Infinitive Phrases following Yerbs, commonly indicate

purpose or cause, and serve to limit the signification or application
of Yerbs. Such are properly called Adverbs. But they sometimes
follow Yerbs as their Objects.
Examples.
1.
Pupils are requested

vt
2.
3.
To
to
read
(_
Pupils
read" is a Phrase Adjunct

11
of " are requested.
1
v^w
*V
p 3
Pupils begin to read .......

To read' is the Object of
'* begin,"
> k
read
V
^
>
11
Pupil3
r
yA
are
anxious
^hegin
~-
read
'
assemble
"anxious."
4.
'
[to
Pupils
"}
\?_j
f
of
requested
"-i
Pupils assemble to read

f
" To read 11 is a Phrase Adjunct I
of " assemble."
Pupils are anxious to read
11
is an Adjunct
'To read
are
")
"}
rea(T~^
Y
\
jo
)
K /
rea d
>
/
,
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
242
III.
Obs. 3. The Transitive Verbs haying Objects expressed, are
by
often limited
Infinitive Phrases.
Examples. 1. The
eequested William
teacher
teacher
jT requested
I
to
2.
Rem.
1.
believe the milkman
" To
recite'
limits the request.
"
is
jT
recite
to recite.
William
~)
to be honest.*
a Phrase, Adjunct of " requested ;" it

is the Object of the modified Predi-
William"
cate " requested to recite."
Obs.
that in
4 This
Examples.
1.
The general gave

general
Rem.
2.
the
order
gave
to fire.
What
order
order
The subordinate manifested a disposition
3.
Idle pupils manifest little anxiety to improve.
To
2.
" To fire" limits " order;"

"
'
construction should be carefully distinguished from

Infinitive Phrase is Adjunct of the Object.
which the
to dictate.
;" hence, an Adjective.
dictate" limits " disposition
Let the Pupil place Sentences 2 and 3 in the given Diagram.
Object Sentence.
Note
6.
Many Transitive Verbs have as their Objects
Substantive Auxiliary Sentences.

Examples. 1. " But Brutus says he was ambitious."
2. " The ancient Russians believed that
tains encompassed the
their northern
moun-
(jthaT)
Eussians
TheJLancientJ
8.
4.
believed ^(inonntamênconipassed^"
^Vj g^LJ
globe
X ^J
" Can you tell where my Highland laddie's gone?"

" He hastily demanded why I came."
* The propriety of this construction depends much on the character of the

predicate verb. Thus, u The teacher requested William to recite," is proper and
not inelegant. But,
"I believe the milkman to be honest," is inelegant and objectionable. The
thought is better expressed thus,
I believe that the milkman is honest.
SYNTAX OF TEE
Rem.
1.
5.
" The village
6.
" Did you but
The
all
declared
know
to
243
OBJECT.
how much
he knew."
whom I gave the ring.'
''
Pupil will notice that Sentences used as Indirect
by a Word or a Phrase which constitutes,

part of the Object. Thus in Sentence 2, " that"
Objects, are introduced

logically, the essential
stands for the whole Proposition.

" Their northern mountains encompassed the globe."
" The ancient Russians believed that."
" My Highland laddie has gone" can you tell where ?
" I gave the ring
did you but know to whom.
1 '
Rem.
2.
Still
we
are to regard the entire Auxiliary Sentence as
the Grammatical Object of the Principal Predicate.
Obs.
1.
This construction
Complex Sentences,
in
is to be carefully distinguished from

which the Object Sentences are introduced
by the Double Relative what.

Examples. 1.
2.
Rem.
3.
" But here I come to tell what I do know."

" You have done what you should be sorry for."
Here,
"
what
Obs.
2.
the modified Object of
Objects of Prepositions suppressed.
Anna has
We
is
By another construction, Auxiliary Sentences may con-
stitute the
1.
do know"
(See Diagram, p. 49.)
| tell."
the ring
we suspect that.*
suspect that
the
Anna has
ring.
Anna has
2.
We
are suspi
cious that Anna
has the ring.
Anna has
3.
We
have
the ring we are suspicious of that.
We
the ring
we have suspicions of that.
suspi-
cions that Anna

has the ring.
The history of the word that traces its offices

1. As an Adjective That rose is beautiful.
2. As a Pronoun The rose that all are praising.
3. As a ConjunctionI believe that he is honest.
4. You assert, that that quotation that you have given
And, whatever
may
be
its specific office in
is from Carey.
any given position, it fetill retains
previous officesi. e., whenever it is used as a Conjunction,

Substantive character and whenever it is used as a Pronoun,
jective office. (See Examples above.)
its
it
abio retains its
it
retains its
Ad
244
Anna has
the ring
C
4. It
probable
it is
it
is
III.
that is probable.
probable
probable
has
is
that Anna
the ring.
Rem.
" that
In each of the
Anna
above Examples the Auxiliary Sentence,

has the ring," is Substantive in office.
In the 1st, it is the Object of a Transitive Sentence.

In the 2d, it is the Object of an Adverbial Phrase the Leader
being suppressed.
In the 3d, it is the Object of an Adjective Phrase, of which the
Leader is suppressed.
In the 4th, it is a Logical Adjunct of " it." (See Diagram, p. 48.)
Obs. 5. Sometimes a Principal Sentence

the parts of an Objective Sentence.
Examples.1. "Whose charms, me
^Y
me
2.
3.
thought
J
\
thrown in between
thought, could never fade."
(charms
coul(i
(WliuseJ
fade
never j
" This explanation, I doubt not, will satisfy him."

" But confidence, he added, is a plant of slow growth."
The Objects
Hem.
is
of Phkases.
Action
is
expressed by Verbs, and
Relation
is
expressed by Prepositions.
by
Participles.
Hence,
Obs. 1. The Object of a Verb or of a Participle,

an Action, and must be in the Objective Case.
is
the Object of
Examples.
Infinitive
Verb."
Participle."
Obs.
2.
indicated
He
came
to
bury
Caesar,
not to praise him."
could not avoid giving offence."
The Object of a Preposition

by the Preposition, and
Examples. 1.
2.
" For
"
is
me your tributary
is
the Object of a Relation^
in the Objective Case.

stores combine.''''
The boy stood on the burning deck,

Whence all but him had fled."
Obs. 3. The Objects of Phrases and Sentences

Phrases, or Sentences.
may
be Words f
245
Exercises o^ Objects.
1.
'
Objects of Sentences.
Let the following Sentences be analyzed by the Cbart, and
parsed
Word Objects. 1.
" There thou shalt find
my cousin Beatrice." Shales.
Milton.
t;
His daring foe securely him defied."
3.
"
4.
"
The broom its yellow leaf hath, shed." Langhorn.

Did I request thee, Maker, from my clay,
To mold me man ?" Milton.
Phrase Objects.5.
"
We may avoid
2.
6.
Sentence Objects 7.
8.
talking nonsense on these subjects."
"I
doubted their having it."

" They say, This shall be," and it is."
"Athens found that neither art nor
'
science could
avail against depravity of morals. ""
II.
Word
Objects of Phrases
Objects. 9.
10.
Phrase Objects.11.
Infinitive.
How I love to
see thee,
Golden, evening sun !"
"I come
"
to
bury
He endeavored
Coesar,
to
not to praise him."
prevent our being
tossed about
by every wind of doctrine."

12.
"It
to
is difficult
doubt
his having seen military
service."
Sentence Objects. 13. " This goes to prove ivhat strange creatures we are."
ki
The Governor commands me to say, that he has
14.
no further business with the Senate."
Participial.
Word Objects.15.
16.
Phrase Objects. 17.
" Scaling yonder peak, I
saw an eagle."
" Finding* /<zi^, never does any good."

" By opposing your going to college, your father
abridged your usefulness."
Sentence Objects. 18. " The ceremonies concluded by the doctor's saying,
Gentlemen, we will resume our studies at seven
*
to-morrow.''
"
Prepositional.
Word Objects. 19.

20.
" There eame to the beach a poor exile of Erin."

" You are a much greater loser by his death."
Phrase Objects. 21. "In the matter of making and
much
22.
" I had
receiving presents,
discretion is required."
no knowledge of
between them."
Stone.
there being
any connection
Sentence Objects. 23. " And all the air a solemn stillness holds
Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight."
246
III.
SUP Let the above Sentences be analyzed and parsed after th

following
Model.
There thou shalt find
f
thou
shalt
my
cousin Beatrice.
find
cousin
j(
There ~)
my
Beatrice
ANALYSIS.
The Subject
The Predicate
The Object
Of the
Principal Elements.
Adjuncts
" Thou."
" Shalt find "
" Cousin."
Subject
I Of the Predicate. ." There."

[Logical]
( Of the Object
" Beatrice."
PARSED.
" There"
is
an Element in the Sentence Adjunct
verb of placemodifies
"Thou"
WordAd-
" shalt find."
An
Element in the Sentence Principal Element

Subj ect Word Pronoun Second Person Singu-
Number Subjective Case. According to Rule 1,

The Subject of a Sentence is in the Subjective Case."
"Shalt find", is an Element in the Sentence Principal Element
Predicate Verb and Verb Indicative ModeFuture Tense
Second Person
Singular Number.
Rule 2, "A Verb in Predicate must agree with its Subject in Person and Number."
"My"
is an Element in the Sentence Adjunct WordAdjective SpecifyingPossessive limits " cousin."
Rule 7, "Adjectives belong to Nouns and Pronouns
lar
"
which they
" Cousin"
describe."
an Element in the Sentence Principal ElementWordNoun Common Third Person Singular

Number Objective Case. Rule 3, " The Object of a
Sentence or of a Phrase is in the Objective Case."
"Beatrice" ..is an Attendant Element a Logical Adjunct
Noun ProperFeminine Gender Third PersonSingular Number Independent Case.
is
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
247
GrRAMMATlC FALLACIES.
$W Let
Pupil correct the following Sentences, giving the

proper authority for each correction
tlie
Who
did Albert marry ?"
1.
"
2.
" They that assist me,
3.
" W'hosoever the President fancies he appoints to office."

" Who do you think I met this morning ?"
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
"He who
I will assist.
1'
will place this sentence in
diagram we will applaud."
They that call on us we will visit."

" The man who you introduced to me, has called again."
" Thou only have we met in all our wanderings."
" Will you let Anna and I go to the concert ?"
" They from my boyhood, I have known."
"
PRONOUNS.
Eule
4.
Pronoun must agree with

and Number.
its
Antecedent
in Gender, Person,
Obs. 1. Pronouns in the Possessive form, follow the same laws

of agreement with their Antecedents, as those applicable to Substantive Pronouns.
Rem.
The
Antecedent of a
Sentence
which the Pronoun
Rem.
number
1.
Pronoun
is
the Word, Phrase, or
represents.
OF GENDER.
The
Gender of a Personal Pronoun of the Singular

is determined hy its form.
(See Declension, p. 93.)
That of all other Pronouns is determined by their Antecedents, or
by the context.
Note
1.
The Gender of a Pronoun should correspond
to that of its Antecedent.
Examples. 1. Mary was

2.
Exception
in Savannah
when
she wrote last.
Ernest lost his top before he had used

1.
The
Neuter Pronoun it
male or female.
Example. The child will
it.
may
represent
young
infants,
Exception
2.
He
sleep
when you
or she
may
sing to
it.
represent things without sex
when
they are personified.

Examples. 1. " The Angel of Death spread
And
2.
"
his wings on the blast,

breathed in the face of the foe as he passed."
When
Fortune smiles she
is
coquetting."
248
ENGLISH GBAMMAR-PABT
III.
Obs. 2. Singular Nouns of different

Genders connected by or
or nor must have different words to
represent the Genders of the
Antecedents.
Examples. -1. " Please ask Albert or Mary
2.
Anna
for Ms or her pencil."

or Ernest has lost his or her book.*
Obs. 3. Custom renders it proper to presume

that Nouns which
include males and females are Masculine
unless otherwise determined by the context.
^
Examples.-*. "The oldest inhabitant

pioneer
2.
in the
town
related the story

J of his
life."
"Children should revere an aged person,

whether he be
learned or unlearned."
Obs. 4.-A Pronoun representing a Collective

Noun, a Phrase or
a Sentence, should be of the Neuter Gender.
Errors in Gender.
1.
2.
" The star of the west sends her last lingering

ray."
" Look not on the wine, when he giveth his color
in the cup."
3.
4.
5.
No boy or girl may leave her seat without permission."

No boy or girl here can solve that problem unless
he has
No teacher should require a pupil to do what she can
"
'
assistance
not do."
lGDgth a PP arent
.?*
nwtl'^f^
o er the dark its silver mantle threw."
011
'
Corrected.-!.
GUP Let
The
star of the
êen, unveiled
west sends
its last
its
peerless light
fc
and
'
lingering ray.
the Pupils correct the others.
PERSON.
EEM.-The Person
*2L
Hence
of a Personal Pronoun is
determined by
ther Pr n UnS iS determiued b
their
Note 2.The/om
dicate its Person
of a Personal
its
**~
Pronoun should
in-
and Number.
Note 3.-The Second
"
Person,
Solemn Style," should
not be used in familiar conversation
nor that of the
iaimhar Style" in addresses to the
Deity-nor should
the two forms be used in the
same Sentence.
But the Pnp.1 should be taught
'
to prefer accuracy to elegance.
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
249
Examples.
Improper. \. " Well, my lad, hast thou seen my new kite ?"
2. " You have my book and I have thine."
3. " Neither art thou such a one as to be ignorant of what you
are."
4.
5.
6.
"
How can you despise her who
without thy pity dies ?"

" Can you refuse that I share in thy woes ?"
" Ere you remark another's sin,
Bid thy own conscience look within." Gay.
my
Corrected.-1. Well,
2HP
lad,
have you seen
my new
kite
Let the Pupils correct the others.
Obs. 5. The Pronoun " if often has an Indefinite or undetermined Antecedent and may then represent any Gender, Person,
or Number.
;
Examples. 1. "It snows." 2. "It was my father."

3. "It was the students that broke that desk."
Note
A pleasant thing it is,
4.
"
5.
" It
is
possible that
(a) If
behold the sun."

eired."
When a Pronoun has two or more Antecemust agree in Person with

them according to the following established
4.
dents differing in Person,
one of
Eules.
to
we have
it
both Antecedents are of the Third Person, the

of the Third Person ; as,
Pronoun must be
" John and James always accomplish what they undertake."
John or James always accomplishes what he undertakes.

(b) If
ond, the
is of the Third Person and one of the SecPronoun must be of the Second Person ; as,
one
" You and Ernest

(c)
may amuse
yourselves as you please."
Third and the First, or of the

the Pronoun must be of the First
If they are of the
Second and the
First,
Person.
1.
2.
Anna and /always perform the tasks our mother assigns to us."
" You and /can not always have what we desire."
"
POSITION.
Note 5. Pronouns of different Persons, used in the

same connection, should have their appropriate position.
11*
"
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
250
Obs.
1.
the First
The Second Person
is
placed firstthe Third next, and
last.
Example. You and James and /have been

Obs.
2.
lit
But when a fault
is
invited.
confessed, this order
sometimes
is
reversed.
Example.
Obs.
3.
feat or a
"i and my people have sinned."
This position obtains also when we

common
acknowledge a de-
calamity.
Example. Then
1
flgip
'
I and you and all of us fell down,

Whilst bloody Treason nourished over us."

Errors.
3.
" Will you go to the concert with me and Clara?"

" John and you may parse that sentence."
" I think that /and Anna and Mary are entitled to prizes."
4.
Jack and 1 and father caught that
1.
2.
Note
6.
The
squirrel.
Pronoun " them" should not be used
Adjectively.
Incorrect.
me
them books.
1.
Bring
2.
" Only see
3.
"
how them big trees bow to the breeze."

No one knows when them boys study their lessons."
4.
"
Them
5.
u Which of them liousen does your father
Corrected.!. Bring
are
me
my
sentiments."
live
in?"
those books.
SalT Let the Pupils correct the others.
NUMBEP
Personal Pronouns indicate unity or

other Pronouns by their Antecedents.
forms
Eem.
plurality
by
their
all
Note
when it
7.
Pronoun should have a Singular form
represents one Singular Antecedent.
Example.He nry was
Exception.
quite well
when
I last
saw him.
The Pronoun You has the same form in both Num-
bers.
Examples.1. " James, when

2.
Note
8.
will you
Boys, will you assist
be prepared for college
me
to arrange these desks
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
when
represents two or
it
251
more Singular Antecedents
taken separately.
Example." Honor or
Note
when
it
9.
it."
represents a Collective
Example.I found
ministration.
him only who seeks
disgrace is sure to
the school
Noun
indicating Unity.
more orderly than
it
had been under
my ad-
10.
A Pronoun should have a Plural form when
has one Antecedent indicating Plurality.
Note
it
Example.Few men are
Note
11.
as wise as they might be.
has two or more Antecedents taken collectively.
it
Example.
Note
Mary and Anna always accomplish what they undertake.
12,
Antecedent
its
is
a Collective
Noun
Example. The committee were unanimous
indicating Plurality.
in every
measure which they
discussed.
$W Let
Errors. (See Note

1.
Let any pupil put this in Diagram
2.
Each pupil may
3.
" Every true believer has the
4.
" Every
5.
kfc
if
7.)
they can.
select a sentence for themselves*
spirit of God in them"Barclay*

member of a family should know their duty.
Every one must judge of their own feelings. 11
1 '
6.
" Albert and Charles have each their peculiarities. 11
7.
" Every body has recollections which they think worthy of recording."
8.
" Every body trembled for themselves or their friends. 11
9.
" Let every student
now
attend to their
(Note
10.
lesson.
11
8.)
" Every mechanic and every artist had
Diagram,
own
full
pay
for their services."
Anna will analyze this Sentence,
11.
" If Clara or
12.
" Gold or silver will be paid
13.
" James or Henry
may sweep
14.
"I expect George
or Charles will favor us with their
ing.
(See
p. 230.)
if
they are
they shall be complimented. 11
demanded. 11
the school-room
if
they are willing. 11
company
this even-
11
15.
" Neither poverty nor wealth necessarily secure happiness to their pos-
ses sor."
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
252
"
16.
No
act nor
word nor thought, whether
they be
III
good or
evil, will esof.pc
the judgment."
{Notes
17.
The Council was
9, 10, 11, 12.)
when
in session until ten,
they adjourned to the next
day."
18.
"
The school was
called to order at nine
but they were dismissed at
one."
19.
20.
21.
"
The nobility failed on every measure it proposed."

The peasantry carried every measure it brought forward."
" Mankind can never exceed the limit of knowledge nature"has prescribed
"
for it."
22.
" The house and barn were insured for more than
23.
" Candor and frankness manifests itself in his countenance."
24.
"
it
cost."
The committee were unanimous on every measure which it considered."
Note 13. A Pronoun should not be used with

Noun in the same construction.
Examples of Ekroks.
who teaches algebra, will
1.
"
Our new
2.
"
We
3.
" John, he is the boy that takes
4.
"My banks,
teacher, she
called on Sarah, she that gives lessons
Corrected.
1.
all
call
its
here to-night."
on the guitar."
the prizes."
they are furnished with bees."
" Our new teacher,
who teaches algebra, will call
here to-night."
HSf* Let the Pupils correct the others.
Obs.
But Compound Personal Pronouns, and sometimes Simple
Pronouns,
may
be used with their Antecedents for emphasis or for
Khythm.
Examples. 1. " The moon
2.
Rem.
force.
Words
(See "
herself is lost in heaven."
" His teeth they chatter, chatter still."
thus added have a Rhetorical, not a Grammatical

of Euphony," p. 174.)
Words
Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns.
Obs. 1. A Relative Pronoun always performs a double

being used Substantively and Conjunctively.
Example. He who
studies, will
improve.
C~
^
(
"
Who"
relates to " he,"
and
is
~^
He
will
improve
Who
studies,"
is
'
who
studies
the Subject of studies
Substantive.
"
office,
a Sentence used to describe " he."
hence, a
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
" Who" introduces the Sentence
a Conjunction.
Note
14.
termines
hence,
it
performs the
office of
The
Antecedent of a Relative Pronoun dePerson and Number, but not its Case.
its
1.
1 who write.
4.
"
Note
253
15.
In
Thou who
2.
He whom thou
writes^.
3.
He who
writes.
lovest, is sick."
the choice of Relative Pronouns, that
form should be selected which
in accordance with
is
reputable usage.
Obs.
2.
The
Antecedent commonly decides the appropriate
Relative Pronoun.
Examples.
The
The
The
The
1.
man
man
who
Such
Such
thai
boat
tvhich
boat
that
people as
boats as
More
More
people than
boats than
last
largest
whom
[Him
[That which
2. I
received
-j
All
that
as
Such
{More
Eem.
than
came
came
came
came
came
came
came
came
returned.
you sent.
you sent.
you sent.
you sent.
you sent.
The above examples suggest the
choice of Relative
following
Lams for
the
Pronouns.
WHO.
Note
16.
The
intelligent beings
Relative
and
Who
is
properly applied to
to things personified.
Examples. 1. " There are those whom I can not forgive."

