-

Reactive power
real or imaginary?
No matter how abstract the concept of reactive power is, requiring as it does
the use of 'imaginary' algebra to calculate, it plays a vital role in the stable
operation of power systems.

by Prof. W. Fairney, F.Eng.

Introduction
Sir Charles Parsons has been credited with
the discovery or invention of many things,
not least of which is the steam turbine. He is
not generally renowned for the discovery of
reactive, or as it is sometimes called,
imaginary, power. However, I hope to show
that, whilst he may not have been the first to
recognise its virtues (and indeed vices), in the
same way that he turned the discovery of
steam turbine power by Hero in about
200 AD into a practical source of energy
conversion, so he was the first to recognise
the role of reactive power in AC power
systems, and t o develop its use for voltage
control.
The development of large AC generators
and exciters by Charles Parsons, and the
companies he founded, led directly to the
development of high-voltage AC
transmission systems, and the successor
companies have played a major role in
controlling system voltages by the
development of both rotating and static
reactive power equipment.

one 'turn' of copper, between the magnet's

poles, only a low voltage could be produced.
It was Hypolite Pixii of Paris, later in 1831,
who produced the first alternating current
generator, by rotating a magnet underneath
an iron core wound with multiple turns of
copper wire. He then proceeded in early
1832 to invent the first ingenious
commutator converting AC to DC and
thereby set electrical engineering back by 50
years!
Until 1831, all electrical current had been
produced by batteries of electrolytic cells,
and so direct current seemed to be the
'natural' state for electricity. So it was not
surprising that Pixii sought to make his
machine compatible with convention. We
now know that alternating current machines
are the most effective and efficient power
generators and convertors, except for

Faraday disc

What is reactive power?

The question strikes terror into the heart of
every electrical power engineer. To explain
reactive power is only slightly more difficult
than describing a spiral staircase with one's
hands tied behind one's back.
We need first to understand the nature of
alternating current. But to do that we have to
go back t o the very early days of the
invention of the electrical machine.
It is well known that the earliest electrical
generator was invented in 1831 by Faraday
whose discovery of the phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction led directly to
modern electrical engineering.
His first generator consisted of a copper
disc rotated between the powerful poles of a
magnet (Fig. 1). When the disc was rotated
by means of a handle, a small voltage was
developed across the radius of the disc. This
wasa unidirectional voltage, and if the
terminals were connected to a resistive load,
a very high current could be produced.
Because the disc in effect consisted of just
POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL APRIL 1994

69

specialist applications, but for half a century

after Pixii's invention, engineers made direct
current generators and motors, with
increasinglycomplicated commutators to
deal with the increasingpower outputs,
voltages and currents. It was not until the
early 1890s that the advantages of AC
generators, particularlyin terms of their
ability to share reactive power, becamefully
acknowledged.
But what exactly is reactive power?To
understand this, it is in fact better to think in
terms of reactive, or energising current.
What, exactly, is reactive power?

Waveforms generated when a pure alternatingvoltage is applied to a

resistive load

V t I I I I
0

Simple AC transformer and waveformsgenerated from it

70

If we consider what happens when a pure

alternating voltage is appliedto a resistive
load, Fig. 2 shows the resulting waveforms.
The current mimics exactlythe voltage
waveform, so that at each time instant
Ohm's Law, which states that I = V/R, is
obeyed. The power dissipated in the
resistance is the instantaneousproduct of
voltage and current, and is seen to be a direct
current component with a component
alternating at double frequency. However,
the power dissipation is always positive.
A simple AC transformer consistsof an iron
core with two coils mounted on it (Fig 3). If a
source of pure alternating voltage is applied
to the first coil, an alternating magnetic flux
is set up in the iron core, and induces an
alternatingvoltage in the second coil. The
output voltage is scaled up from the input
voltage in the ratio of the number of turns on
the two coils, N2/N,.
However, the magnetic flux does not arise
without penalty; a magnetising current has
to flow from the voltage source into the
primary coil to enable the flux to be
established.If we look at the waveforms of
the voltage and the current we see that, a t
the moment of switch-on, the current cannot
keep pace with the voltage, owing to a
phenomenon known as 'inductance', which
is a form of electrical inertia, inherent in
magnetic circuits. As a result, the current lags
behindthe voltage, and after a few cycles the
current attainsa steady alternating value, but
its waveform lags 90" behindthe voltage
waveform. Unlike the purely resistive case,
the magnetising current carries no power, as
the mean value of the product of voltage and
current is zero. However, it is seen that
power flow oscillates positively and
negativelyat twice system frequency. Hence
the name 'reactive' power!
An analogoussituation arises when an
open-circuited transmissionline, or cable, is
connected to a pure voltage source. In this
case the line can absorb a large amount of
electric charge owing to a phenomenon
known as capacitance. Thus when the
,
'
voltage is switched on, a surge of current
into the line occurs, which reduces to the
steady alternating value required to keep the
line electrically charged at the applied
voltage. In this case, the current is actually
90" in advance of the voltage waveform.
Again, there is no transfer of real power, but
POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL APRIL 1994