2. " Too low they build, who build beneath the
But
names merely, or
Exception.
as
Collective
as
titles,
stars."
Nouns, and names of persons, taken

should be followed by the Relative
which.
Examples.1.
"
2.
"
The multitude which followed swelled the notes of joy."

The regiment which Quinby commanded suffered most
this
3.
"
in
engagement."
We call Arthur
rior orator."
our
little
Demosthenes. which
,'
means supe
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
254
(Hap*'
Let the Pupil correct the following

Errors. (See Note
1.
"
III.
Anna
loves to study
but Sarah, she
is
13.)
ever idle."
3.
" Whoever beliereth not therein, they shall perish."

" Whom, when they had washed, they laid her in an upper chamber."
4.
" All pupils which have recited
2.
(Note
1G.)
may
5.
be dismissed."
" Those pupils which study grammar should speak correctly."
6.
" The conductor introduced
7.
" I did not
8.
" The committee
me to the man of which you spoke."

meet the lady there zvhich you spoke of."
(Exception
to
Note
16.)
12.
who were appointed failed to report."

" He instructed the crowds who surrounded him."
" The court, who gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary."
" The nations among whom they took their rise, were not savage."
'* The convention who were called accomplished nothing."
13.
" Solomon was the wisest king
9.
10.
11.
whom the
world has ever seen."
WHICH.
Note
17.
The
Which
Relative
is
properly used to
represent things.
Examples. 1. " The
2.
EJp Let
books which I left, bring with thee."

" That life is long which answers life's great end."

Errors.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
many puppets who are moved by wires."

" And the ants, who are collected by the smell, are burned."
" He was met by a dolphin, who sometimes swam before him."
"He encountered the crowd, who was going up the street."
" I have a temple in every heart who owns my influence."
"
They
are like so
THAT.
Note
18.
The
Kelative
That may
be used to repre-
sent persons or things.

Obs.
1.
(1.)
(2.)
(3.)
That
is
generally used
when
its
Antecedent
is
Another Pronoun.
A Noun limited by the Adjectives all, any, same, no^
or by any Adjective of the Superlative degree.
Two or more Words denoting both person^ and things.
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
Examples.
1.
"
Who
2.
"
It
255
chew tobacco ?"
that has a proper self-respect, can
was not I that did
it."
6.
He that attends to his interior self, nas business."

Them that honor me, I will honor."
" All that a man hath will he give for his life."
" Not any of the boys that come to this school write compo-
7.
"
8.
" The wisest
9.
"
3.
4.
5.
"
"
sitions."
10.
Obs.
2.
He was
The
the same
man
man
that taught
best advice that I
can give
"All the people and the

drowned."
The Relative that
me grammar."
that the world has seen."
is
is this."
cattle that
were on the island were
generally used to introduce an
jective Sentence used specially to restrict or specify
Examples. 1. " The man
Rem.
He
that dares traduce., .is not a
2.
"
3.
" The evil that
and
that loveth wine
men
Variety, elegance, and
oil shall
do, live after
its
Ad-
Antecedent.
man."
not be rich."
them."
other laws of Taste, often decide
the proper selection of the Relative.
Errors
in the use of Relative Pronouns.
2.
Who is she who comes clothed in robes of green ?"

" He is not the person who he appeared to be."
3.
"
4.
" All which can be done to render the definitions of
1.
"
Was it
thou or the
wind who shut the door ?"
Murray.
grammar
accurate."
The Nominative expresses the name of the person or thing which acts."
Grammar, p. 19.
6. '* The Passive Verb denotes Action received by the person or thing which
is its Nominative." Kirkham's Grammar, p. 157.
7. " The same ornaments which we admire in a private apartment are unseemly in a temple." Muway's Grammar, p. 128.
8. "Massilon was the greatest preacher which modern times have pro5.
"
Hilly
's
duced."
9.
mar,
One
of the first
who introduced
it
was Montesquieu."
Murray's Gram-
p. 125.
men possess." Murray's Key,
10.
" This
11.
The humming-bird is the smallest bird which is found in this country.

The commissioner has secured the men and the money which he con-
12.
is
the most useful art which
p. 275.
tracted for.
13.
" The same
men who
stole the horse obtained the
reward offered for his
eturn."
No man whom
knew
14.
"
15.
Every vine which William grafted grew vigorously.

" The family with wlwm I boarded has gone to Kansas."
16.
I conversed
with
the cause of the accident."
ENGLISH GBAMMAB-PABT
256
17.
" John
III
was the^rs man who noticed me.

Who is she that comes in robes of green?"
1 '
Corrected.!. "
flgp*
Let the Pupils correct the others.
Note
19.
Avoid the improper use of Adverbial "Words
for Adverbial Phrases.

Incorrect.
1.
2.
" There
is
no
rule given
how
may "be ascertained."

we can see no heart.
truth
" That darkness of character where

Murray's Key, p. 236.
3.
" This
4.
"By
is
1'
the very house where he died."
Prepositions we express the manner

done.
Murray's Grammar, p. 128.
how
a thing
was
1 '
5.
" I have been visiting the house where I was reared. 11
6.
"I do not
Corrected.1. " There
see the means
is
no
how you
rule given by
will do
11
it.
Schoolmaster.
which truth may be ascertained."
Qir Let the Pupils correct the others.
AS.
Note 20. As, used as a Relative or Conjunctive Pronoun, always follows the word Such.
Example. Such
as I have, give I unto thee.
(if
give
to /thee )
such
have
J
as
THA]N".
Note
Than, used as a Eelative or Conjunctive

Pronoun, follows the word More, or some other word in
the Comparative form.
21.
Examples. 1. " We have more than

2.
heart could wish."

" There was more due than was ever paid."
The Double Pronoun what.

Obs. 3.When the Relative
"what"
usually bears a part in the structure of
is
used substantively,
two sentences
at the
it
same
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
257
equivalent to " that which,'' or " the things which" The

may be the Subject (a) or the Object (b) of a Principal Sentence, the Object (c) of a Phrase in that Sentence, or used
The Consequent or Relative part introduces an
in Predicate (d).
time.
It is
Antecedent part
Auxiliary Sentence, which qualifies the Antecedent, and may be

the Subject (e) or the Object (g) of that Sentence, the Object of a
Phrase (h), or used in Predicate with a Yerb (i).
"What
1.
it=D
reason weaves, by passion
is
undone."
Pope.
2.
what
" Deduct
is
but vanity."Idem.
~
yr T~?
^ Û=L_D~-
"Each was
favored with
what he most
delighted
in."
" v^J
D
4.
Obs.
4.
" It
is
Whoever, whosoever
for whoever),
what
not
supposed
ichatever, whatsoever,
have a construction similar
Examples. 1. " Wlwtever purines
fortifies also
~J
..atever
")
the heart."
"
fortifies
.
al8Q
Wh...
and who (used
to what.
"
C~
to be."
it
heart
purifies
the
Obs.
5.
Whoever
2.
"
3.
You can have whichever you
sees,
prefer.
The Compound Pronouns what, whatever, and whatsoever,
sometimes combine an Adjective and a Substantive
same
admires her."
office at
the
time.
Examples. 1. " What money he had was

(
money
1
lost."
was
tort
7-y
^ &
at
was lost. That
(ZX^DCÎJ^
Kalwallot
W hat sights he wished, he saw.

T
2.
3.
4.
He
Whatever hope he had has vanished.

He performed whatever duty was assigned
performed
duty
jf
"
atever
[
to him.
whhT"^
was assigned
to
him~)
ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART III
258
Obs. 6. By the poets, the Antecedent of a Eelative Pronoun

sometimes elegantly suppressed.
Example." Who
lives to Nature, rarely can
Who lives
Obs.
That
7.
be poor
to Fancy, never can be rich."
sometimes improperly used
is
is
for
the Relative
what.
Example." Take
Obs.
What
8.
that is thine."
Obs.
What
9.
sometimes substituted for an Adverbial Phrase.
is
Example." What
[in
is
Example." What!
respect] shall it profit a
man?"
Is thy servant a
dog ?"
The two words, tut whatand

should not be used for the Conjunction
Note
that
what
sometimes used as an Exclamation.
22.
also
but
that.
Examples.
1.
2.
" I did not doubt but what you would come."

" I did not doubt but that you would come."
Corrected. I did not doubt that you would come.
Position or Pronouns.
Note 23. In the structure of Sentences, Pronouns

should be so placed as most clearly to indicate their Antecedents.
Obs.
1.
Generally we place a Pronoun after
its
Antecedent.
Examples.1. The boy injured himself.

2. " The rose that all are praising."
Exception
1.
Interrogative
Pronouns which they
Pronouns precede the Nouns or
represent.
Examples. 1.
"
Who will show
2.
"
What can compensate
Exception
The
us any good ?"
Pronoun
for loss of character ?"
having an explanatory Phrase

or Sentence used as a Logical Adjunct, should precede that Phrase
2.
it,
or Sentence.
Example." How
Exception
3.
is it
possible
The
not to love her?"
Antecedent, used as an explanatory word,
often follows the Pronoun.
Example." Ye
crags and peaks/ I'm with you once again."
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS,
259
Position of the Eelatiye.
Obs. 1. When a Relative is the Subject or the Object of an

Auxiliary Sentence, it should be placed next its Antecedent.
Examples. 1. " Can all that optics teach unfold
2.
"
Thy form to please me so ?"

The grave, that never spoke before,
Hath found, at length, a tongue to chide."
Exception. Sometimes, for rhetorical effect, words of special

importance may be placed between the Relative and its Antecedent.
Example." O, they love least that let men know their love."
Obs. 2. When the Relative is the Object of a Prepositional

Phrase, it comes between its Antecedent and the Auxiliary Sentence with which that Phrase is construed.
Example." We
Rem.
prize
that most/or which we
For which" modifies
"
labor most."
" labor"
" which"
relates
to
" that."
is
Obs. 3. The Relative that, used as the Object of a Preposition,

placed before the Preposition.
Whom, which, and what, are placed
after their Prepositions.
Examples. 1. " I have meat to eat that ye know not of"

2. " Withhold not good from them to whom it is due."
u The world in which we sojourn is not our
3.
home."
4. " We could not learn for ivhat he came."
Obs. 4. The Relative when the Subject of a Sentence, or the

Object of a Phrase can rarely be omitted without weakening the
force of the expression.
Examples. 1. " For is there aught in sleep [ ] can charm the wise ?"
2. " The time may come [
] you need not fly.
1 '
Obs. 5. But the suppression of the Relative is allowed when it

the Object of a Sentence, or when the position of the words is
such as to prevent ambiguity or weaken the expression.
Examples. 1. " History is all the light we have in many cases and we re-
is
ceive from
2.
it
a great part of the useful truths
we
have."
" But they that fight for freedom, undertake

The noblest cause mankind can have at stake."
J^lp Let the Pupils correct the following

Errors.
1.
first love is
the last to leave the
memory which
Military Academy seems to be one of the

city which De Graff instituted."
2.
*.he
The
" The
ll
enters the heart."
most popular schools
in
ENGLISH GBAMMARPABT
260
for
III
3. " The boy should bring a certificate from his former teacher, who applies
admission to this school."
4.
" Every
5.
"
man
The day
contributed to the relief of the sufferers
entered college was remarkable as the
whom I
met."
day the great meteoric
shower first fell."

he was."
6. "Alexander continued four days in the place
they then were."
7. " Darius was but twenty miles from the place
8.
"They
are right
when they
serve for
uses they were made." Collier,
p. 99.
9.
"To
manner it should be
give directions as to the
studied."
HallecTc'8
Grammar, p. 9.
10. " The book which
11.
12.
I read that story in, is at school."

" I could not deny but what he was the man."
" No one can doubt but what grammar is a pleasing study."
13.
" I have no doubt but that
14.
" There
is
you
no question but
will receive the highest
that the
moon
honors."
revolves on its axis."
Ikterrogatives.
Note
24.
Interrogative
Pronouns are construed
like
Personal Pronouns.
Examples. 1. As
2. As
3. As
Who has the lesson ?

Whom seek ye?
the Subject of a Sentence

the Object of a Sentence
the Object of a
PhraseFor what do we labor?
Obs. 1. The Interrogative force of such Pronouns is commonly

suppressed when they introduce Substantive Auxiliary Sentences.
Examples. 1. Who has
the lesson
[ Who
kaB
J(
lesson
~)
L_Jhe_J
:
shall
2.
who
has
soon_j
We shall soon see who has the lesson.

Whom seek ye ?
4.
Ye
5.
We
still
Y
A
lesson
")
L_the_J
3.
2.
Obs.
see
J(
(
refuse to
scarcely
tell
whom
know/or
ivhat
ye seek.
we
labor.
But the Principal Sentence may remain interrogative.
Examples. 1. Which shall have the premium ?

2. " Who shall decide which shall have
3.
4.
the
premium ?"
How can you tell whom the teacher will reward?

By whom did you learn /or ivhom I voted f
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
Obs.
3.
261
The word which answers a question has a construction
similar to that of the
word which asks
Examples. 1. Whose book have you

2.
3.
4.
it.
Mary's.
What could I do ? Nothing.

Where did you see him ? In Rochester,
Whence came they ? From Ireland.
Rem. " Mary's" specifies " book" " in Rochester"

" did see" " from Ireland" modifies " came,"
modifies
The
Interrogative what, followed by the Conjunctions

and some others, commonly belongs to a Principal Sentence understood, on w hich the following Sentence depends for
Obs.
though,
4.
if,
sense.
Examples. 1.
2.
" What if the foot aspired to be the head ?"

What [would be the consequence] if the foot, etc.
"
What though Destruction sweep these lovely plains ?"

What [occasion have we to despair] though Destruction
sweep these lovely plains
Adjective Peoôuks.
Eule 5. Adjective Pronouns

Nouns tvhich they qualify.
Note
1.
this, that,
When used
and
all
are substituted for the
as Subjects, each, either, neither,
other Adjective Pronouns indicating
'unity, require their
Verbs to be in the Singular Number.

Examples.
Correct.
1.
believes his
own.
2.
Either
is sufficient.
4.
" Neither of them has any reputation. 11

" Are either of the boys absent to-day ?"
5.
"
3.
Incorrect.
Each
Do you
prefer
charms
6.
for
grammar
to logic
Neither of them have any
me. 11
" Each of those three boys merit the highest honors of the
class.
11
Note 2. These, those, many, others, several, and other

Adjective Pronouns indicating pliLrality, require their
Verbs to be in the Plural.
Examples. 1. "
2.
These are the things which defile."
" Those were halcyon days. 11
262
Note
Any,
3.
all, like,
III.
some, none, more,
and
such,
may
have Verbs in the Singular or Plural, according as they

indicate unity or plurality.
Examples. 1.
2.
3.
"
None but the upright
'
Non ehas
'
in heart are capable of being true

friends." Y. L. Friend.
arri ve d
1 '
" All are but parts of one stupendous whole."
What
4.
"
5.
" The like were never seen before."

" Like produces like."
6.
7.
if
the field be lost
All is not lost,"
" Objects of importance must be portrayed by objects of importance such as have grace, by things graceful."
" Nestled at its root
;
8.
Is
Beauty
such as blooms not in the glare
Of the broad sun."

Obs.
1.
Qualifying and some Specifying
Adjectives receive the
definitive " the" before them,
They may be
qualified
on becoming Adjective Pronouns.

by Adjectives or by Adverbs, according as the
is to be limited.
Examples. 1. " The good alone are great."
thing or the quality
2.
" The professedly good are not always really so."
3.
"
The much good done by him
will not
" Professedly" modifies the quality ; hence,

" Much" limits the things done hence, it is
;
Obs.
2.
In
and similar
soon be forgotten."
an Adverb.
an Adjective.
it is
the analysis of a Sentence, each, other, one another,
distributives, are properly parsed as single
words.
But, in strict construction the parts perform different
Examples. They assisted each other.

They assisted each [assisted]
Obs.
3.
When two things
erally referred to
latter
offices.
the other.
are mentioned in contrast,
by Adjective Pronouns this and
<âand those to the former.
Examples. 1. " Here living tea-pots stand, one arm held out,
One bent the handle this, and that the spout."
;
2.
3.
''Farewell,
my friends ;
farewell,
My peace
with these,
my
my foes
sev-
the
Pope.
love with those.'''Burns.
" Some place the bliss in action some, in ease

Those call it pleasure and contentment these."
;
and
these refer to
SYNTAX.
263
Independent Case.
Eule 6. A Noun or a Pronoun, not dependent on

any other word in construction, is in the Independent
Case.
Obs. 1. We have seen (p. 189) that the framework of a Sentence

its Principal Elements
are the Subject, the Predicate, and the
Object ; that the Subject and the Object- are the Substantive Elements both depending for their Syntax on the Predicate (p. 208)
the former as Subjective Case, the latter as Objective. Nouns
and Pronouns in all other conditions, not being thus dependent on
the Verb for their Syntax, are said to be Independent (p. 88) and
that this generic term includes the following specific conditions
1.
The names
of persons or of things addressed,

Appellatives.
2.
to introduce
Independent Phrases,
Absolute.
3.
complementary of Verbs and of
as
Participles,
in Predicate.
4.
Nouns and Pronouns used explanatory of
other
Nouns and
Pronouns,
in Apposition.
5.
Nouns and Pronouns used simply
as
Names Cards,
Signs,
Titles,
Naming.
To
for
this last class
may
be added
all
Euphony.
Hence,
Note
1.
The name of
a person or thing addressed
is
in the Independent Case.

Examines. 1. "Friends, Romans, Countrymen."
2.
In
" Come, gentle
spring ethereal mildness, come."
word thou, understood, is the

proper subject of u come." The words "spring" and " mildness"
are addressed, and are independent in construction. (See p. 85.)
Rem.
Note
2.
the last example the
Noun
or a Pronoun, used as the Leader
of an Independent Phrase,
is
in the Independent Case.
ENGLISH GBAMMABPART
264:
III.
Examples. 1. The houk having arrived, we commenced the exercises.

2. " Thus talking, hand in hand, alone they passed
On to their blissful bower." Hand being in hand.
Note
3.
with a Verb,
is
Noun
in the
or a Pronoun, used in Predicate

Independent Case.
Examples. 1.
"
Thou
4.
"
He maketh
5.
" It
art a scholar"
2.
It is /.
was the students*
"
God
is love."
that broke the glass."
Obs.A Noun or a Pronoun used in

form of the Subjective or of the Objective
Examples. 1. " I thought it to be him"
2.
"It was not mef that you saw."
3.
" It
was not
3.
the storm a calm."
Predicate,
may have
the
Case.
I that did it."
Rem. This idiom is established by good authority ancient and

modern and grammarians can not well alter the custom.
k;
Nescire quid accident antequam natus es, est semper esse -pxierum."
" Not to know what happened before you was born, is always to be a boy."
Here, " puerum" (boy) has the form of the Accusative Case (Oband can not be in the Nominative.
jective),
Note 4. A JSToun or a Pronoun used to explain a preNoun or Pronoun, is in the Independent Case.
ceding
* The notion that " two or more Nouns meaning the same person or thing
agree in Case is fallacious. Case is only a condition of Substantives dependent on their relation or non-relation to other words an accidental quality but
Gender and Number are attributes inherent in the things themselves without
reference to other words. Hence if identity demands any thing, it must be inherent qualities Gender, Number, and Person. But in the example given, not
even these qualities inhere.
1
'
14
It was the students that broke the glass."
students" " agree in case with " it 11 because they indicate the " same
persons ?" Then why not also agree in Gender and Number ? But is " students of the Neuter Gender and Singular Number because " it is ? If then
these words do not agree in their inherent qualities Gender and Number why
claim that they do in the accidental relation of case ?
Another example, " The teacher ivhom I love, has gone." Here "teacher"
and " whom" indicate the same person. Must they, therefore, " agree in case ?"
Is it well to hold and teach an error, only because it is venerable fand reject
a truth, only because we did not learn it before we learned the error ?
t Well-established custom requires the same Rule in English that is given
" The Antecedent is sometimes put, by attraction, in
in our Greek Grammars.
the case of the relative."
Must
'4
'
'
'
INDEPENDENT
Examples.-I. Paul, the Apostle, wrote
The messenger
.
It is
"It
2.
(See Diagram, p.
m.)
of
morn."
and
to Sentences.
our duty to study.

possible
is
that we mistake."
is properly a Logiused to describe or limit another word.
Independent Noun or Pronoun
Obs. 2. An
Adjunct when
cal
Timothy.
applies also to Phrases
q bs i._ This Note

Examples. 1.
to
springs the lark, shrill-voiced and shrewd,
"Up
2.
265
GASES.
it is
Examples.Paw? the ApostlePeter the Great.

describes " Paul," by limiting the application
individual.
particular
to a
Eem." Apostle"
of that
name
Note 5. A Noun
of remark the title
clamation, or for
Examples.-I. "Our
or a
of a
Pronoun denoting the Subject

in address, in exin the Independent Case.
book used
Euphony,
is
do they
Fathers! where are they? and the Prophets!
live forever ?"

2.
3.
4.
" Wright's Orthography:"
The Military Academy.

" The moon herselfIs lost
in heaven."
Obs. 3. In this Note are properly included

repeated for the sake of emphasis.
Example." This, this
is
Nouns and Pronouns
thinking free."
elegantly condensed into

Obs. 4. Adverbial Sentences are often
Independent Phrases.
xLXAMPLES.
Sentence.- When the hour had arrived,

Phrase. The hour having arrived, we
we commenced
commenced the
the exercises.
exercises.
(See Diagrams, p. 209.)
Eem
" When the

"
hour had arrived" is a Grammatical Adthe

commenced," an Adverbial Sentence. " Hour" is
junct of
Subject of that Sentence
hence, in the Nominative Case.
"
Rem 2 " The hour having arrived"

commenced," an Independent Phrase.
that Phrase
is
"
a Logical Adjunct of
is the Leader of
Hour"
hence, in the Independent Case.
nor allowed, ex5

a custom not to be recommended
" poetic license," an Independent Phrase is sometimes precept by
which does not indicate a relation, nor
0bs
_By
ceded by a Preposition,
properly connect it to an Antecedent.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
266
III.
Examples.1. " With arm in arm, the forest rose on high,

And lessons gave of brotherly regard.'"
2. " Upon our horse becoming weary, we procured
lodgings at a
private house."
With"
is
tion of the Sentence
Rem.
Rem.
1.
2.
"
not necessary to the grammatical construcbeing simply to preserve the rhythm.
its affix
The use of " upon"
is
unnecessary and improper.
Exercises in the Use of the Independent Case.
2.
O Absalom/ my son, my son

Lend me your songs, ye nightingales /
3.
How is
1.
4.
5.
it possible not tofeel grateful for such benefits!

Other things being equal, we prefer a fruit-growing climate.
Thou
art the ruins of the noblest
man
That ever lived in the tide of time.

6.
Henceforth I never will be Borneo.
7.
8.
John dislikes to be called an idle boy.

That little indiscretion made him my enemy.
9.
His teeth they chatter
$W*
still.

Errors.
Me
1.
"
2.
My being fatigued,
3.
being
thought
4. It
you ought to be so too."

John finished my task for mo.
satisfied,
it
to be he.
was not me
that did
it.
ADJUNCTS.
Rem. The term Adjunct, as used in grammar, embraces all

those Elements in Sentences and in Phrases that are used to limit,
qualify, or
modify other Elements.
Note 1. Adjuncts belong to the words which they

modify or describe.
Obs.
The Forms of Adjuncts.

( Words,
1. Adjuncts may consist of
\ Phrases,
(
2.
A Word.We were walking homeward.

A Phrase. We were walking toward home.
3.
A Sentence." Let me
Examples.1.
or
Sentences.
stand here
till
thou remember it."
SYNTAX OF ADJUNCTS.
Note
2.
267
In the use of Adjuncts, that form should
employed which will most
fully
be
convey the sense in-
tended.
Obs. 1. Many Adjunct Words, Phrases, and Sentences arc interchangeable.
Examples.
Word Adjuncts.!. "An honest man is the noblest work of God."

11
2. " Dark days are remembered.
Phrase Adjuncts.3. A man of honesty is the noblest work of God.
4. Let him remember the days of darkness.
Sentence Adjuncts. 5. A man who is honest, is the noblest work of God.
6. Days which are dark, are long remembered.
Obs.
But this
2.
interchange of Adjuncts
is
not always admis-
sible.
Examples.
Correct." The time of my departure
Incorrect.My departure's time
Obs.
3.
is at
is at
hand. 11
hand.
(See Obs.
Adjuncts are often Complex.
3,
p. 278.)
One Adjunct Word may
be qualified or limited by another Word.

Examples. 1. Two hundred dollars were contributed.
~~Y"~"
dollars
hundred
2.
were
contributed
3.
The wind's low
L Two J
The cloud's deep voice.
sigh.
Obs. 4. An Adjunct Word may be limited by a Phrase.

Examples. 1. " From the shore, eat into caverns, by the restless wave"
2. " Wisdom is too high for a fool."
Wisdom
lB
high
I
l*
or
~)
to
fool
C_a_J
Obs. 5. An Adjunct Word may be limited by a Sentence.

Examples.1. " He called so loud that all the hollow deep resounded."
2. " Oft as the morning dawns should gratitude ascend."
Obs.
6.
An Adjunct Phrase may be limited by a
Example.- -Arthur went almost to Boston.
Word.
Obs. 7. An Adjunct Sentence may be limited by a Word.

Example." Not as the conqueror comes,
They the true-hearted came. 11
(See p. 254.)
268
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
III.
The Offices of Adjuncts.

.
Pkist.All Adjuncts are
Note 3. (a)
Adjectives or
Adverbs.
All Adjuncts of Substantives are
Ad-
jectives.
All Adjuncts of Verbs are Adverbs.
All Adjuncts of Adjectives are Adverbs.
All Adjuncts of Adverbs are Adverbs.
(i)
(c)
f
(d)
Obs. 8. Adjuncts
of Sentences.
may
be attached to any of the
five
Elements
1.
To
the Subject
The king of shadows loves a shining

mark."
2.
To
the Predicate.
"
And when
its yellow luster smiled

O'er mountains yet untrvd,
Each mother held aloft her child

To bless the bow of God."
3.
To
" They undertake the noblest cause
the Object
4.
To
the Adjective..
5.
To
the
"The
mankind can have
at
stake.""
truly
virtuous man
is
not regardless of his
reputation."
Adverb
.
.
"
"
Wisdom is too high for a fool."

Oft as the morning dawns should
gratitude ascend."
Logical Adjuncts.
Rem.In
addition to Grammatical Adjuncts, we have

what may
properly be called Logical Adjuncts. These
are commonly Substantives, independent in construction,
yet serving indirectly to
limit or modify other Elements.
(See p.
29.)
Logical Adjuncts
may
consist of
Words,
Phrases,
or
(Sentences..
Examples.
(1.)
Word Adjuncts.Peter
the Apostle.
Peter
{^
Hermit
(^
th
the Hermit resembled, in temperament
^j(^
^)
resembled
__j
Peter
in
j temperament)
Apostle
ml
*}
Peteb
269
SYNTAX OF ADJUNCTS.
Rem." Hermit" and " Apostle" are Nouns, yet serve to distinmen named " Peter." Hence they are Logical Ad-
guish the two
junctsNounsProperIndependent
Phrase Adjuncts.
(2.)
1.
It
pleasant
is
to
flowers.
2.
pleasant for children.
It is
i_
~~Y
It
(^
gather
jtoj
gather
^
X
pleasant
is
nowerB
children
for j
pleasant for children
3. It is
to
~Y
It
^X~ gather y
4.
good
Is it
to be
alone ?
~V
Is
to/ be
flowers
alone
children
it
good
is
good
not good for man.
5. It is
not good for
It is
man
to
[toj^be
Rem. 1. The Pronoun

the Subjects.
"To
good
is
be alone.
7.
for
J
6.
pleasant
i^
gather flowers.
[
pleasant
is
J\
^l
(See p. 34.)
in construction.
LiotJ
alone
for
man J
being omitted, the Phrases become
it"
Thus,
gather
flowers" is pleasant
lbi children.
8.
is
" Tobe alone"
not
good
for
Y~
school
9.
The teacher being sick,
the school was dismissed.
the
good
is
man.*
not)
was
(
^for
(
J
j Hin^
J
dismissed
Teach er
(The)[ bVing~sick
gather flowers" and " to be alone" are Infinitive Phrases, and in Sen" to gather flowers" is a Logical Adjunct of " it," used to tell what the
word "it" means. But in Sentence (7) " to gather flowers" is the Subject of
"is pleasant." In Sentences (2), (3), and (7), "for children" is a Phrase, Prepositional, Adverbial, used as a Grammatical Adjunct of " is pleasant."
* "
tence
To
(1)
270
^-t
Because the teacher

the school was
dismissed.*
10.
was
sick,
SCh Ql
was
III.
dis missed
r~zz
(^Jgecause
OSel
(3.)
It
is
possible that
The
mistake
possible
may
be substituted for the Pronoun.
mistaJce is possible.
further Observations
dent Case," Part
Thus,
possible
is
Q we
For
is
r/i^ we mistake" limits the signification of the

word
Sentence
That we
that
(j_X
Rem. "
Jt
It "
sick
'
we mistake.
ii
( Teacher ^(was
^mistake"
on Logical Adjuncts, see " Indepen-
II., p. 85.
ADJECTIVES.
Eule 7. Adjectives belong

which they
to
Nouns and Pronouns
describe.
Obs. 1.It should be remembered that any word whose most

important office is to specify, qualify, or otherwise describe a person or a thing, is, therefore, an Adjective. (See Def. 97.) A word
which is sometimes or generally used as some other " part of
speech," may, in certain connections, be used Adjectively;
and
when thus used, it is an Adjective, whatever its form may be.
Examples.An
iron fence.
Working oxen.
Rem.Every
Adjective having its Substantive understood, becomes Pronominal. (See Adjective Pronouns, p. 97.)
* Logically considered, the Phrase " the teacher being sick;"
and the Sentence
" Because the teacher was sick," are alike Modifying
Adjuncts of the Predicate
" was dismissed 11 the Phrase assuming and the Sentence
declaring the cause
of the school's being dismissed. But the Phrasehaving
no word making a
grammatical connection with the Predicate-is called a
Logical Adjunctwhereas the Sentencebeing grammatically connected with its
Principal by the
Conjunction "because 11 is said to be a Grammatical Adjunct.
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES.
Obs.
2.
271
An Adjective may consist of
A Word. The
recitation
hour has arrived.
A Phrase.The hour for recitation has arrived.
Vtt
A Sentence.The hour in which we recite has arrived.
Adjective Words.
Adjectives describe things in two distinct methods
Obs.
1.
As an ordinary
epithet, in
which the
attribute is not asserted,
but implied or assumed.
Examples. 1.
2.
By
A sweet apple.
2.
asserting the attribute
A few inhabitants.
with the aid of a Verb or a Par-
ticiple.
3.
The apple
is sweet.
4.
The Fobms op
Rem.
1.
Many words
The inhabitants
are few.
Adjectives.
Language are primitive
in the English
words, having forms peculiar to their Adjective
office.
Examples.Hard soft sour sweet good bad oldyoung.
Rem. 2.But most words used as Adjectives are Derivative

being formed from Nouns by the addition of suffixes.
Words
Examples. Arabian
Rem.
3.
Examples. A
Note
which
1.
is
silver
pencil a gold
pen a stone
That form of the
bridge.
Adjective should be used
in accordance with reputable usage.
1.
An Adjective word denoting the material of its Substanshould have the Substantive form as, a Gold Pen, a Silver
Obs.
tive,
virtuoushop efulmaster^?/ children's.
Many Adjectives have the same form as the Noun.
Pencil.
But an Adjective word denoting resemblance of the material

should have its appropriate Adjective termination; as, " Golden
harvest," " Silvery tide."
Obs.
2.
When
two or more Adjectives belong
Noun, they may

1.
Severally qualify the Substantive only
or,
to
the
same
272
2.
One Adjective may belong
to the
Noun
III.
by
as modified
the
other.
Examples. 1.
2.
Rem."
"
11
He was a tall, athletic, vigorous man.

n Lamartine acted a conspicuous part in the late French
devolution."
Tall," " athletic,"
and
" vigorous," are Adjectives

" man."
standing in the same relation to the
Word
" French" describes

" French Revolution."
"
or
limits
Revolution
;"
each
" late"
limits
Obs. 3. This construction should be distinguished from that in

which the Adjective and not the Adjective and the Noun combined is modified by an Adverb.
Examples.A
Obs.
4.
very beautiful flower.
A long-neglected duty.
Specifying AdjectivesPossessive or Numeralmaybe
by other Adjectives.
limited
Examples. 1.
2.
3.
"
He heard the king's command,

And saw that writing's truth.
1 '
We gave two hundred dollars.

Comparison of Adjectives.
Rem. As things are equal or unequal,

have words indicating those differences.
Note
2.
Care
similar or dissimilar,
we
should be exercised in the choice of
appropriate words to indicate Comparison.

1.
Comparison of Equality.
Obs. 1. Two or more things, similar in any given

compared by the use of the word As, placed before the
quality, are
latter term.
Examples. 1. John is as tall as James.

2. Warner is not so fair as Arthur.
Obs. 2. The former term of the Comparison of Equality may

be preceded by As or So, and sometimes by Such. (See Examples
above.)
As
So
is
is
used in Affirmative Sentences.

used in Negative Sentences. (See Examples above.)
2.
Comparison of Inequality.
Note 3. In Comparisons of Inequality, when but two

things are compared, the former term requires an Adjective or an Adverb of the Comparative Degree.
Examples. 1.
2.
Exception.
Example.
273
"
They are stronger than lions." Taylor.

" Their instinct is more perfect than that of man. 1 '
Some good writers employ the Superlative.
" The largest boat of the two was cut loose. ' Cowper,
1
Obs. 1. The second term of Comparison of Inequality is commonly introduced by the word Than. (See Examples above.)
Obs.
2.
When the second
term
a Substantive
is
Word, Than
is
a Preposition.
Example." Than whom, Satan

Obs.
3.
When
the second term
monly a Relative Pronoun

Examples. 1.
"
2.
"
except, none higher sat."Milton.

is
a Sentence,
Than
is
com-
or a Conjunction.
He has more than heart could wish."

And there are lovelier flowers, I ween,
Than
e'er in
Eastern lands were seen."
(For other Observations on Than, see " Conjunctions.")
Obs. 4. The second term of a comparison

the sense is not thereby obscured.
may be
suppressed
when
Examples. 1. "
2.
We both have
" I have
known
fed as well."
deeper wrongs."
But,
Obs. 5. When the second term is given it must correspond in

construction with the first.
Incorrect." The study of Greek is more interesting than German."
Corrected. The study of Greek is more interesting than the study of Germanthan that of German.
Note 4. Adjectives of the Superlative Degree

used when more than two things are compared.
Examples. 1. " The
are
richest treasure mortal times afford is spotless reputa-
tion."
2.
Note
5.
"
Thou
art the ruins of the noblest
Comparative and
man
that ever lived."
Superlative Adjectives re-
quire different constructions.
Obs. 1. The Comparative Degree requires the former term

be excluded from the latter.
Example.Iron
Rem.
is
more valuable than
In this Example " Iron"
all
is
12*
to
other metals.
put as one term of Compari-
274
son,
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
and
" all other metals" as the other
ILL
termtwo
things are com-
Hence, the Comparative form.
pared.
Obs. 2. The Superlative Degree requires the former term

to be
included in the latter.
Example.Iron
the most valuable of all the metals
is
Rem. Here, "all the metals" are taken severally. "Iron" is

taken from the list, and put in comparison with the many
othersmore than two things are compared. Hence, the use of the Superlative form.
Note 6. Some
Adjectives can not be compared.
Example. John's hoop
is
Corrected. John's hoop
is
much more
much more
circular than mine.
nearly circular than mine.
Note 7. Double Comparatives and
Superlatives are
improper.
Example.In
Obs.But
the calmest and most
Lesser
Example.' The
1
is
often used
stillest
night.
by good
lesser co-efficient. "Davies"
writers.
Algebra.
Eem. The Comparison of Adjectives is not commonly absolute,

but relative. Thus, in saying, This is the sweetest apple, I merely
say that this apple possesses a higher degree of the quality than
all
other apples with which it is compared.

Errors.
1.
John
is
not as
tall
as James.
2.
William
3.
The magnolia
is
more
4.
William's ball
is
rounder than mine.
5.
Eve was the fairest of all her daughters.

Eve was the fairest of all other women.
Eve was fairer than all her other daughters.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
is
so
tall
as his father.
beautiful as the althea.
Nellie is the
most loveliest of the girls.

" Of all other pupils in this school, Arthur is the best speaker."
There is no science so practical and so useful as Chemistry.
The occupation of the teacher is more important than the lawyer.
The
cultivation of the heart is
no
less obligatory
than the
intellect.
275
Note
8.
Specifying
Adjectives should be so used as
clearly to signify the real intention of the speaker or

writer.
Rem.
1.
The
peculiar province of Specifying Adjectives
is
to
Hence,
indicate the individuality of beings or things.
Obs. 1. Specifying Adjectives should be used before

taken in a restricted sense.
Nouns
Examples.1. " The man

2.
3.
Rem.
2.
of wealth and pride

Takes up a space that many poor supplied."
" He has betrayed the confidence of his friends."
" The truth of that proposition is self-evident."
But Nouns may be restricted by the use of Phrases.
Examples.1. " Love of virtue

2.
is
exhibited in deeds of charity."
" Application to studies secures
excellence in scholarship."
Obs. 2. Specifying Adjectives should not be used before

taken in a general sense.
Examples. 1. " Man needs but

2.
Obs.
3.
" Confidence
is
little
Nouns
here below."
a plant of slow growth."
Specifying Adjectives should not be used before Proper
Nouns.
Examples.
Jackson was the more skillful general

Webster, the greater statesman.
Rem.
3.
Proper
Nouns
are rendered
Common by
the use of
Example. Lincoln
is the
Washington of the nineteenth century.
Note 9. A Specifying Adjective should be repeated

when its omission would occasion ambiguity or obscurity.
Obs.
1.
We
properly repeat the Specifying Adjective before
two or more Nouns specifically distinct.

Examples. 1. Man knows neither the day nor
2.
Obs.
Nouns
2.
The North and
We repeat the
are joined in the
especially if a part of the
the
the
South lines are
hour of his departure.

parallel.
Specifying Adjective when two or more

same construction and taken severally
Nouns
are suppressed.
276
Examples.1.
2.
3.
Note
10.
We have sold the black,
the bay,
and
the
III.
white horse.
" The vain, the wealthy, and the proud,

In folly's maze advance."
The
first,
the third,
Specifying
and the
fifth child
were sons.
Adjectives should not be re-
peated before different Qualifying Adjectives used to describe the same thing, or before different Nouns indicating the same person or thing.
Examples. 1.
2.
" The North and South line is accurately drawn."

Headley was a better orator than historian.

Erkors.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Oldest pupil in this class
is
not wisest.
The proper study of the mankind is the man.

The North and South lines run east and west.
The past and present tense of that verb do not differ in form.
The North and the South lines marked on the map are called meridians.
Numeral Adjectives.
11.
In the use of Adjectives that imply Numsuch should be employed as agree in Number with
Note
ber,
their
Nouns.
A book one book three books.
Examples.
This
book that book some
books.
Obs. But a Noun having two or more Adjectives differing

Number, may agree in Number with the one placed next it.
Example. " Full many a gem
Note
12.
in
of purest ray serene."
When the Adjective
is
necessarily Singular
or Plural, its Noun should agree with it in Number.