power flow oscillates backwards and

forwards at twice system frequency.
When a load, such as a resistance, is
connected t o either a transformer or a
transmission line, then the load current is
added t o the reactive current.
The net effect is that the total current
either lags or leads the voltage by an angle
less than 90", depending o n the ratio of the
current corresponding t o the 'real' power
loss in the resistance, and the 'reactive'
power required t o energise the transformer
or line. The instantaneous power flow now
consists of a constant level plus an offset
alternating reactive power.

4 Addition of vectors
using Pythagoras'
theorem

Real or imaginary?
This concept of 'real' power, which is
unidirectional, and 'reactive' power, which
alternates but does not produce power in a
load, has led t o the concept of 'real' and
'imaginary' power. This analysis of circuits by
calculating waveforms and adding them is
very tedious, and virtually impossible for all
except the simplest of circuits. It was
simplified, however, by the realisation that a
sinusoidally alternating quantity can be
represented by a quantity called a vector, and
that out-of-phase alternating quantities can
be added by adding vectors, as shown in Fig.
4, using Pythagoras' Theorem. Thus the total
current can be calculated very easily.
During the 19th century mathematicians
had developed a sophisticated method for
calculating vectors, based on what is known
as complex variable theory in which 'real'
vectors are represented by numbers, whilst
vectors at 90" t o these are represented by
numbers preceded by the letter i, so a
complex number has the form
A+i5

i is the square root of -1 which, since it

cannot be calculated mathematically, is
called 'imaginary'. i has the property that it
rotates vectors by 90". So multiplying a
positive numberA byicreates a vector of
magnitudeA, at 90" t o A. Multiplying b y i
again rotates by a further 90". t o produce a
number equal to-A. Thusi2A =-A, and
i2=-1.
Vector quantities such asA+iB have, from
hagoras' Theorem, a magnitude
(A2 5'). Adding vector quantities such as
(A + i B ) t o ( C + i D ) , resultsin(A C)
i ( 5 D), which has magnituded[(A+Q2 +
(5+D)2](Fig. 5). So vector quantities can be
easily added and, indeed, multiplied.
Electrical engineers quickly realised the
value of this type of analysis in calculating
alternating current network currents and
power. However, as the symbol I or i was
always used t o represent current, they chose
t o usejas the symbol for 'imaginary,
numbers. Engineersand mathematicians
have argued about it ever since.
Because reactive power leads or lags 'real'
power by 90". it soon became known as
'imaginary' power. Because reactive power

+
+

has no net effect on the power in the load, it

may be thought that it has no significance in
power networks. Nothing could be further
from the truth.

The real effects of imaginary power

All practical electrical components have
resistance, whether it is the copper in a
transformer winding, the steel core of a
transformer, or the aluminium of a
transmission line. Thus any current flowing in
such components causes resistive losses, and
heating. Such heating can restrict the output
capability of a generator, or the load-carrying
capability of a transformer or transmission
line. As reactive power involves current flow,
it creates losses just as real power flow does.
However, the total current is the vector sum
of the real and imaginarycurrent, and so the
losses are related t o the vector sum of the
two currents. This means that component
rating has t o becarefully chosen t o match
the reactive requirements of the circuit. If the
component is overrated, it will have more
iron or conductor material than really
necessary, and be more expensive. If the
component is underrated, it will not be able

Addition of vectors
using complex numbers

+ +

POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL APRIL 1994

71

80% of its capability, has led to the concept

of power factor; in this case the power
factor is 0.8. System voltage would fluctuate
widely if this reactive capability was not
provided, and indeed the reactive power
output of a generator must be controlled
accurately to maintain voltage control.
Charles Parsons was one of the first engineers
to realisethis in the 1880s. and was the first
engineer to develop the automatic control of
generator field current to enable accurate
voltage control.
Parsons generator developments