Examples.1. " The field is two miles long and one mile broad."
2. " Them hands let useful skill forsake
This voice in silence die."
Obs.
Exception. A
tively in the Singular
Examples.1.
few Nouns are used technically or
Number, with Plural Adjectives.
A hundred head of cattle.
2.
Fifty
3.
Surveyors use a four rod chain.
4.
Carpenters use a ten foot pole.
sail of the line.
figura-
277

Errors.
1.
2.
3.
4.
0.
Mary has not been at home this six months.

The Ridge road is three rod wider than the Braddock's Bay road.
The surveyor's chain is four rod long.
Hence it is called a four rods chain.
William exchanged three pair of rabbits for ten dozen of eggs.
Possessive Specifying Adjectives.
Kule
is
8.
A Noun or a Pronoun in the Possessive Case
used Adjectively.
Examples.
1.
Webster's Dictionary.
3.
The peddler
2.
Our neighbor.
and children's shoes.
deals in boys' caps

1
Exception. Nouns and Pronouns in the Possessive form are

sometimes used Substantively, and are then in the Subjective, in the
Objective, or in the Independent Case.
Examples.
Subjective
1.
Objective
2.
Independent
.3.
And they both beat alike only, mine was the quickest."
" He is a friend of mine, and lives next door to Smith's."
"
Thine
is
the kingdom."
The sign of the Possessive Case

Obs.
to the name of the Possessor.
1.
1.
It
may
is
not always annexed
be transferred to an attribute following the
name
of
the Possessor.
Examples. 1. The Pope of Kome's legate.

2. " Whether it be owing to the Author
us every moment." Bp. Butler.
2.
When
of nature's acting
upon
two or more Possessives, immediately following each

same word, it is attached only to
other, are alike applicable to the
the
last.
Examples. 1. George, James, and William's

2.
A.
S.
father.
Barnes and Co.'s publications.
Obs. 2.But the sign of the Possessive should be repeated

is used to specify another.
when
one Possessive
Example.
Obs.
3.
Gould's Adams' Latin Grammar.
The sign of the Possessive should be repeated when the
Possessives refer to different persons.
Examples." Heroes' and Heroines' shouts confusedly
rise."
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
278
Note
1.
Possessive
III
Adjectives describe
Pronouns, by indicating possession,
Nouns and
fitness, origin,
con-
dition, etc., etc.

Examples.
" Boys " denotes the size of the caps.
" Webster's" denotes the origin.
1
1.
Boys' caps
2.
Webster's Dictionary
3.
" Heaven's immortal Spring shall yet arrive,

And man's majestic beauty bloom again,
Bright through the eternal year of Love's majestic reign."
Obs. 4.
Noun or a Pronoun in the Possessive Case
equivalent to an Adjective Phrase.
is
often
Examples.
The
1.
The
2.
Webster's Dictionary
A Dictionary written by
3.
Boys' caps
Caps
4.
"
5.
people's will
He heard the king's command

And saw that writing's truth."
Obs.
5.
will of the people.
Webster.
suitable for boys.
The command of the king.

The truth of that writing.
But they are not always equivalent.
Examples.-1. The love of virtue

2. The desire of leisure
is
not virtue's love.
is
not leisure's desire.
Hence,
Note
2.
Possessive Specifying Adjectives
and Adjecshould not be substituted the one for the

they are not fully equivalent.*
tive Phrases
other
(See
when
Examples above.)
The laws
of interchange of Possessive Adjectives and their kindred Adjec-
tive Phrases are as follows

1. When the Object of the Prepositional Phrase constitutes the Agent of an
action, state, feeling, etc., implied in the Substantive limited, the Phrase and
the corresponding Possessive Adjective are equivalent, and, therefore, interchangeable. Thus,
2.
The people's will

The sun's rays
3.
Webster's last speech
1.
The will of the people.

The rays of the sun.
The last speech of Webster.
When
the Object of the Prepositional Phrase constitutes also the Logical

Object of an action, state, feeling, etc., implied in the Substantive limited, the
Phrase and the corresponding Possessive Adjective are not equivalent, and,
consequently, can not be interchanged. Thus,
2.
Correct." The doctrine of Divine Sovereignty."

Divine Sovereignty's doctrine.
Incorrect.
3.
When
the Object of the Prepositional Phrase
maybe
the Logical Subject
279
Obs. 6. Adjectives derived from Nouns and Pronouns in the

Possessive Case, often retain their Substantive character, and may
be qualified by other Adjectives.
Example." He saw that writing's

He saw the truth of that writing.
" That" specifies " writing."
truth.'"
Rem. This observation is also applicable to other Adjectives

derived from Nouns, and to Numeral Adjectives.
Examples. 1.
"
A cast iron hinge."
2.
" Cast" qualifies " iron
;"
and " iron"
an Adjective.
is
Two hundred
dollars.
"Two"
specifies
"hundred;" and
" hundred," thus modified, limits " dollars."
Obs.
7.
A word in the Possessive form
often used to specify
is
a Phrase.
Examples. 1.
"
2.
"
Upon Mr. Talbot's being made Lord Chancellor"

From our being born into the present world."
Obs. 8. In constructions like the above, the Possessive sign

should not be omitted.
" All presumption of death's being the destruction of

must go upon the supposition that they are compounded."
Correct Construction.
living beings,
Incorrect Construction.!. " Nor is there so much as any appearance of our

limbs being endued with a power of moving" etc.Bj). Butler.
2. " A fair wind is the cause of a vessel sailing."
In the last example, the author intended to say that wind

an act expressed by the word " sailing."
But he makes himself say that wind
the cause of a thing
Rem.
is
the cause of an act
is
thing
named by
the
Corrected.Wind
Obs.
9.
is
word
" vessel."
the cause of a vessel's sailing.
Possessive Adjectives
tences introduced
are sometimes qualified
by Sen-
by Relative Pronouns and by Phrases.
or the Logical Object of the action, state, etc., implied in the Substantive limuse of the Phrase generally occasions ambiguity, and is inadmissible
without the addition of some other Element. Thus,
ited, the
"
The
love of
God
shall
make
their bliss secure."
Rem. This may mean

If
we
God's love to them or their love to God.

intend the former, the ambiguity may be removed by the Phrase
them, placed after the word "

of the word " the." Thus,
1.
t2.
The
love of
God
;" or, if the latter,
by the word
God to them shall make their bliss secure.

God shall make their bliss secure.
Their love of
to
their in place
280
Examples. 1.
2.
3.
"
How various
his employments
whom
III
the
world
calls idle
/"
" I have spoken of his eminence as a judge."
" Heaven be their resource

of the world."
who have no
other but the charity
It
is the Substantive Element in the Possessive Adjective

thus limited by the Auxiliary Sentence. Thus, " his" is
equivalent to " of him ;" and " him" is limited by the Sentence
Eem.
that
"
is
whom
tlie
world
calls idle"
Position of the Possessive.

Obs. 10.
before the
When the Possessive

Noun
Examples.
1.
2.
or the
is
used AcTjectively,
Pronoun which
it
it is
placed
specifies.
The widow's mite.

The culprit's confession.
Obs. 11. Like other Specifying Adjectives, it precedes Qualifying Adjectives belonging to the same Noun or Pronoun.
Examples. 1.
2.
u
"
The brook's bright wave."

The wind's low sigh."
Obs. 12.Possessive Adjectives, in addition to their primary

sometimes introduce Auxiliary Sentences.
office,
Example. "
All are hut parts of
Whose body Nature
one stupendous whole,

and God the soul." Pope.
is,
In this Sentence, " whose" is an Adjunct of " body," and

used also to introduce the Adjunct Sentence, " Whose body
Nature is."
Kem.
it is
Obs. 13.
The
Possessive Adjective often denotes the agent of
an act expressed by a Participle.

Examples. 1.
" I have an engagement which prevents
my
staying longer
with you."
2.
Who
invited
" I allude to your inviting
me ?
mc
to your forests."Pope.
you.
This observation also applies to Substantives.
Example. The
boy's mistake.
Who mistook ? the boy.
Adjectives in Predicate.
Note
3.
An Adjective, like a Participle, may be
in Predicate with a Verb,

to
make
the assertion.
when
the Verb requires
used
its aid
Examples. 1. " His
1.
hand waxed strong."
" Canst thou grow sad as earth grows bright /"
2.
Obs.
palsied
3.
Vanity often renders
4.
Virtue always makes
Many English Verbs
Adjectives in themselves.
"
"
281
Waxed
strong
contain the signification of such
Thus,
has its equivalent, strengthened.
"
"
brightens.
"
"
happijies.
'
Grows bright
"Makes happy"
1
man contemptible.
man happy.
'
Obs. 2. But not all Predicate Adjectives have their equivalent

Verbs. Thus, for the Predicate " renders contemptible," we have
not the Verb, contemptibleize.
Obs.
3.
Participles, like Verbs, sometimes require the use of Ad-
jectives to
be
"
complete the sense.
Adjectives thus used are said to
in Predicate."
Examples. 1. " The desire of being happy reigns in

desire
LThe
2.
Obs.
1.
4.
[of
L^
reigns
If
hearts."
S-
W
being
v\
happy jj
Her highest happiness
in
consists in
hearts
\^_
making others happy,
Adjectives may be in Predicate

Transitive Verbs Active Voice.
With
Examples. 1.
make me mad,
" They'll
They
2.
2.
all
) f will
they'll
make
t
make me mad."
mad j
me
" The study of science tends to make us devout."
With Passive Verbs.
Examples. 1.
"
He was made
He
wretched by his
was made
own
wretched
^ (his JXow
L
2.
folly."
folly
~)
n )
" The children ivere rendered miserable by the sins of tho

father."
With Neuter and other Intransitive Verbs.

Examples. 1. " How dear to my heart are the scenes
3.
2.
of my childhood.' 1
(See Diagram, p. f$f.)
" Be not therefore grieved nor angry with yourselves.".
282
4.
With Verbs
Infinitive Mode.
Examples. 1. " The study
^~Dost
thon
"I
3.
With
own
it
With
be
cold."
of this,
we can not
succeed."
Participles as Verbal Nouns..
"
1.
Her
Her
was spent in making others happy."
life
life
was
^
2.
5.
angry
Participles as Adjectives.
Examples.
Obs.
")
well
t0
made my blood run
Example. " Falling short

6.
make us devout"
of science tends to
" Dost thou well to be angry?"
2.
5.
III.
spent
-
'
" Becoming angry at
This construction of
distinguished from that in
m /W^making
trifles is
happy
others
indicative of a
weak mind."
the Adjective should be carefully
which
it is used as a representative of an
Adverbial Phrase.
Examples. 1. " Caled entered every day early and returned late."
2. " The surging billows come crouching to his feet."
billows
{jn^Jj^^r^y
come
[X j-y
)
)
^V*; (crouching)
1
" Early"
.is
substituted for
" Late"
"
Hence,
1.
Crouching"
"
and
"
<x
feet
to /
(
his
<m a?% fow.
at a late hour.
"
...
" early," u late,"
"
& crouching attitude.
crouching" are to be parsed
As Adverbs being used
as
representatives
of Adverbial
Phrases.
2. But in the analysis of these Phrases, these words are to be
parsed in their individual capacity, as Adjectives, qualifying their
Substantives understood.
Rem.
For Substantives in Predicate, see " Independent
Case."
FOKM.
Note
4.
Adjectives used in Predicate should not take
the Adverbial form.
283
Examples.
Incorrect. 1. William feels badly to-night.
How beautifully it looks
3.
Corrected.William feels bad to-night.
How beautiful it looks
2.
4. It
I feel sadly.
appears strangely to me.
I feel sad.
It
appears strange to me.
Rem. It will be noticed that the Adjective in Predicate does

not modify the Verb. It describes the Subject with the aid of the
Verb. Hence,
Obs.
1.
Adverbs
Grammatical
are not used as a part of the
Predicate.
Obs. 2. The Verb used in Predicate with an Adjective

times suppressed.
Examples. 1.
"
2.
"
However
By
No position, however exalted, could satisfy

A man may grow rich by seeming poor."
exalted
seeming
[it
may
is
some-
his ambition."
be].
[to be] poor.
Position of Adjectives.
Note
5.
Adjectives should be
so placed as to clearly
represent the sense intended.

Obs.
3.
An
Adjective
Word
Noun and after its Pronoun an

its Noun or Pronoun.
:
is commonly placed before its

Adjective Phrase or Sentence after
Examples.
Word.l.
Phrase.
2.
Sentence. 3.
An influential man.
A man of influence.
A man who possesses
influence.
But when an Adjective Word
Obs. 4.
a Phrase,
commonly placed
it is
after its
is
limited or modified
by
Noun.
Examples. 1. " Seest thou a man diligent in his business."

2. " Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again."
Obs.
5.
When the same word
is
qualified
by two or more Ad-
the one denoting the most definite quality should be

placed next it and, when one Adjective specifies and the other
jectives,
qualifies,
the Qualifying Adjective
Examples.
1.
An
2.
A large sweet
3.
" Sound the
industrious
is
placed next the Noun.
young man.
apple.
loud timbrel
o'er Egypt's
dark
sea.'*
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
284
Note
6.
An Adjective
diately after its
Obs.
placed imme-
2.
waxed
3.
" His palsied hand
4.
"
And
5.
"
How various his employments whom the world calls idle /"
strong."
the eyes of the sleepers
waxed
When the Verb

not always placed between
Exception
1.
sometimes
is
Verb
or Participle.
" Which maketh glad the heart of man."
" Canst thou grow sad as earth grows bright /"
Examines. t.
is
in Predicate
IIL
1.
deadly and chill."
Transitive,
is
it
its
Object
and the Adjective
in
Predicate.
Examples.
1.
2.
" Vanity often renders man contemptible."

" Winter maketh the light heart sad."
2.
Exception 2. For the sake of euphony, for emphasis, or
rhythm, the Adjective is sometimes placed before the Verb.
Examples. 1. " Hard is my fate, cried the heart-broken stranger."
2. " Bloodless are these limbs, and cold."
Obs.
for
Obs.
3.
This
construction should be
from that in which the Adjective

Example." But we
left
carefully distinguished
qualifies the Object of the Verb.
him alone with
his glory."
Exercises in Review,
page
266.What
an Adjunct?
be the. forms of Adjuncts ?
" A man who has talents, will succeed in
is
What may
1.
Condense
this
business."
by replacing the Sentence Adjunct by a
Phrase.
Eeplace the Phrase by an equivalent Word.

267.
Are
all
Adjunct Words, Phrases, and Sentences interchange-
able
What Elements
of Sentences
may
be affected by Adjuncts
268.
How are Adjuncts of Substantives to be parsed
270.
Repeat Rule Make Sentences to
How
are Logical Adjuncts
commonly construed ?
7.
271.In what
distinct
tives
Is a
Word
illustrate.
methods do Adjectives describe Substan-
used Acljectively in one Sentence, always an Ad-
jective?
Wherein do Adjectives commonly
differ
stantives of similar signification
inform from Sub-
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES,
PAGE
272.
Repeat Note Make Sentences to

1.
What
Adjectives are
Equality?
285
illustrate.
commonly used
in
Comparisons of
What Word
introduces the second term of the Comparison?

Supply the proper Words omitted in the following Sentences
"
3.
"Rachel
Repeat
273.
Anna is tall as Clarissa."

is not tall as Mary."
2.
Note
2.
Make Sentences to illustrate Obs.
What Word introduces the second term of a Comparison
of
Inequality?
4.
" Delia
is taller Isabella,
but not fairer
Helen."
Supply the proper Words in the above Sentence.

Repeat Note 4. Make Sentences to illustrate.
Correct the following Sentences,

for
See Note
5.
5,
and Observations.
" Shakspeare
more
is
any writer."
6.
7.
8.
275.
and give proper authority
each criticism.
faithful to the true
" Cibber grants it to be a better poem of its kind than ever was
written." Poj>e.
" The Christian religion gives a more lovely character of God
than any religion ever did." Murray.
" Of all other nations, ours has the best form of government.
Sheridan.
is, of all others, that which most moves us."

7.
By
Notes
9.
10.
language of Nature than
Blair.
8, 9, or
It
illustrate.
by the Observations.
"Northern Spy is fine specimen of an apple."

u Lawrence is abler mathematician than a linguist."
The highest
11.
"
12.
" Organic chemistry treats of the animal and vegetable kingdom."
13.
" The north and south poles are indicated on the map."
14.
" Mary,
title in
widow
the State
is
that of the Governor."
of the late Col. Clark, and the mother of the Gov-
ernor, resides with us."

15.
16.
" Substitutes have
three Persons
the First, Second, and the
Third." PSm^s Grammar.
" In some cases we can use either the Nominative or Accusative,
promiscuously." Adams' Latin Grammar.
;
17.
"I doubt
his capacity to teach either the
languages."
French or English
286
III.
PAGE
18.
" The passive and neuter verbs I shall reserve for some future
19.
" ihas a long and short sound."BicknelVs
20.
" The perfect participle and imperfect tense ought not to be
consideration. "IngersoWs
Grammar.
Grammar.
confounded."Murray.
276. By Note
10.
22.
" There is, however, another, and a more limited sense."

u Novelty produces in the mind a vivid and an agreeable emo-
23.
" Jewell, the poet and the professor of English literature, has
21.
tion."
Blair.
criticised it."
By Note
"I have not been
25.
" If I had not
26.
" They are these kind of gods which Horace mentions."
27.
"
Many
By Note
277.
11.
24.
in
London
left off
this five years."
troubling you about those kind of things."
things are not that which they appear to be."
12.
high."Harrison's Grammar.
28.
"
The wall
29.
"
A close prisoner,
30.
" These verses consist of two sort of rhymes."Formey.
31.
'"Tis for a thousand pound." Cowper.
is
ten foot
in a
room twenty foot
square.''''Locke.
Repeat Eule Make Sentences to illustrate.

8.
Correct the following errors by Obs.

32.
33.
34.
35.
1, 2, 3, 4.
" I have neither John nor Eliza's books."
Nixon.
" James relieves neither the boy nor the girl's distress."
" Which, for distinction sake, I shall put down severally."
" King James translators merely revised former translations."

244. Repeat Note
Make Sentences to
243.
1.
2.
Correct the following errors by Obs.
illustrate.
illustrate.
6, 7, 8.
36.
" The General in the army's name, published a declaration."
37.
" The
38.
" It
39.
"
40.
" This depends on their being more or less emphatic, and on the
vowel-sound being long or short."
41.
"
Hume.
bill
passed the Lord's house, but failed in the Commons."
curious enough that this sentence of the Bishop

ungrammatical." CobbetVs Grammar.
is
We
is, itself,
should presently be sensible of the melody suffering."
Whose
principles forbid them taking part in the administra

Liberator.
tion of the government."
SYNTAX OF ADVERBS.
247. Repeat Note
3.
Repeat Note
4.
248.
Make Sentences to
Make Sentences to
Correct the following errors

" The group of
42.
fully
little
287
illustrate.
illustrate.
misses appeared most lovely and beauti*
43.
" Heaven opened widely her everlasting gates."
44.
" The poor
45.
"
girl feels
very badly about
Hawley.
it."
The sight appeared terribly to me."

" Did not Lois look most beautifully at the
46.
lecture ?"
ADVERBS.
Kule
to other
Obs.
1.
9.
Adverbs belong to Verbs, to
Adjectives,
and
Adverbs which they modify.
An Adverb
may
consist of a Word, a Phrase, or a Sen-
tence.
Word I.
I shall go soon.
soon )
(^
(~ 8hal1
C_j__J
Phrase. 2. I shall go in a short time.
time
I a (short )
C
Sentence. 3. I shall go ere dc
may modify
(^William
William studies
y departs*)
a Word, a Phrase,
'ase, or a Senten
Sentence.
Examples.
1.
~Y
"
studies
diligently.
(^diligently
" Diligently" modifies a

2.
Word.
C Arthur^
"Not AS THE CONQUEROR COMES,

They, the true-hearted, came."
"
went
)
)
Arthur went almost to Boston.
^J Boston)
" Almost" modifies a Phrase.
3.
'C gpE)
(^day
Obs. 2.An Adverb
shall go
Th ey
trae-hearted 1
Not" modifies a Sentence.
V
>*
ca me
(
^conqueror^
(
"j
comes )
288
III.
Adverbial Words.
Note
1.
In the use of Adverbs, that
adopted which
is
form should be
in accordance with the best authority.
Obs. 1. Most Adverbs are derivative words, and are generally

formed by adding ly (formerly written lie a contraction of 1 i k e)
to its Primitive.
Examples.
A just man will deal justly.

A foolish man will act foolishly.
1.
2.
Obs.
2.
When an Adjective supplies the place of an Adverb, by
representation, the Adjective
form should be retained.
Examples.
1.
2.
The house was painted green.

Open thy mouth ivide.
Expanded.!. The house was painted with green paint.

2. Open thy mouth to a wide extent.
"
Green" and u wide" are Adverbs by representation.
Obs.
This construction should be carefully distinguished from
3.
that of Adjectives in Predicate.
Examples.
Correct. 1. The orange tasted sweet.
^
2.
3.
4.
Incorrect.
The orange
Velvet
orange )Y
(
(
,-,
Some deemed him wondrous

The grass looks green.
1.
4.
4.
2.
3.
Obs.
^
Yelvet feels smooth.
wise.
I The
tasted
sweet
tasted sweetly.
feels smoothly.
Some deemed him wondrous

The grass looks greenly.
The words which
wisely
Adverbs properly modify are some-
times suppressed.
Example. " Thou canst but add one bitter woe

To those [ ] already there:' Which are already
there.
Obs. 5! Adverbs sometimes supply the place of Verbs

they modify.
Examples. 1. "Back to thy punishment, false fugitive." #0 back.

2. " Til away to the pleasant land." I'll go away.
which
SYNTAX OF ADVERBS.
Obs. 6. Many words,
the place of Nouns,
Examples. 1.
2.
3.
Till
commonly used
289
as Adverbs, often take
and become Pronouns.
then for
till
that time.
From thence for from that place.

And I have made a pilgrimage from far. Hosmer.
Obs. 7. Participles become Adverbs whenever they indicate the

manner of an action or modify a quality.
Examples. 1.
Obs.
8.
3.
" Beulah's cheeks
passing strange."
but exceeding poor. 11
grew burning
red.
11
But most Participial Adverbs have the suffix

2.
9.
"
He spoke feelingly on
ly
added.
that subject. 11
" She conducted herself most lovingly throughout. 11
Or they become Adverbs by representation.
Examples.
1.
"
Now it mounts
And
2.
"
'tis
A virtuous household,
"
Examples.1.
Obs.
" 'Tis strange,
2.
Come"
"
the wave,
rises, threatening, to the
frowning sky. 11
The surging billows and the gamboling storms

Come, crouching, to his feet. 11
in a " crouching" attitude.
(See Obs.
2,
above, also p. 22.)
Obs. 10. A few words, commonly employed as Prepositions, are

sometimes used Adverbially.
Examples. 1. " Thou didst look down upon the naked earth."
2. " And may, at last, my weary age
Find out the peaceful hermitage. 11
3. "Master Sir Philip, you may come m."
Negative Adverbs.
Note
2.
But
one Negative
Word
or Particle should
For,
be used in asserting a negative proposition.

Obs.
erally
1.
Two Negatives applied to the same act
make
it
Examples. 1. " Not without

2.
Obs.
2.
or quality gen-
affirmative.
cause. 11
" Such occurrences are not wttfrequent. 11
Negative
Prefixes in derivative words have the
force as Negative Adverbs.
Examples. 1.
2.
"
He was
not w/?,mindful of his obligations.
" Such expressions are not inelegant. 11
13
11
same
290
III.
Rem. Such expressions have not always the full force of the
corresponding affirmative assertions, but serve to negative the
negative assertion.
Obs.
3.
Negative Adverbs are used primarily to modify
(a)
Verbs.
Examples.1. " They wept not.'" " Not"

(b)
To modify
2.
wept"
Adjectives.
Not one
of the family
"
Not
was
there.
-Y
one
3.
modifies "
was
every one that saith unto me, ' Lord

kingdom of heaven."
Lord V
Shall en-
ter into the
one
f
(c)
into
Not
kingdom
)
{j^hej [ot\
heaven
J
To modify other Adverbs Words,

Word 4. He is not generally agreeable.
f
"
Re
g enerally
( uot j
hunger, or lingering decay,

man hath swept them away."
fry
steel of the white
They
Y"
died
I
^
Sentence.6.
Phrase. 5. " They died not
Phrases, or Sentences.
a g reeab le
ls
The
enter
6hatl
~\
every
hrmprer
*J
not_ )
)
J
"Not
as ^<? conqueror comes,*

They, the true-hearted, came."

* The influence of the Negatives, not, neither, etc., is often exerted on Nouns,
Phrases, and whole Sentences.
And, generally, when a Negative occurs in
connection with other Adjuncts, the influence of the Negative reaches the
whole proposition, including the other Adjuncts. Thus, in Example 6, " not"
modifies the phrase, " by hunger or lingering decay" And in Example 7, " not"
negatives the sentence " as the conqueror comes."
Let the word "not," in sentences 6 and 7, be parsed by a devotee of those
systems of grammar that ignore the etymological offices of Phrases and of
Sentences. Will he not also " ignore" common sense? Does u not" modify
"died ?"
Then they are
still
living
SYNTAX OF ADVERBS.
Obs.
The responsive words
4.
yes, yea, no,
291
nay, are independent
in construction.
Position of Adverbs.
Note
most
Obs.
Verb
3.
The Position of
clearly to
Adverbs should be such as

convey the sense intended.
Ad verbs which modify Verbs generally precede a single
1.
in Predicate.
Examples. 1. "
2.
Obs.
the
2.
Man naturally seeks his own happiness."

" Then, when I am thy captive, talk of chains."
When
Adverb
is
Examples. 1. "
Obs.
3.
the Predicate consists of
commonly placed
more than one word,

word in Predicate.
after the first
We can not honor our country with too deep
" I have always been an admirer of happy
3.
" I will never leave thee nor forsake thee."
Adverbs modifying Adjectives
a reverence."
human
2.
faces."
are placed before their
Adjectives.
Examples.
1.
2.
Exception.
placed after
Obs. 4.
modify.
" The very rich man can never be truly happy."

" The selfish man can never be truly polite."
The word enough, used
its
Adjective
Adverbs
as, " It is
Adverbially, is commonly
good enough for me."
are placed before other Adverbs which they
Examples. 1. " How lightly mounts the muse's wing."

2. " Too low they build, who build beneath the stars."
3. "Ralph's mill is driven partly by water and partly BY
STEAM."
Obs.
5.
by hunger nor lingering decay."

Some work only for pleasure."
4.
" They died not
5.
"
Adverbial Phrases are commonly placed after the words
which they modify.

Examples. 1. " There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin."
2. " Time slept onjlowers and lent his glass to Hope."
Obs.
6.
Adverbial
Sentences are
commonly placed
after
the
words which they modify.

Examples.
1.
2.
"
The firmament grows brighter with every golden

As handful after handful falls on the azure plain.''''
" And I am glad that he has lived thus long."
grain,
292
Hem.
To the above rules for the Position of Adverbial Elements
there are
which
III.
numerous exceptions.
always be applicable.
No
can be given
specific rules
The judgment and
taste of the
writer are required to decide as to the Position of all the Elements
of Sentences.
will

Errors.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
"
A Christian
should always act benevolent."
The fields look greenly.

Some of the pupils looked
sadly, and others looked gladly.

Never bestow your favors grudging.
Every one that runs a race shall not win the prize.
Every one that does not run a race shall win the prize.
I have been always a lover of children.
8.
Some only work
9.
That hat was expressly made
(So they never play for pleasure
for pleasure.
for
?)
me.
10. " The comparative degree can only be used in reference to two objects."
Brown's Grammar, p. 140.
11. " Most men dream, but all do not^Beattee's Mor., Sec. 72.
12. " But every man is not called James."
Buchanan's Grammar, p. 15.
13. "I do not think I can tell."Many Pupils*
14. " Some people only wovk for pleasure."
15.
" I have not seen none of your books."
16.
" Ernest feels happily to-night."
17.
18.
"I never will disturb my quiet with the affairs of state."

The day was pleasant very, and the wind fair exceedingly.
Special Cautions.
(1)
In forming Complex Sentences, be careful to apply the
Negative to the right Verb.

Examples.
Incorrect.I do not think I can
Corrected.1 think I can not

(2)
Do
tell.
tell.
not use an Adjective
Word
for
an Adverb.
Examples.
Incorrect. Since her late sickness she does not hear good.
Corrected. Since her late sickness she does not hear well.
(3)
Avoid the use of the Adjective "such"
for the
Adverb
"so.
SYNTAX OF Ab VERBS.
293
Example.
Incorrect.1 have not seen such a good boy in this school.
Corrected.
I have not seen so good a boy.
Exercises
"
How
dear
to
When fond
Analysis akd Parsing.
in*
my heart are
the scenes of
Recollection presents
jf
scenes
(Recollectiou
fond
them
my
childhood,
view."
to
are dear
YJ
presents^
them
(toj-^T)
ANALYSIS.
Principal Ele-
ments
j
/
Of
The
The
Predicate
the
Subject
Adjuncts
" Scenes"
)
" Are clear." [
Subject.
"
u
Predicate
"
J
... 1 "
A Word.
A Ph?*ase.
The"
Of my childhood"
f"How"
Of the
Intransitive
Sentence.
To
....A Word.
my heart"
A Phrase.
When fond Recollection A

presents them to view."
Sentence
Model.
An Element in the Sentence Adjunct Primary
WordAdverb of Decree. (Repeat Rule
An Element in the SentencePrincipal Part in
Predicate" Adjective. (Repeat Note 3 to Rule
.An Element in the Sentence Adjunct Phrase
Adverbial Prepositional Intransitive. (Repeat
Rule
An Element in the Sentence Principal Element
in PredicateVerb Indicative Mode Present
Tense agreeing in Person and Number with
" scenes."
(Repeat Rule
An Element in the Sentence Adjunct Word
Adjective Specifying Pure. (See Rule
An Element in the Sentence Principal Part
Subj ect Word Noun Common Third Person
Plural Number Subjective Case. (Repeat
Parsed by the Chart.

"
How"
"
Dear"
"
To my heart"
ix
Are"
"
The"
9.)
"
7.)
9.)
2.)
7.)
'
Scenes"
Rule
1.)
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
294
^n
Or
itiv fhi
d"
An
Ift-
Adjective
Rule
"
When
fond
Recollection
presents
to
7.)
Element
in the Principal
__ Sentence __ Adverbial
them
view" ....
An
"j
Phrase
Prepositional Intransitive. (Repeat
Element in the Sentence Adjunct
n
Re P eat RuLE
/T >
"
Rem. 1. For the analysis of

Of my childhood," see p. 185.
Rem.
2.
presents
The
them
III.
9 -)
the Phrases, "
Auxiliary Sentence,
may now be
to view,"
Sentence Adjunct
Simple Transitive,
To my
and
heart,"
." When fond Recollection

analyzed by the above for-
mula, as a distinct Sentence.
PARTICIPLES.
Rule
10.
A Participle
has the same construction as
the " part of speech" for which
Rem.
used.
it is
Participles may be used in every " Part of Speech."
(See
p. 124.)
I.
Note
1.
1.
Participles used as Nouns.
A Participle used as a Noun may be
The Subject
of a Sentence.
Examples.1. " The beginning of strife is as when one letteth out water."
2. " The plowing of the wicked is sin."
3. " Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mischief\
can not be regarded as robbing him"
Taking~Y
sword
~J
's
(madman
fm adman's
j
)
r ~"j
i^
aj
\f
|
^^X^^^^J^
2.
The Object
4.
5.
6.
"I
canbe
111
regarded
l
1^-^ _^
of a Verb.
doubted his having been a soldier."

" While you strive to bear being laughed at."
" Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mischief
can not be regarded as robbing him.'"
SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES.
3.
The Object
of a Preposition.
7.
" In the beginning"
8.
" Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying
of our wants Riches upon enjoying our superfluities.'*
Addison.
:
9.
" Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mischief,

can not be regarded as robbing him."
Note 2.
name of an
295
Participle used as a
Noun,
i.
e.,
action, retains its Verbal character,
be followed by an Object when
it is
as the
and may
the leader of a Par-
ticipial Phrase.
Examples. 1. " They could not avoid giving

2.
" Its excesses
may be
offence.
restrained without destroying its
existence."
3.
4.
Obs.
often has
Receiving goods, known to be stolen, is a criminal

We have succeeded in making a beginning.*
Participle, being the
its
offence.
Leader of a Participial Phrase,
Subject suppressed.
Rem. In Sentence 1, above, " they"

action expressed by " giving."
is
the implied agent of the
In Sentences 2 and 3, the agents of " destroying" and of " receiving" are neither expressed nor implied.
In Sentence
Note
4,
"
we"
is
the implied Subject of" making."
The agent of an
action expressed by a Parexpressed,

and should be in the
sometimes
ticiple is
Possessive Form.
3.
Examples. 1. "
We have heard of his going to
the Falls.
1 '
2.
" I doubted his having been a soldier."
3.
" Mr. Burton objected to his son's joining the army."
The
sign of the Possessive Case of Nouns

used
Pronouns,
as the Logical Subjects of Participles,
and
should not be omitted.
Note
4.
ik
* Giving offence" is a Substantive Phrase Object of the Verb "avoid.'"

Giving" is the Leader of the Phrase. "Offence" is the Subsequent Object
of
giving."
4, "Making a beginning" is a Substantive Phrase Object of the

Preposition '*in." " Making" is the Leader of the Participial Phrase: "beginning" is the Subsequent Object of "making." (See also the preceding
diagram.)
In Sentence
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
296
III.
Examples.
Improper Construction.!. "
to college.
cause of a
He opposed my going to
2.
The Logical
the cause of a vessel sailing.'*
A fair wind is the
Corrected. 1.
1.
is
He opposed me going
2.
Obs.
A fair wind
vessel's sailing.
college.
Subject of a Participle
may
be in the Ob-
jective Case only as the Object of a Preposition.
Examples.
Rem.
1.
" The plowing of the wicked
2.
"By
the crowing of the cock,

nigh."
" Cock"
is
"
is sin.
we knew
that
morning was
the Object of the Preposition " of," and
is
there-
But it is also the Agent of the Action

implied in the word "crowing ;" and is, therefore, the Logical Subject of the Verbal Noun, " crowing."
fore in the Objective Case.
Obs. 2. Phrases thus used as Adjuncts of Participles are sometimes equivalent to Possessive Specifying Adjectives, and, therefore, are interchangeable.
Examples.-1. The crowing of the cock. The

2.
Obs.
3.
The
Noun whose
"
Definitive, the, should be placed before a
Logical Subject
Example." The ploaving

Obs.
4.
the,
Logical Subject
Example." You
object to
is
Verbal
the Object of the Preposition
of the wicked
The Definitive,
Noun whose
cock's crowing.
We listened to the singing of the children.'''

We listened to the children's singing.
is
of.
sin."
should not be placed before a Verbal
is
in the Possessive Case.
my plowing the garden
so early."
Note 5. A Participle used to introduce a Participial

Phrase, has the same construction as the Phrase which
it
introduces.
1. " Suspecting the treachery of our guide, we made preparations

for defending ourselves from any hostile attacks."
we
(
(
suspecting treachery
|t
Here
m a de
" suspecting"
^preparations)
[fot
and
)f
j[[
^ J~guide
defending ôurselves)
" defending'''' are Participles,
introduce a Participial Phrase; but
each used to
SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES.
11
Suspecting the treachery of our

shows a condition of
297
"
Defending ourselves" is a ParPhrase Object of the

"we."
Hence, an Adjective Preposition " for."
Hence, a
Phrase.
Substantive Phrase.
" Suspecting" describes " we,"
"Defending" is the name of
by expressing, incidentally, an an act, Object of the Preposiact of " we."
Hence, a Verbal tion " for." Hence, a Verbal
guide"
ticipial
Adjective.
Noun.
Suspicious of the treachery of our guides,
2.
we made
prepara-
tions for defence.
"
Suspicious" describes "
we"
by expressing a condition or state
we"
of "
Hence, an Adjective.
II.
Note
Noun
6.
" Defence" is a name, Object

of the Preposition " for." Hence,
a Noun.
Participles used as Adjectives.
A Participle used as an Adjective belongs to
or a
Pronoun which
it
describes
and may be
modified by Adverbs.
" Whose visages
Do cream and mantle like a standing pond.
Examples. 1.
2.
" Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle

Wheeling near its brow. '*
1
scaling
x
X
P enk
eagle
^wheeling )
its
3.
We
saw
And
The
Obs.
Phrase,
may
it
plunging 'mid the billowy
strife,
dashing madly on to fearful doom."
Participle, used as an Element in an Independent

be suppressed when the sense is not thereby rendered
obscure.
* "Scaling yonder peak
is a Phrase Adjunct of "I;" hence, Adjective.
" Wheeling near its brow 11 is a Participial Phrase Adjunct of " eagle ;" hence,
" Near its brow 11 is a Prepositional Phrase Adjunct of "wheelAdjective.
1
'
ing; hence. Adverbial.

In Sentence 3, "'Mid the billowy strife is an Adjunct of "plunging."
" Madly," and " on," and " to fearful doom," being Adjuncts of " dashing," are
Adverbs.
'
13*
'
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
298
Examples. 1. " Thus
On
*4
2.
hand
talking,
to their blissful
Now, man
to
in hand, alone they passed
bower." Hand being m hand.
man and steel
to steel,
A chieftain's vengeance
thou shalt
being opposed to man.
Man
Rem.
1.
TIL
feel."
It should be remarked, that such omissious

when
ples occur only
of Partici-
they have Adjuncts.
In analyzing and parsing such Adjuncts, necessary

which they belong. Thus, " in hand"
Phrase Adjunct of being, understood hence, an Adverbial
Rem.
2.
it is
to restore the Participles to

is
To man"
"
Phrase.
III.
Note 7.
an Adjunct of being opposed, understood.
is
Participles used as Adverbs.
Participles used Adverbially, belong to Verbs,
to Adjectives, or to Adverbs,
Example.-'Tis
strange
which they modify.
His passing strange.
Obs. Participles are seldom used Adverbially without the

mination ly.
Example. " He
spoke
ter-
feelingly on that subject."
IY. Participles used as Prepositions.
Note
8.
relation
of
its
Participle used as a Preposition shows a
object to
the word which
its
Phrase
qualifies.
Example. " He
Obs,
The
said nothing concerning his temporal affairs."
young scholar
often rinds
it
difficult
to determine
whether a Participle is used as a Preposition or as an Adjective.

His difficulties on this subject will vanish when he recollects that
1.
Participle used as
a Pronoun
2.
it
Participle used as
a Pronoun
it
a Preposition does not
generally introduces
an
9.
Adjective alicays relates to a
generally introduces
an
Noun
or
to
Noun
or
to
Adjective Phrase.
V. Participles used in Predicate
Note
relate to
an Adverbial Phrase.
with Verbs.
Participle used in Predicate asserts an
and may be modified by Adverbs.

We are anxiously expecting to hear from William.
act, being, or state,
Example."
1 '
299
PARTICIPLES.
Note 10. In the use of Participles in Predicate, the

proper modification should be used.
When
1.
when
i. e.,
ticiple
an action
should be used.
Examples. 1. Henry
When
is
reciting his lesson.
People are building the church.
2.
2.
to be predicated of the Subject,
is
the Subject performs the act, the Active Par-
the Subject
is
to be represented as receiving
the action, the Passive Participle should be used

Examples. 1. Henry's lesson is being recited.
2. The church is being built.
(See pp.
212-13.)
Note 11. The Participial Phrase should not be employed when the use of the Infinitive Phrase would be
more
elegant.
Examples. 1. "If the
case stands thus, His dangerous drinking."
Better. If the case stands thus,

2.
"
It
Better-It deserves
3.
"
Note
12.
dangerous
to drink.
to be
He
Better.He refused
'tis
deserves remarking.' ''Harris's Hermes.
remarked.
refused complying with the regulations."
to
comply with the regulations.
The
Participial Phrase should be used in
preference to a Sentence, or any other
more complicated
construction, which would express the same idea.

Examples.
Sentence.-1. As
ing near its brow.
I was
scaling yonder peak, I
Participial Phrase. Scaling yonder peak, I
saw an
eagle,
which was wheel-
saw an eagle wheeling near
its
brow.
Rem.
These Sentences are both grammatically correct
latter gives the
more
concise,
sentiment
and
is
fully,
but the
and has the advantage of being
therefore to be preferred.
Obs. The Logical Subject of a Participle may be suppressed

only when the construction is sufficiently clear without it.
Examples.
Incorrect. 1. " Having resigned his commission, the
banded."
company was
dis-
300
III.
Incorrect. 2. " Counting the women and the children, the company
ascertained to be too large for the accommodations. '
was
Correct.
1.
He having
(a)
banded,
or
2.
(c)
(d)
or
(e)
dis-
The captain having resigned his commission, the company

was disbanded.
On counting the women and the children, the company
was found to be too large for the accommodations.
The women and the children being counted, the company
was found to be too large for the accommodations.
(b)
or
company was
resigned his commission, the

(See p. 209, Obs. 1.)
Counting the
women and
company was too
the children,
we found
that the
large for the accommodations.
Exercises in Review.
Let the errors in the following Sentences be corrected by a
Notes and Observations under Rule 9.
([ip
proper application of the

1.
"
It requires
no nicety of ear
as in the distinguishing of tones, or meas-
uring time.'" Sheridan.

2.
3.
He mentions Newton's writing of a commentary.'"

"The cause of their salvation does not so much arise from
"
their
em-
bracing of mercy, as from God's exercising o/'it."
who
4.
" Those
5.
" In the choice they had
6.
" The Governor's veto was ivriting while the
accuse us of denying of
made
of
it,
him
belie us."
Bently.
for restoring of order."

final
vote was taking in the
Senate."
7.
"
To prevent
it
bursting out with open violence."
Robertson.
" This must prevent any regular proportion of time being settled."
Sheridan.
8.
9.
10.
" The compiler proposed publishing that part by itself."
Adams.
" Artaxerxes could not refuse pardoning him.' 'Goldsmith.
11.
" They refused doing so."
12.
" Entering the cars, the seats were found to be
The
Rule
11.
occupied."
Infinitive Verb.
A Verb
to,
is
the Object
expressed or understood.
in the Infinitive
Subsequent of an Infinitive Phrase.

in a Sentence, but in a Phrase.
all
A Verb in the Infinitive Mode
of the Preposition
Rem.
Harris.
Mode
is
Hence,
commonly used
it is
as a
an Element, not
Obs. 1. In its office, the Infinitive Verb is always Substantive,

generally expressing the name of an act, being, or state.
SYNTAX OF THE
INFINITIVE.
301
We
Tare prepared)
Examples.
[_
We are prepared
[to]
to act.
Equivalent. We are prepared for action.
We
(_
Jhire
act
prepared!
Obs. 2. Tlie Infinitive Verb is never used as a grammatical

Predicate; hence, it has no grammatical Subject.
But it is often
the logical Predicate of a Noun or a Pronoun, which may be in
the Subjective or in the Objective Case.
We love to study.
We requested him to speak.
Examples. 1.
2.
Rem.
" We" the grammatical Subject of " love,"
Subject of " study.'
"Him"
is
also the logical
''
the grammatical Object of "requested,"
is
the logical
Subject of "speak."
Note
1.
The
Preposition
to
is
generally suppressed
before Infinitive Verbs following the Verbs bid, but, dare,

feel, hear, let,
make, need,
Examples. 1. "I plunged

3.
4.
" Clara helped
5.
" I can not
me work that problem."

but suspect that she assisted Cora
" I would not have you go to-day."
" Necessity commands me name myself."
6.
7.
Obs.
have,
and bade him follow"
in
" He dares not touch a hair of Catiline."

u Let me hear thy voice awake"
2.
3.
and sometimes behold,

and some others.
see,
help, Jcnoiv, observe, perceive,
The Infinitive Verb, with
its
too.
Preposition,
often sup-
is
pressed.
Examples.
1.
2.
Some
deemed
"
Some deemed him wondrous wise."

"Intemperance makes a man [ ]
4.
The
wondrouR
is
Infinitive
bi *P
,,
a fool."
Obs.
sometimes elegantly used for other
Modes.
Examples.
1.
" I
am
to settle this
business."
am ~~j
yJ
settle
Ybusiness)
Arthur.
EquivaUnt.-l must
ness.
settle this
busi-
I^settlefîness
C
this )
302
Obs. 5. The Preposition

junction and.
Incorrect.Try
and do
Corrected.Try
to
to
III.
should not be replaced by the Con-
as well as possible.
do as well as possible.
The Infikitiye Phrase.

Obs.
6.
The
tive,
Yerb with its Preposition constitutes an

and may be construed as a Substantive, an Adjec-
Infinitive
Infinitive Phrase,
or an Adverb.
Examples.
1.
" To
be,
sire.
H~~be~^
We
contents'Y^deê"^
L^liX n ^.ura
1 '
We
(
2.
'"'
contents his natural de-
make
should
efforts
to
jfthould
makeX
im-
William
liam
William was invited
to
attend
Y wa& invited")
lec-
Y lectures |
An Infinitive Phrase, used Substantively, may be
7.
(a)
The
1.
The
(b)
" To be able
to
read
well, is
a valuable accomplishment."
Object of a Preposition.
We were about
2.
"
3.
" Be so kind as to place that in diagram."
to retire."
A Logical Adjunct.
(c)
4.
"It
is
our duty
to
make good
use of our
time"
In the opinion
of most grammarians, the Verbs love, dewish, expect, and some others, take Infinitive Verbs after them
Eem.
sire,
attend
'(to
tures.
Obs.
^^z~^zz~y
prove.
3.
efforts
(tol improved
as Objects.
Obs.
8.
(See p. 242.)
An Infinitive Phrase, used Adjectively, may be the Ad-
junct
(a)
Of the Subject of a
1.
(b)
"
Of the
2.
(c)
Of
(d)
Of a
Object of
4.
marked
to
" He arrived in time
is
whole career."
improve in speaking.
a Phrase.
to give his vote."
Substantive in Predicate.
That
his
a Sentence.
William has made efforts
the Object of
3.
Sentence.
A constant purpose to excel
the business next to be done.
'
303
PREPOSITIONS.
Obs.
junct
9.
An Infinitive Phrase, used Adverbially, maybe the AdOf a Verb
(a)
in Predicate.
Will you
1.
(b)
Of an
{c)
Of an Adverb.
2.
3.
Obs.
10.
pendent
allow me
to place this
in
diagram?
Adjective in Predicate.
We are ready to depart,
We were too late to take the cars.
The Infinitive, like
other Phrases,
sometimes inde-
is
in construction.
Example. " And,
to be
plain with you, I think you more unreasonable than
he."
Obs.
11.
The Infinitive Phrase often follows
the
Words
as
and
than.
Examples. 1. " An
2.
"
object so high as to be invisible."
He
said nothing further than to give an apology for his

vote."
Eem. In the above and similar examples, as and than are to be

regarded as Prepositions, having for their Objects the Infinitive
Phrases following. In like manner it sometimes follows other
Prepositions.
Example.We
are about to recite.
(See Obs.
above.)
7,
PREPOSITIONS.
Eule
to the
.
Obs.
1.
1.
'
12.
A Preposition shows a relation of
word which
Phrase
time
Word.
depart-
Phrase.
" A habit of moving quickly is another way or
"And
Object
C hab|t
^J
Sentence.
op
Live forever* struck the skies.'

cries
'
is
C The ) [of departure)
CT
X^
han<Q
way
\^\^^^^\0\}^^^LÛ
y\quicki>j
gaining time."
3.
its
qualifies.
The Object of a Preposition may be
The time of my
ure is at hand.
2.
its
TaISS
c" e8
8trucb
WOOTÔ
i
X"skie
^
the ^
304
Obs. 2.
moving
or a Sentence, being the Object of a
in its office, Substantive. (See " departure," " hand,"

quickly," " gaining time," and " Live forever," in the
Preposition,
"
Word, a Phrase,
III.
is,
previous Examples.)
Obs.
Pronouns which follow Prepositions as their Objects of
3.
relation should
have the Objective form.
For Exceptions, see 179.

Obs. Words commonly used as Adjectives or Adverbs, often
Rem.
p.
4.
become Objects of Prepositions, and are then properly parsed
as
Substantives, in the Objective Case.
Examples.
"He
1.
3.
Obs.
5.
has faded from earth like a star from on
John is a friend of mine.

" As yet the trembling year
2.
is
antecedent term of the relation expressed by a

sometimes understood.
Example.
Meet
6.
unconfirmed."
The
Preposition,
Obs.
is
high.'''
for fainting pilgrims
Prepositions
"
on
refuge
this desert
way.
'*
introducing Substantive and Independent
Phrases, have no Antecedents.
Examples.
Obs.
7.
As for me and my house, we
1.
"
2.
" And, on the whole, the sight
3.
"
O for
a lodge in
will serve the Lord."
was very painM.V Todd
some vast wilderness.
1 '
Cowper.
The consequent term of relation may be
A Word." Re stood before the people."

A Phrase. " Time, spent in receiving impertinent visits."
A Sentence." And cries of Live forever' struck the skies."
'
Obs.
8.
The consequent term of relation Object
is
sometimes
understood.
* In the above and similar examples, the ellipsis of the antecedent word
need not be supplied in parsing, unless the sense plainly requires it. But the
Phrase may be parsed as qualifying the word which its Antecedent would
qualify, if expressed.
" Which flung
its
purple o'er his path
to
heaven"
Here the Phrase "to heaven" properly modifies leading, or a word of similar
office, understood.
But "leading," modified by this Phrase, would qualify
"path." Hence, the Phrase "to heaven" as a representative of the whole
Phrase, " leading to heaven" may be attached to " path."
SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS.
Examples. 1.
2.
305
"
And the waves are white below* [ ]."

" These crowd around [ ] to ask him of his health."
Prepositions Omitted.
Eem.
Elegance or conciseness in style determines the omission,
in speaking
and writing, of many words not necessary
to
complete
the sense, yet necessary to complete the grammatical construction.

Perhaps no class of words are thus suppressed more frequently
Hence,
than Prepositions.
Note.
is
Preposition
obscured.
thereby
not
may
be omitted
when
the sense
Obs. 9. Prepositions should generally be omitted before Subsequents denoting time, value, direction, extent, or before Subsequents
placed between Transitive Verbs and their Objects.
Examples.
1.
I visited Rochester three times last
week:
at three times, in
last week.
2.
3.
I paid
him one
dollar for his knife
William came home

whole distance
4.
" The wall is four feet high, and forty rods long:" high to
the extent of four feet long to the distance of forty rods.
me
5.
Mary gave
6.
I sold
Mr. Shepard
7.
with one dollar.
having rode night and day the

to Ms home, on last night during night
and day throughout the whole distance.
last night,
a rose
Mary gave a rose to me.
my wheat : sold wheat
William has gone from home to-day

to-morrow to his home.
to
he will come
Shepard.
[
home
Obs. 10- -When two or more Subsequents, connected in construchave the same Preposition in common, the Preposition should
not be repeated.
tion,
Examples. We passed through Rochester and Syracuse and

way to Albany and New York.
Obs.
11.
struction,
But
Utica,
on our
when two
limit the
or more Phrases, combined in consame word, the Preposition should be re-
peated.
Many grammarians
call
the*e Prepositions Adverbs^ without giving a proper
They are Prepositions, having their Objects understood. But, as

the Phrases of which they form parts are always used Adverbially, the Prepositionsas representatives of their Phrasesare Adverbs. Hence, when thus
explanation.
used, each Preposition performs a double office Prepositional, as leader of the

PhraseAdverbial, as representative of the Phrase.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
306
Example. General Rawlins
III
distinguished himself in the cabinet and in the
field.
Here, and connects Phrases.
Rem.
Both good taste and accuracy of expression should decide
when such
Obs.
12.
suppression of Prepositions should be allowed.
Double Prepositions are sometimes allowed.
Examples. 1. " Out of every grove
the voice of pleasure warbles."

" There can be no question as to wmich party must yield. 11
2.
Obs. 13.
euphony),
But
two Prepositions must not be used (except for

of them will fully express the sense intended.
when one
Examples. 1. "Near
to this
dome
is
found a path so green: 11
near
this
dome.
" Not for
2.
Obs.
Position.
14.
name
its
to
hide
The
15.
it.
proper place for a Preposition
chilled
But, by the poets,
Example. t4 From peak

Leaps the
16.
hedge :" not to hide
it
is (as
introduces.
dread, in danger, and alone,
Famished and
Obs.
in a
implies) before the Phrase
Examples. " In
Obs.
it
through ways unknown.
it is
often placed after
to peak, the rattling crags

live
1 '
its
Object.
among,
thunder."
And sometimes in colloquial style.
Example. " You
will
have no mother or sister to go toy
This idiom inelegant, and not to be recommended.

Obs.
A Preposition commonly indicates the
of
Rem.
is
17.
office
Phrase which
it
the
introduces.
Example. See page
167.
Obs. 18. Many words commonly used as Prepositions are sometimes employed, not as Elements of Phrases, but as Word-Elements
These are commonly Adverbs.
in Sentences.
Examples.1. " Come

3.
on, my brave associates."

" Lift up thy voice like a trumpet."
" Down, down, the tempest plunges on the sea."
4.
"
2.
And
the
mad waves
rise
up
to buffet it."
SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS.
Kote
1.
Care
307
should be exercised in the choice of
Prepositions.
Obs.
1.
The particular Preposition
proper to introduce a given
Phrase depends
1.
Usually on the word which the Phrase
2.
Sometimes on the Object of the Phrase.
to qualify.
is
Examples.
Accommodate
to.
Accord with.
Accuse of.
Acquainted with.
Ask of a person.
Die by violence.
" of a disease.
Compliance with.
Conformable fo.
Diminish from.
Difficulty
Dissent from.
Insist upon.
Eager
Need
" for a thing.

Bestow upon.
Boast of.
Made of a
Concur with,
from.
Abhorrence of.
Agreeable to.
"
in.
Differ
Obs. 2.
a Phrase
with.
of.
True to.
Value upon,
thing.
by a person.
ira a place.
"
i?i,
in, for.
Worthy
When the second term of a comparison
of.
of.
is
expressed by
After a Superlative, the Preposition of is commonly used.

After a Comparative, the Preposition than is commonly used.
Examples. Grammar is the most interesting of all my studies.

Grammar is more interesting than all my other studies.
Obs.
Noun
times
3.
When the second term of a Comparison of Equality a

commonly used someis
or a Pronoun, the Preposition as

like is
is
used.
Examples. 1.
2.
"
He hath
"An
died to redeem such a rebel as
hour like
man
may
me" Wesley.
well display the emptiness of hu-
grandeur."
Some writers
Obs. 4.
with for as.
this
improperly substitute the words for and
Example. "It implies government of the very same kind

a master exercises over his servants." Bishop Butler.
with that which
Better. Of the very same kind as that.
Preposition and its Subsequent constitute a Phrase,

Obs. 5.
generally constituting an Adjective or an Adverbial Adjunct*
* In the analysis of a Sentence, a Phrase contained in it is to be parsed, first,
as one distinct Element in the structure of its Sentence then the Phrase is to
be analyzed, and each of its distinct Elements pointed out. (See pp. 184-5.)
;
Scholars often find
it difficult
to determine the
Antecedent term of a relation
308
III
Examples.
Adverbial Element.
Adjective Element.
1.
"
The King of Shadows loves a shining mark."

" Time SLErT on flowers, and lent his glass to Hope."
2.
CONJUNCTIONS.
Eule
13.
Conjunctions
connect Words, Phrases, and
Sentences, or introduce Sentences.

Examples.
Words
1.
Phrases...
.2.
"In
"
the beginning,
To give good
God
heaven and
created the
the
earth."
gifts and to be benevolent, are often
differ-
ent things."
Sentences
.3.
"
Thou
And
Obs.
1.
Words
art perched aloft on the beetling crag,

the waves are white below."
connected by Conjunctions have a similar con-
struction.
Examples. 1.
"
2.
"
3.
God created the heaven and the earth."

Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass
" A great and good man has fallen."
to Hope.''
Rem. " Heaven" and " earth" are alike Objects of " created."
" Great" and
" Slept" and " lent" are Predicates of " Time."
" good" describe " man."
Obs.
2.
But they have not necessarily similar modifications.

teacher has and must have his
parting knowledge." McElligott.
Example. " Every
Rem.
"
Has" and
"
own
particular
must have" are Predicates of
way
of im-
" teacher"
but they are not of the same Mode.

Obs.
3.
Phrases
and Sentences used
as
Elements in the
ture of a Principal Sentence, have a similar construction
struc-
when con-
nected by Conjunctions.
expressed by a Preposition examples sometimes occur in which the relation
of the Object of a Preposition seems to exist, not to any word, but to the
whole Sentence. Generally, however, this question can be settled by ascertaining which word is qualified by the Phrase introduced by a Preposition that
word is the Antecedent term of relation.
Example. " A flood of
glory bursts
from
all
the skies."
the Phrase " of glory" specifies " flood ;" hence, " flood" is the
Antecedent term of the relative expressed by " of;' and the Phrase is Adjective.
*
From all the skies" modifies " bursts ;" hence, " bursts" is the Antecedent
term and the Phrase is Adverbial.
Rem. Here
SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS.
Examples. 1.
2.
3.
"
He
309
and in the field"

sum of his employments."
served his country in the cabinet
and
" To eat
to sleep
constitute the
" While lam his and he is mine,

I'm ever safe from ill."
Obs. 4. But Conjunctions may introduce Principal Sentences,

without connecting them to any Word or Sentence in construction.
Examples. 1. " And who
Obs.
5.
says this ?"
2.
" That I have taken this old man's daughter
3.
"
And I am glad
Conjunctions
most true."
introducing Adjunct Sentences connect

modified by such Auxiliaries.
Word
their Sentences to the
Examples. 1.
is
that he has lived thus long."
" And, if I sought,
Think'st thou no other could be brought f"

2.
"As
3.
"
ye journey, sweetly sing."
How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood,

When fond recollection presents them to view."
Obs. 6. But Auxiliary Substantive Sentences are simply introduced by Conjunctions.

Examples.
1.
"
2.
"He knew not that
That
all
men
are created equal, is a self-evident truth."

the chieftain lay
Unconscious of his son."

Obs.
7.
The Position
of Sentences often determines their con-
nection, without the use of Conjunctions.
Examples. 1.
Obs.
8.
"
The time may come you need
not
run." Thomson.
thou shouldst be living at this hour

[For] England hath need of thee."
2.
" Milton
3.
" But Brutus says, he
was ambitious"
Auxiliary Adjective Sentences are commonly introduced
by Relative Pronouns and by Possessive Adjectives derived from

them.
2.
He who filches from me my good name,

Robs me of that which not enriches him."
" Lo the poor Indian, whose untutored mind
3.
"
Examples.1.
"
God in
Thou hadst
Sees
Obs.
tences,
9.
Conjunctions
and some
they introduce.
him in the wind."

whose sound was like the sea."
clouds or hears
a voice
that introduce Auxiliary Adverbial Sen-
others, indicate the
offices
of the Sentences which
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
310
.
If,
As, When, Before,
Unless, etc., indicate condition
For, Hence, Therefore,
cate time.
But, Yet, Nevertheless,
III.
etc.,
etc., indi-
indicate an inference or cause.
indicate restriction or apposition.
etc.,
Nor,
Neither, etc, indicate a negation.
Examples. 1. " If sinners
entice thee,
consent thou not.'"
lamnothing extenuate,
2.
" Speak of me as
3.
" Then,
4.
" I go, but I return."
Nor set down aught in malice."

when I am thy captive,
talk of chains."
Exception. The Conjunction when may introduce an Adjective

Sentence that limits a Noun indicating time.
Example.Do you remember
when Lee surrendered
the time
to
Grant ?
Exception. The Conjunction where may introduce an Adjective
Sentence that limits a
Noun
indicating place.
Example. Is there some favored spot where mortals weep no more?
Caution. The words where and when are often improperly used
Phrase in which.
for the
A limited monarchy is a government where the powers and

monarch are limited by a constitution."
Corrected.A limited monarchy is one in which the powers and duties of
the monarch are limited by a constitution.
Incorrect."
duties of the
Obs.
tion
is
10.
Conjunctions
sufficiently clear
may be omitted only

without them.
Examples. 1. " Unnumbered systems,

2.
Obs.
11.
Unite to worship thee
when
the connec-
suns, and worlds,
While thy majestic greatness fills

Space, [ ] Time, [ ] Eternity."
The
Adverb
"
how"
is
sometimes improperly used
instead of the Conjunction " that."
Example.
" She tells me how, with eager speed,

He flew
Obs.
12.
to hear
Conjunctions
my vocal reed."Shenstone.
sometimes introduce the remnant of a
Sentence.
Example. Though
afflicted,
he
is
happy.
Obs. 13. Position. The proper place for a Conjunction is before the Sentence which it introduces, and between the Words or
Phrases which it connects.
Example. " And
there lay the rider, distorted Avtvpale,

the dew on his brow and the rust on his mail."
With
SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS.
311
Obs. 14. But in Complex Sentences, the Conjunction introducing the Principal Sentence is commonly placed first, and that
introducing the Auxiliary Sentence immediately following.
Example." And when its yellow lustre smiled
O'er mountains yet untrod,
Each mother held aloft her child
To bless the bow of God."
But
to this rule there are exceptions.
Obs.
sitions,
15.
Corresponding Conjunctions.
Many Conjunctions correspond to Adverbs,
and
As
So
to
Prepo-
to other Conjunctions.
so
" As
as
"
the mother, so is the daughter. 11

11
is not so cheerful as usual.
" Both good and bad were gathered in one group. 1 '
Both
and
Either
or
"Either you mistake, or I was misinformed. 11
Not
nor
"Prepositions should not be inserted nor omitted contrary to general usage. 11
" Neither Alice nor Caroline has been here to-day."
Neither
nor
Whether., .or
"I care not whether you go or stay. 11
that
So
"He called so loud that all the hollow deep. 11
that.
Such
"My engagements are such that I can not go. 11
" If you will take the right, then I will go to the left."
If
then
lt
Sne was not only vain, but also extremely ignorant. 11
Not only .but also
" Though man live a hundred years, yet is his life as
Though
yet
vanity. 11
.therefore ..." Therefore doth my Father love me, because I lay down
Because
.
is
Mary
my life.'"
Rem.
The Antecedent corresponding word
is
sometimes exple-
tive.
Obs. 16. Double Conjunctions are sometimes used.

Examples. 1. " As though he had not been anointed with oil."
2.
"
And
yet, fair bow, no fabling dreams,

But words' of the Most High
Have told why first thy robe of beams
Was woven
Obs.
17.
But
they
may
in the sky.
11
not be used,
when one
of them would
fully express the connection.
Example. " There would be no doubt
The word
$W* Let
" but" is
but that they

Errors.
2.
William
is
would remain."
unnecessary and improper.
not as cheerful as usual.
Either you mistake, else I was misinformed.
312
man
III.
3.
Neither wealth or fame render a
4.
Prepositions should not he inserted or omitted contrary to general usage.
Kent,
5.
happy.
p. 435.
I can not
doubt hut that Robert will return.
EXCLAMATIONS.
Eule
14.
Exclamations have no dependent
construc-
tion.
Exclamations
Obs.
may
be followed by Words, Phrases, or
Sentences.
O Scotia my dear, my native soil."

Woe woe to the riders that trample
" O that I could again recall
Examples. 1.
"
2.
"
3.
My early joys,
companions
all
thee down."
1"
WORDS OF EUPHONY.
Note.
Words of Euphony
are, in their offices, chiefly
rhetorical.
Rem.
The
Principles of
structure of all languages
form, position, and office
Euphony
are
much
required in the
Euphony, words are altered in

and they are, for Euphony, created or
for
omitted.
Obs.
1.
Euphon}^ allows
The
Transposition of
Example." From peak

Leaps the
2.
The omission
Example. " Hark

3.
The
2.
3.
The
live
among,
thunder."
of a letter or syllable.
!
'tis
the breeze of twilight calling."
It
for Corded.
Collect,
" Sunloglsm.
Immigrant, " /emigrant.
Syllogism,
addition of a
Example. "
5.
in a Sentence*
substitution of one letter for another.
Examples. 1.
4.
Words
to peak, the rattling crags
was
A word to be
his
letter, syllable,
or word.
boxm&en duty thus to act."
separated into parts, and another
between them.
Example." How much
soever
we may
feel their force."
word
inserted

GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX.
313
word to be used not in its ordinary office.

6.
Examples. 1. " And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide."
2. " The more I see of this method, the better I like it,"
Position.
Note.
Words of Euphony should
be placed in their
appropriate connection.
Obs.
In the following Examples this principle
1.
1.
"
would be
2.
Better.
" and not of himself onlyP
" Joyous Youth and manly Strength and stooping
Age
better
11
are even here.
Joyous Youth and manly Strength and even stooping Age are here.
" When our hatred is violent, it sinks us even

Better -It sinks us beneath even those we hate.
3.
Obs.
violated
used to render " himself" emphatic.
" only" is
Here
position
is
of others, and not only of himself. 11
To think
2.
A Word
repeated in the
beneath those we hate. 11
same connection
is
to
be
re-
garded as a word of Euphony.

Examples.
" Down
" For
life
down !
!
for
the tempest plunges on the sea. 11
life,
their flight they ply. 11
GENERAL RULES.
1. In constructing a Sentence, such Words should be
chosen as will most clearly convey the sense intended
regard being had also to variety and other principles of
taste.
2.
In expressing Complex
ideas,
judgment and taste

and Sentences,
are to be exercised in the use of Phrases
when they may
equally convey the sense.
3. That Modification of Words should

be adopted
which is in accordance with the most reputable usage.
4.
The
relative Position of
Words, Phrases, and Senno obscurity in the sense.
tences should be such as to leave

5.
Involved Complex Sentences should not be used
when Simple
or Independent
convey the sense,

14
Sentences w ould better

r
ENGLISH GMAMMARPART
314
PART
IV.
IV.
PROSODY.
Bef.
1,
That part of the Science of Language which
treats of utterance, is called

Obs.
Utterance
laws of
Prosody.
modified by Pauses r by Accent, and by the
is
Versification.
Pauses.
Def. 2. Pauses are cessations of the voice in reading

or speaking.
~
Obs.
Obs.
They
1.
Pauses are
tj
Rhetorical and
Grammatical,
_.
M.
2--Rhetorical Pauses are useful

are generally
made
after or
chiefly in arresting attention.
immediately before emphatic
words.
They
are not indicated
Example's.
There
A rest
is
by marks.
a calm
for
for those
who weepy
weary pilgrims found.
in
Obs. 3. Grammatical Pauses are- useful

Ehetorical effectin determining the sense.
They are indicated by
addition to their
Marks of Pubctuatton.
They
are
The Comma. ..
The Semicolon
The Colon
Obs.
4.
In
its
The Period
The Interrogation..
The Exclamation
The Dash
,
Rhetorical
. . .
. .
office,
The Comma requires a short pause in reading.

The Semicolon, a pause longer than the Comma.
?
E
PROSODY.
315
The Colon, a pause longer than the Semicolon.

The Period requires a full pause.
The Dash, the Marks of Exclamation and Interrogation,
re-
quire pauses corresponding with either of the other marks.
In the use of Marks
of Punctuation, good writers differ;

exceedingly difficult for the Teacher to give Rules for
their use that can be of general application.
The following Rules are the most important
Rem:.
and
it
is
Comma.
Eule
1.
When
more than two words of the same
construction occur consecutively, the

repeated after each.
Comma
should be
Examples.
Correct.
1.
" Veracity, justice, and charity are essential virtues."
2.
"There
is
such an exactness in definition, such a pertinence in
proof, such a perspicuity in his detection of sophisms, as
Incorrect.
3.
4.
have been rarely employed in the Christian cause." B. B.

Edwards.
" The dripping rock the mountain's misty top
Swell on the sight and brighten with the dawn."
Fame wisdom love and power were mine.
Exception. The Comma
is not placed between an Adjecand its Noun, although preceded by other Adjectives of the
same construction.
Obs.
tive
Examples.
Correct.
1.
"David was
2.
"With
Incorrect. 3. "
The
a brave, martial, enterprising prince."
that dull-rooted, callous impudence."
dark, mountains and the deep-toned sea."

unjust to Nature and himself
Is thoughtless thankless inconsistent, man
tall,
Ah how
!
Eule
2.
The
separated by a
parts of a
Complex Sentence should be
Comma, when
the
Auxiliary precedes the
Principal Sentence.
Examples.
and freedom reign, contentment fails."
enemy hunger, feed him if he thirst, give him drink."
Correct.-1. "Wliere wealth

2.
Incorrect.
Eule.
"If
thine
3.
"
When
4.
"
As ye journey sweetly
3.
An
the cock crew he wept."

sing."
Adjunct Phrase or Sentence, used
to
"
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
316
express
an incidental
fact,
of the Principal Sentence,
IV.
and placed between the parts

separated by Commas.
is
Examples.
Correct.
Incorrect.
"The
grave, that never spoke before,

Hath found, at length, a tongue to chide."
1.
" Truth, crushed to earth will rise again.

" Kise sons of harmony and hail the morn."
2.
3.
But when an Adjunct Phrase or Sentence which

indispensable in perfecting the sense, immediately follows the
word which it qualifies, the Comma should not intervene.
Exception.
is
Examples.
Correct.
" Every one that findeth me, shall slay me."

" Let school-taught pride dissemble all it can.
1.
2.
Incorrect. 3. "
The
fur,
that
warms
a monarch,
warmed
1 '
a bear."
Kttle 4. Words, Phrases, and Sentences thrown in

between the parts of a Principal Sentence are separated
by Commas.
Examples.
Correct.
" Go, then, where, wrapt in fear and gloom,

Fond hearts and true are sighing."
1.
"
2.
Now,
therefore, I pray thee, let thy servant abide."
Incorrect. 3. " It is a clear lake the very picture ordinarily of repose."
Kule
5.
A Phrase
of a Verb, requires a
or a Sentence used as the Subject
Comma
between
it
and the Verb.
Examples.
Correct. 1. To do good to others, constitutes an important, object of existence.
3.
rivals, does not necessarily make us enemies.

" That all men are created equal is a self-evident truth."
" His being a minister prevented his rising to civil power."
6.
Words
That we are
2.
Incorrect.
Kule
separated by a
used in direct address
should be
Comma.
Examples.
Correct.-1. " Thou,
whose
spell can raise the dead,
Bid the prophet's form appear."

Incorrect.-2. " Samuel raise thy buried head
King behold the phantom seer !"
Kule
7.
Adjunct Sentences,
Phrases, and sometimes
PUNCTUATION.
Words, not in
by a Comma.
317
their natural position, should be separated

Examples.
Correct.
" Into this illustrious society, he whose character I have endeavored feebly to portray, has, without doubt, entered."
1.
2.
" He, like the world, his ready visits pays,
Where Fortune smiles.'"

To him who in the love of Nature holds
Communion with her visible forms
Incorrect. 3. "
She speaks a various language."
Obs.
An Independent Phrase should be separated from
its
Sen-
Comma.
tence by a
Correct." Thus talking, hand in hand, alone they passed."
gone to see his wife, desires the prayers

of the congregation for his safe return."
Incorrect."' Captain Smith, having
Semicolon.
Eule
8.
The Semicolon
tence which, by
its
is
used at the close of a Sen-
terms, promises an additional Sen-
tence.
Examples.
Correct.
1.
"The
Essayists occupy a conspicuous place in the last century;

but, somehow, I do not feel disposed to set much store by
them."
Incorrect. 2. "It thunders but I tremble not
My trust is firm in God."
3. " Wisdom is better than rubies,
It can not be gotten for gold."
Obs. By many writers, the Semicolon is used to separate short

Sentences which have not a close relation to each other.
Examples.
Correct. 1.
"He was
a plain man, without any pretension to pulpit eloquence, or any other accomplishment he had no gift of
imagination his language was hard and dry and his illus;
trations,
homely."
Incorrect. 2. " I had a seeming friend I gave
him gifts and he was gone

gave him gifts, and won him
The very heart of hate melteth at a good man's love."
had an open enemy
COLOK.
Eule 9. The Colon

when another Sentence
or inference.
is
is
used at the close of a Sentence,

added as a direct illustration
318
Correct. 1.
IV.
Examples.
"Let me give you a piece of good counsel, my cousin follow
my laudable example write when you can take Time's
forelock in one hand and a pen in the other, and so make
;
sure of your opportunity."
Incorrect.
2.
"
The wicked
flee,
when no man pursueth but
the righteous, are
bold as a lion."
Rem. The Colon is not much used by late writers its place
being supplied by the Semicolon, the Dash, or the Period.
Period.
Kule
10.
The Period is used at the close of a comindependent proposition.
plete or
Obs.
The Period
also used after initial letters
is
and abbrevia-
tions.
Examples.
Correct. J. Q. Adams, LL.D., M. C.
A S Barnes and Co 51 John St N Y.
Incorrect.
Dash.
Rule
1.
2.
3.
Correct.
11.
The Dash
is
An
An
abrupt transition.
"They met
used to indicate
unfinished sentence.
Succession of particulars.
1.
Examines.
and confer on
to expatiate
to talk a
result was as we have
tion. Wilson's Burns.
newspapers
state affairs to read the
scandal
little
and so forth and the

considerable dissipa-
been told
11
Incorrect. 2.
Obs.
1.
"To me
the
Night Thoughts is a poem on the whole most
animating and delightful amazingly energetic full of the
richest instruction improving to the mind much of it worthy
of being committed to memory some thoughts obscure extravagant tinged occasionally with flattery."
The Dash
Example.
'
is
often used instead of the Parenthesis.
" As they disperse they look very sad and, no doubt they are so
but had they been, they would not have taken to digging.
1 '
Obs.
2.
Many
modern
Semicolon and the Colon
writers use the
Dash
in place of the
and sometimes with them.
Example. " Ye have no need of prayer

Ye have no sins to be forgiven. 11 Sprague.
;
PUNCTUATION.
319
Exclamation.
Rule 12. The mark of Exclamation is used alter a

Word, Phrase, or Sentence whose prominent office is to
express sudden or intense emotion.
Examples.
Hark a strange sound affrights mine ear. 11
" To arms ! they come ! the Greek, the Greek l"
Correct.-1. "
2.
Incorrect Z. "
4.
O my
" Poor
coevals, remnants of yourselves."
human
ruins tottering o'er the grave. 11
Interrogation.
Eule
13.
The
mark
of Interrogation
is
used after a
Word, Phrase, or Sentence by which a question
is
asked.
Examples.
Correct.
Incorrect.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Rem.
Why is my sleep disquieted ?"

Who is he that calls the dead
"
" Is it for thee the lark ascends and sings. 11

" What pleasing study cheats the tedious day. 11
When
Comma,
Grammatical
Obs.
1.
or Exclamation
the Interrogation
Semicolon, Colon, or Period

a:nt d
the signs used in writing
The Apostrophe
is
Rhetorical
8.
Inflections
The Quotation
3.
The Hyphen
4.
The Bracket
10.
5.
The
11. Dieresis
6.
References
7.
Def.
3.
Measures
-|
* t
The Brace
Sights.
Rising
Falling ...
( Circumflex
Loner
Sh
Caret
3.
Index
13.
Section
14.
The Paragraph
*[
(') is
ft^f
used to indicate the

Noun into a Pos-
Hearts from which Hwas death to sever

11
Eyes, this world can ne'er restore.
"How lightly mounts the Muse's wing."
4
12.
The Apostrophe
2.
-j
omission of a letter, and to change a

sessive Specifying Adjective.
Examples. 1.
'
,v
2.
Parenthesis
used, the
are
'
"
is
omitted.
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART
320
IV.
Def. 4. The Quotation (" ") is used to inclose words

taken from some other author or book.
Example.
"Southey,
among
all
" stands aloof and
Rem.
A Quotation quoted
Example. (See
'
our living poets," says Professor Wilson,

alone in his glory.' "
indicated
is
Def. 5. The Hyphen (

ments of a compound word.
Examples.
Rem.
finished.
single marks.
is
- )
used between two
ele-
Money-market ink-standblack-board.
It is also
used
at the
end of a
line,
when
the
word
is
not
(See this Rem.)
6.
The Bracket [ ] is used to inclose a letter
mark given as an explanatory example, or a Word,
Def.
or
by
the latter part of the last Example.)
Phrase, or Sentence thrown in by a reviewer,
and not a
part of the original sentence.

Example." Mr. Secor found means to have Mr. Butler recommended to hjm
[Lord Talbot] for his chaplain.
1
'*
Def. 7. The Parenthesis

Phrase or Sentence explanatory
of,
is
used to inclose a
or incidental to, the
main Sentence.
Example. " Come, my Ambition let us mount together,
(To mount Lorenzo never can refuse,)
!
And from the clouds where

Look down on earth."
Rem.
pride delights to dwell,
Modern writers often use the Dash for the same purpose.
Example. " The monotony of a calmfor the trade-wind had already failed
us was agreeably relieved yesterday by the neighborhood of two ships, etc."
Malcolm.
Def.
8.
References
(*
f J )
direct
attention to
notes at the margin or the bottom of the page.
Rem. The letters of the Latin or Greek alphabets, and sometimes figures, are used for the same purpose.
Def.
9.
The
Brace
( }
is
used to include
species in one class.
Example.Adjectives
Qualifying,
(
are distinguished as-<
s|Sy
Specifying,
Verbal.
(
many
321
PROSODY.
Rem.
of a
By the old poets, the Brace was also used to join the lines
triplet.
Def.
Inflections
10.
('
indicate elevations or de-
pressions of the key-note in reading.

Examples. " Do you go
to Albany' ?"
'
Def.
Measures
11.
"I go
to
UticaY'
(-) indicates
the long sound of
a Syllable, as hate, mete, note.

^
w
)
indicates the short sound of
a Syllable, as hat, met, not.
Def.
12.
The Caret
to indicate the place of
( A ) is used between two Words,

words omitted and placed above
the line.
Examples.
of
'*
mankind
is man.'
The proper study
Def. 13. Dieresis () is placed over the second of

two vowels, to show that they belong to different syllables.
Examples.
Obs.
Preemption. Coeval. Reeducate.
The Hyphen
is
sometimes placed between the vowels
for
a similar purpose.
Examples. Co-operate.
Def.
word
14.
Re-educate.
The Index
(flgf ) is used
or sentence considered
Def.
15.
The Section
worthy of
to point out a
special notice.
marks the
divisions of a
chapter or book.
Def.
16.
subject of
The
remark
Paragraph
is
(^[)
is
used when a new
introduced.
The sign of the Paragraph is retained in the Holy Scripbut in other compositions the Paragraph is sufficiently indicated by its commencing a new line on the page.
Re:m.
tures
Def.
17Accent
ticular syllable in
Def.
18.
is
Emphasis
particular word
a stress of voice placed on a par-
pronouncing a word.
is
a stress of voice placed on a
in a sentence.
14*
ENGLISH GBAMMABPABT
322
Obs.
This mark
IV.
indicated
is
1.
In manuscript, by a line drawn under the emphatic word.
2.
On
a printed page,
letters are
Def.
19.
by the use of Italic
used to indicate words
letters
still
COMPOSITION.
Composition as the word
art of placing together
words
so as to
CAPITAL
more emphatic.
implies
communicate
is
the
ideas.
Pkose and Verse.

In Prose Composition, Words and Phrases are arranged with a primary reference to the sense.
In Verse, the Sound and Measure of Words and Syllables determine their position.
Obs.
Among the various kinds
of Prose Compositions
may
be
mentioned the following

Narrative,
Descriptive,
Didactic,
Historical,
Biographical.
Verse.
Def. 20. Verse consists of words arranged in measured lines, constituting a regular succession of accented
and unaccented Syllables.
Obs.
Verse
is
used in Poetry.
The
different kinds of
Poetry
are
Lyric,
Charade,
Sonnet,
Dramatic,
Ballad,
Pastoral,
Epic,
Epigram,
Elegiac,
Didactic,
Epitaph,
Madrigal.
Def.
Lyric Poetry is as its name imports
such as may be set to music. It includes the " Ode" and
the " Song."
21.
Obs.
1.
Lyric Poetry
is
of three kinds, the Ode, the
Hymn, and
the Song.
Obs. 2. The Ode is generally longer than the other kinds of

Lyric Poetry, and is often irregular in its structure.
Familiar Examples. Alexander's Feast,"
" Ode on the Passions,
4
by Drijden.
'
"Immortality,"
'
" Collins.
" Wordstvorth.
323
PROSODY-
IW Let the Pupil give other Examples.

Obs. 3. The Hymn is shorter, and
adapted to sacred worship.
is
arranged in regular stanzas
Familiae Examples. " The Psalms and Hymns"
hi general use in Christian
congregations.
Obs.
and
4.
The Song
adapted
is
is
also short, but
is
more varied
in
its
stanzas,
to secular uses.
Familiar Examples. "
Irish Melodies,'
by Moore.
" Barry Cornwall.
" Songs,"
JSIP Let the Pupil give other Examples.
Rem.
English Lyric Poetry makes use of Ehyme exclusively.
Def.
Epic Poetry
22.
is
a historical representation
real or fictitious of great events.

Rem.
Epic Poetry may employ either rhyme or blank verse.
Examples. Rhyme." Lady
of the Lake," by Scott.

"Curse of Kehama," " Southey.
Blank
Terse.
" Paradise Lost,"

" Course of Time, 1
" Milton.
" Pollok.
'
Let the Pupil give other Examples.
Def.
23.
Dramatic
Poetry
of scenes, events, or character,
OBS.-It includes
Examples.
The Comic.
^gic
Tragic." Othello,
Comic."
'
All's
and
is
is
poem
descriptive
adapted to the stage.
and
by Shakspeare.
Well that Ends Well," by Shakspeare,
'
Def.
24.
Didactic Poetry
is tliat
style
adapted to
the inculcation of science or duty.

Examples. " Pleasures
of the Imagination," by Akenside.

" Armstrong.
" Art of Preserving Health,"
'
Def.
25.
The Charade
is
a short poem, usually in a
Lyrical form, containing a Riddle.
Def.
26.
An
Epigram
is
a witty poem, short,
generally abounding in ludicrous expressions.
and
ENGLISH QBAMMABPABT
324
sing before they die 'twere no bad thing

Should certain persons die before they sing."
Example. Swans
1
Def.
27.
memory
Example.
'
An
of
IV.
Epitaph
is
a poetic inscription to the
some departed person.
u Underneath this stone doth lie

As much beauty as could die,
Which in life did harbor give
To more virtue than doth live."Jonson.
Def. 28. Elegiac Poetry

commemorate the death of some
Examples." Lysidas," by
is
that species used to
person.
Milton.
" Gray.
"Elegy,"
Def. 29. The Sonnet is a poem devoted to the development of a single thought, in rhyming verse of a
peculiar structure, and generally of fourteen lines.
Def.
30.
The Madrigal
tory nature,
Def.
is
and of a
is
a Lyric
Pastoral Poetry
31.
poem
of an
ama-
lively species of verse.
relates to rural
life,
and
generally a song.
Examples.
Def.
"Rural Sports," by
Gay.
" The Falls of the Passaic," by Irving.
The Ballad is a Lyric poem, of a Narrative

simple or rude style of composition.
32.
cast, in a
Example." Battle
of Brunnenberg,"
by Ferris.
Versification.
Def.
i. e.,
1.
Versification
is
the art of
the proper arrangement of a certain
making verse
number of Syl-
lables in a line.
There are two prominent distinctions in Verse,
Note.^
1.
Blank Verse.
2.
Rhyme.
Def. 3. Blank
Verse
consists
in
measured
lines
325
PROSODY.
usually of ten Syllables each,
and which may or may not
end with the same sound.

Example."
'Tis midnight's holy
hoar
and silence now
Is brooding, like a gentle spirit, o'er
The still and pulseless world. Hark on the winds

The bell's deep tones are swelling 'tis the knell
Of the departed year.
!
1 '
Def.
Rhyming Verse
3.
of which two or
Rhymes
consists of measured
more end with the same sound.
successive."
Examples.
Thou bright glittering star of even
Thou gem upon the brow of heaven
!
Oh were
this fluttering spirit free,
How
"Rhymes alternating.
lines,
" Oh
quick 'twould spread
its
sacred star of evening,
wings to thee!"
tell
In what unseen celestial sphere

Those spirits of the perfect dwell
Too pure
Def.
4.
A line in Poetry
Example. " And
Rem.
to rest in
am
is
sadness here."
technically called a
Verse.
glad that he has lived thus long."
Yerses are of different lengths.
Def.
5.
A half verse
Example. "I,
To
Def.
6.
is
too, will hasten
seek the hero.'
Two
sense are called a
called a
''
rhyming
Couplet.
yerses
Examples. 1. " Look round our world

2.
which
complete the
behold the chain of love,
Combining all below and all above."

" And more true joy Marcellus exiled feels,
Than
Def. 7.
Triplet.
Hemistich.
back with lightning speed,
Csesar with a senate at his heels."
Three
yerses
which rhyme together are a
Example." So fair, so sweet, withal so sensitive,

Would that the little flowers were born
to live,
Conscious of half the pleasure which they give."
Def.
8.
Four lines or more are called a Stanza.
Example."
many
gem
of purest ray serene,

of ocean bear;
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,
And waste its sweetness on the desert air."
Full
The dark unfathomed caves
326
*r
JNOTE.
Verses may end With

ir
..,
-.
Example.
'
IV.
Rhyming
J
6
_.,
Ehyming
.
Syllables* or
.
;;
oras*
II
We come, we come, a little band,

As Children Of the nation
We are joined in heart, we arc joined in hand,
To keep the Declaration. 11
;
Rem.
Tn the
above stanza, the
Rhyming Words the second and
first
and third
lines
Rhyming
fourth, with
end with
Syllables.
A collection of Syllables called a Foot.

two Syllables, or
Note. A Foot may consist oi
three Syllables.
Syllables
\)va\
are
the
Feet of two
^
long, second short
Trochee
w
short, second long
Iambus
X
\)kv.
is
at.,,
-m
-V
..
'
10.
.first
first
Pyrrhic
Spondee
both short
both long
Feet of three Syllables are the

w^
one long and two short
two short and one long
Amphibrach first short, second long, third shorts
Dactyl
Anapest
^^
w
w^w
Tribrach
Rem.
three short
Most English Poetry
is
written in Iambic, Trochaic, or
Anapaestic Verse.
Trochaic Verse.
1.
"
On
Lay
mountain
Hexameter, or six feet,
stretched be neath a hoary willow,

a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow."
|
Pentameter, or five feet
2.
" Rouse
him
like a
3.
rattling
|
peal of
4.
thunder."
Tetrameter, or four feet.
On the mountain's top ap

Lo, the sacred herald stands
"
pealing,
Trimeter, or three feet.
How
love to
see thee,
Golden evening sun."
PJR080L
327
>'.
Dimeter, or two feet
5.
Rich the treasure,

Sweet the pleasure.
|
Monometer, or one foot.
6.
Hinging
Singing.
Iambic Verse.
1
The
praise
Six fiet Hexameter.
of Bac
chus then
the sweet musi
cian sung,
Pen tameter.
Five feet
2.
have loved in youth's fair ver nal morn,

To spread ima gina don's wild est wing.
Oh,
Four feet
3.
There
is
A rest
a calm
wea
for
Tetrameter.
for those
who weep,
ry pil grims found.
Trimeter.
Three feet
4.
What
sought they thus afar?

Bright jew els of the mine?
|
5.
Dimeter.
Two feet
" I
6.
am
One foot
the grave."
Mono meter.
My home."
"
Anapaestic Verse.
1.
But we
stead
2.
"
And
loved
Four feet.
gazed
fastly
on the face
her the more when I heard

fall from her tongue."
|
3.
Two feet.
FOr the night only draws
of the dead.
Three feet.
Such tenderness
"
thin veil o'er the day."
328
IV.
Dactylic Verse.
Four feet
1.
Come, ye
clis
consolate,
sorrows that
languish,
Three feet
2.
Earth has no
where'er ye
Heaven can not
Two feet
Free from anx
heaL
3.
Care,
and
iety,
satiety.
One foot.
4.
Cheerfully
Fearfully.
The Amphibrach.
" There
"
is
bleak desert
where daylight
grows weary
Of wasting its smiles on a region so dreary."

With storm-dar ing pinion and suri-ga zing
The gray forest eagle is king of the sky."
|
" There's pleasure
in freedom,
whatever
That makes every object look lovely and
Obs.
1.
The
Syllable of a verse
first
eye,
the season,
fair."
sometimes omitted.
is
Examples.
]
"
And
there lay the ri der, distort ed and pale,

With the dew on his brow and the rust on his mail.*'
|
Obs.
2.
A syllable
is
sometimes added
to a line.
Examples.
sorrows that Heaven can not heal"
dian an gel o'er my life presid ing,
Doubling my pleasures, and my cares dividing."
"Earth has no
"
Obs.
same
3.
A guar
The different measures
are sometimes
combined
in the
line.
Examples.
"
May comes,
we have called her long,
May comes,
May comes
o'er the moun tains with light and song
We may trace her steps o'er the wak ening earth,
By the winds which tell of the vio let's birth."
|
Obs.
4.
Sometimes the last syllable
syllable in the first foot of the next.
of a line becomes the
first
329
PROSODY.
Example.
44
On
the cold
And beau
cheek of death
ty
immor
smiles and ro ses are blend

from the tomb.
|
awakes
tal
ing,
1 '
FIGURES.
Note. Language is modified in its structure,

and utterance by the use of Figures.
style,
Def. 1. A Figure of speech is a licensed departure

from the ordinary structure or use of a word in a Sentence.
Ojjs.
Figures are employed to give strength, beauty, or melody to
Language.
^
A
Note.
Grammatical or
Figures
are
^.
J
Ehetorical.
A Grammatical Figure a deviation from
-rr.
Def.
2.
is
the ordinary form or
office
of a
word
in a Sentence.
Def. 3. A Rhetorical Figure is a deviation from the

ordinary application of words in the expression of thought.
I.
Figures Modifying the Forms of Words.
These are called
Def.
Apluereds,
Apocope,
Syncerem,
Syncope,
Prosthesis,
Paragoge,
Dkeresis,
Tmesis.
Aphaeresis allows the
4.
elision of
one or more
of the first letters of a word.

Examples.
Def.
5.
1.
" 'Mid scenes of confusion."
2.
"
3.
'*
And therefore thou may'st think my 'havior light." Juliet.

What have you let the false enchanter 'scape V Milton,
!
Prosthesis allows
a syllable to be prefixed
to a word.
Examples. 1.
2.
3.
would a maiden blush Repaint my cheek." Juliet.

adown his silver beard some tears." Thomson.
" The great archangel from his warlike toil
" Else
" Let
fall
/Swrceased."
Def.
6.
Apocope
Milton.
allows the elision of one or
of the final letters of a word.
more
ENGLISH GBAMMARPART
330
IV.
Examples.1.
"
And
that is spoke.. with such a dying fall."
2.
"
Tho
the whole loosened Spring around her blows."
3.
" T'
Def.
whom
th'
Paragoge
7.
archangel."Milton.
allows a syllable to be annexed to
a word.
Examples.
Def.
1.
" Without<m trump was proclamation made."
2.
"
Nor deem
that kindly nature did
Syneeresis allows two
8.
Thomson.
him wrong."
syllables to
Bryant.
become
one.
Examples.
Def.
Extra session ordinary session extraordinary session.

Diaeresis separates two yowels into different
9.
syllables.
Examples.
Cooperatereiterate.
Def. 10. Syncope allows one or more letters to be

taken from the middle of a word.
"
Examples.1.
2.
Or serve they as njlow'ry verge to bind

The fluid skirts of that same waVry cloud,
3.
Lest
again dissolve and shower the earth."Milton.
it
Def. 11. Tmesis allows a word to be inserted between the parts of a compound word.
Example." How much
soever
we may
desire it."
Obs. Sometimes two figures are combined in the same word.

Example." Ah whence is that sound which now larums his ear ?"
!
II.
Figures Modifying the Offices of Words.
These are called
rhetorico-grammatical figures.
They
are
Ellipsis ,
Pleonasm
Syllipsis,
Hyperbaton.
Enallage,
Def. 12. Ellipsis allows the omission of one or more

w ords necessary to complete the grammatical construction, when custom has rendered them unnecessary to
r
complete the sense.

Examples. 1. " Thou
perched aloft on the beetling crag,

the waves are white below [ ]."
art
And
331
PROSODY.
2.
"Unnumbered systems
],
suns,
and worlds,
Unite to worship thee,
W hile
3.
thy majestic greatness fills

], Eternity."
], Time [
[
Space
Def. 13. Pleonasm allows the introduction of words

not necessary to complete the grammatical construction
of a Sentence.
Examples. 1. " The moon
2.
Def.
1 eit vie
herself is lost in heaven."
down, a pensive hour
to spend."
Syllipsis allows a word to be used not in
14.
its literal
sense.
Example. " And
there lay the steed, with his nostril all wide."
Def. 15. Enallage allows the use of one word for

another of similar origin, or the substitution of one modification for another.
Example. " A world
devote to universal wreck."
Def. 16. Hyperbaton allows the transposition of

words in a Sentence.
Example.
" His voice sublime, is heard afar."

III.
They
Figures of Ehetoric.
are
Simile,
Antithesis,
Vision,
Metaplwr,
Metonomy,
Paralepsis,
Allegory,
Synecdoche,
Climax,
Personification,
Apostrophe,
Anti-Climax,
Irony,
Interrogation,
Alliteration.
Hyperbole,
Exclamation,
Def.
17.
A Simile
is
a direct comparison.
Example." The Assyrian came down
Def.
18.
A Metaphor
Example." There
is
like the wolf
on the
fold."
an indirect comparison.
a tide in the affairs of men,

Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune."
Def.
19.
is
An Allegory
is
an extended metaphor, by
ENGLISH GRAMMARPART IK
332
which a narration,
real or fictitious, is
analogous truth or
fiction.
Example.
" Eternity's vast ocean lies before thee
made
conyey an
to
There, there, Lorenzo, thy Clarissa sails

Give thy mind sea-room keep it wide of earth
That rock of souls immortal cut thy cord
Weigh anchor spread thy sails; call every wind
Eye thy great Pole-star make the land of life.
;
1 '
20. Personification
Def.
things as being endowed with

Examples. 1.
"
An
Dee.
and
inanimate
volition.
old Experience learns too late

1
all is vanity below.
That
2.
represents
life
'
"Joy has her
tears,
and Transport has her death."
Irony makes
21.
the opposite of
its
a sentence conyey a meaning

ordinary sense.
Example. " And we, brave men, are satisfied

If we ourselves escape his sword."
Hyperbole
Def. 22.
Example.
The waves mount
exaggerates the truth.
" With fury driven,

up, and wash the face of heaven."
Def. 23. Antithesis contrasts two or more things

with each other.
Examples. 1. "
2.
Zealous though modest, innocent though free."

" By honor and dishonor, by evil report and good report, as
deceivers, and yet true."
Def. 24. Metonomy puts one thing for another

The cause for the effect,
The effect for the cause.
The container for the thing
An
Examples. 1. "
Def.
contained,
attribute or quality for the thing or person.
25.
Shall the
sword devour forever ?"
Thy hand, unseen,
2.
"
3.
" His ear
4.
"I
5.
"
6.
"I'll
is
sustains the poles."
ever open to their cry."
am much delighted in reading Homer."

He has returned to his cups again."
plunge thee headlong in the whelming tide"
Synecdoche
a whole for a part.
puts a part for a whole, and
333
PBOSODY.
Examples. 1. " When
2.
Def.
the tempest stalks abroad,

Seek the shelter of my roof."
" Oh ever cursed be the hand
That wrought this ruin in the land."
!
Apostrophe
26.
a sudden transition from
is
the subject of a discourse to address a person or tiling,
present or absent.
Example. " This is a tale for fathers and for mothers.

young women, you can not understand it.'" E. Everett.
Def.
Interrogation
27.
Young men and
expresses an assertion in
the form of a question.

Examples.
Def.
1.
" Looks it not like the king ?"

" He that formed the eye, shall he not see
Exclamation
28.
expresses a sudden or intense
emotion.
Example.
Def.
" O liberty
O sound
Vision
29.
once delightful to every
Roman
ear !"
represents past or future time as
present to the view.

Example." I
see them on their winding way,

About their ranks the moonbeams play."
Def.
Paralepsis
30.
a figure by which the
is
main
expressed incidentally, or with a professed effort

of the speaker to conceal it.
truth
is
Example. " Without alluding to your habits of intemperance, I would ask,

can you attempt to justify your present inattention to business and the
how
neglect of your family ?"
Def.
Climax
31.
the thoughts are
is
made
that form of expression by which
to rise
by successive gradations.
Example. He
aspired to be the highest

above the people, above the
authorities, above the laws, above his COUNTRY.'"
4
'
Def. 32. Anti-Climax is the opposite of the climax.

How has expectation darkened into anxiety, anxiety into
ExAMrLE. "
tflread,
,,
and dread into despair.
Def.
33.
Irving.
Alliteration
is
the repetition of the same
beginning of two or more words immediately

succeeding each other.
letter at the
334
Examples. 1. " Up
2. " He
the high Mil
7ie
/leaves a huge,
IV.
round stone."
carves with classic chisel the Corinthian capital that

crowns the column. '"

PAGE
314What is Prosody?
Name the different marks of punctuation.
315. When is a Comma properly used ?
317. When a Semicolon? a Colon? & Period?
318. When is a Dash properly used ? an Exclamation t
When do we use a mark of Interrogation ?
319. Name the Grammatical Signs.
What is an Apostrophe ? a Quotation ? a Hyphen ?
What is a Bracket ? a Parenthesis ? Reference marks ?
What is a Brace ?Marks of Inflection ? Measures ?
What is a Caret? a Dieresis? an Index ? a Section?
What is a Paragraph? How are Paragraphs commonly
indicated
What is Accent ?What is Emphasis ?

322. What is Composition ? What are the varieties ?
What is Prose ? Name the various kinds of Prose.
What is Verse ? When properly used ?
Name and define the various kinds of Poetry.
324. What is Versification ?
What are the distinctions of Verse ?
What is Blank Verse ? What is Rhyming Verse?
What is a Verse ? a Hemistich ? a Couplet ?
What is a Triplet ? What is a Stanza ?
What is a Foot A foot may have how many Syllables?
What are the Feet of two Syllables ? of three Syllables ?
What is a Trochee ?an Iambus ? a Pyrrhic ? a Spondee ?
What is a Dactyl ?an Anapest ?an Amphibrach ?a Tribrach ?
What measures are commonly used in English Poetry ?

329. What is a Figure of Speech ? Why are they used ?
What is a Grammatical Figure ? a Rhetorical Figure ?
Name
the figures which modify the forms of Words.
Name and define the Figures of Rhetoric.

Note. Let the Pupils be required to point out the various Fig-
331.
ures of Speech in
all
any poem or other composition
at hand.
* K
<0
.%,
D>*
'Y y:
"^
\>' </>
v*

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THE SCIENCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

FIRST LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR," "ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE,"

mental vigor of a nation."

NEW YORK AND

ENGLISH GRAMMAR AS A SCIENCE.

ISmo, half bound.

Clark's New English Grammar.

the Sentences for Analysis

are Classified according

and their various Relations to each other

and Parsing found

Normal Grammar Analytic and

Clark's Analysis of the English Language

Exhibiting the Analysis of

Sentences, the Analysis of Phrases, the Classification and Medication of Words.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at "Washington.

indeed it does. The child learns language before he learns

elegantly express his thoughts and emotions as to enable him to

such system and

work on English Grammar.

their way into extensive use in every State in the Union.

varied criticisms of these books by intelligent,

from responses of different Teachers, are

Those portions of the Author's former works that have stood

advanced condition of the science

Y., July, 1870.

Elements of Language Letters, Words,

Forms, Classes, Uses

Subject, the Predicate, the Object

Principal and Auxiliary

Substantive, Adjective, Adverbial

SpecifyingPure, Numeral, Possessive

Transitive and Intransitive

Regular and Irregular

General Principles and Facts

Syntax of the Object

Grammatical and Rhetorical

Pleonasm Syllipsis Enallage Hyperbaton

THE ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE.

any means of commu-

nicating thought, feeling, or purpose.

Thoughts and feelings are indicated

certain expressions of the features,

called Artificial Language.

each nation has

Spoken and Written.

Spoken Language consists in vocal sounds,

indicative of thought, of feeling, or of purpose.

consent, to represent thought or emotion.

It is customary to give to every science a name, by which

the Science of Language, and

1. There are certain General Principles of Grammar which

Obs. 2. But each particular language has some idioms and

Eveiy Particular Grammar should include

Def. 5. English Grammar is the Science of the

The articulate sounds of language are indicated by Letters.

Def. 6. A Letter is a character used to indicate a

in hat, hate, hall, hart.

Letters are combined to form words.

Letters, used as the sign of an idea.

Words are combined to form Phrases and Sentences.