6 Theeffectof
different ladder lengths
on the work of a
window cleaner

72

The battle between AC and DC systems

raged during the 1880sand early 1890s.
Charles Parsons wanted generatorsto match
to his turbines which were most efficient a t
high speeds. He experimentedwith
homopolar machines of 18 000 rpm, but the
low DCvoltage(2 V) and very high currents
were only suitable for electrolytic plants, and
not lighting or other power applications.
In 1885 he built a single-phase alternator
with two sliprings on the rotor for the
alternating current. The use of high speeds
was made possible by his patenting in 1884
of the use of pianoforte wire to retain
windings on a drum. The 1884 patents also
3m
covered the automatic control of voltage by
means of varying the field of an exciter
coupled to the alternator, with an ingenious
arrangement of rotating magnets.
Parsons first power station installation
was at Forth Banks, Newcastle upon Tyne, in
1890, with 4 x 75kW single-phase
turbogeneratorsgenerating a t 1kV, 80Hz.
Whilst Nikolai Tesla had earlier
experimentedwith rotating field machines,
Charles Parsons made them a commercial
reality. As generator output increased,
rotating armatureswith sliprings for the
alternating current were a limitation on the
currents and voltages which could be used.
By turning the machine inside-out, with a
static three-phasearmature and a rotating
to carry the full magnetising or charging
low-power DCfield with two sliprings, much
current, and so the system voltage may be
higher outputs could be obtained.The DC for
reduced or, in extreme cases, may collapse.
the field was supplied from a direct-coupled
It is rather likea window cleaner buying a
exciter. The first such machinewas installed
ladder to clean a two-storey house. If the
by Parsons in Neptune Bank Power Station in
window is 4 metres above the ground, he
1903. It was rated at 2MW. 6kV, three
would be very unwise to buy a 4 metre
phase, 40Hz.
ladder. A 5 metre ladder will give adequate
From this basic design the huge
stability, but a 6 or 7 metre ladder would be
turbogenerators of today, rated a t up to
expensive, and could even lead to a different
1300MW. have been developed, using the
kind of instability (Fig. 6)! The cost of the
same principles that Charles Parsons
extra metreof ladder, to give stability, is a
established 90 years ago. The size of the
cost of entry to the window-cleaning
excitersto supply the field current has grown
business.
to be of the order of 3 or 4MW. and these in
Similarly, a generator rated a t 400MW
their turn require small pilot exciters.
must be designed to carry current
Ironically,when I was Generator Engineerfor
corresponding to about 500MW, or have
the CEGB in 1977, I met with a Parsons
what is called a 500MVA rating, if it is to
Engineer a t Fawley Power Station to solve a
operate stably on a power system, and supply problemof sparking of sliprings on the pilot
magnetisingand chargingcurrent to other
excitersof the 500MW generators!
system components. In this case it has a
This technology was not challenged until
reactive capability of 300MVAR. This
the development of the power thyristor in
derating of the equipment, in which the
the early 1960s. In 1965 the CEGB developed
generator can only be effectively loaded to
the first static thyristor excitationsystem for a
POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL APRIL 1994

30MW generator at Neepsend Power

Station, where extremely fast voltage
regulation was used t o stabilise the reactive
power demands of Sheffield's arc furnaces.
This was closely followed by the purchase of
a large transportable static excitation system
for all CEGB generators rated up t o 660MW,
for standby purposes. The first commercial
static excitation systems for a new power
station were manufactured by C.A. Parsons
and tested at Stella South Power Station in
1971, before being shipped to Canada.

High-voltagetransmission
Sebastian de Ferranti conceived of the first
central power station sited for convenience,
rather than for proximity t o its load. In 1887
he formed the London Electric Supply
Corporation, t o build a new power station at
Deptford, 7 miles from the city centre. He
developed 1 OkV underground cables t o
transmit the power t o the Grosvenor Gallery.
Many events marked the progress of the
project, but imaginary power reared its head
in an unexpected way.
When testing the cables, Ferranti found
that, when he energised the cables at
Deptford to their designed voltage of 1 OkV,
on open circuit, the receiving-end voltage
was 12,5kV! He had inadvertently discovered
the effect which bears his name t o this day,
whereby the charging current flowing into
the cable causes a reactive voltage rise. Even
when fully loaded, the voltage at the
receiving end was 11kV and thus,
accidentally, the standard distribution
network voltage was established!
In June 1909 the first interconnection
between two large power systems was made,
between the Newcastle Electric Supply
Company on Tyneside, and Teeside. The
interconnection over 40 miles laid the
foundation of the present national grid
interconnection, which was first proposed by
Charles Merz in 1916. But interconnection
also increased problems of voltage control.
The Tyneside-Teeside interconnection was
controlled by transformer regulators, which
enabled reactive power flows o n the system
to be adjusted t o produce a stable voltage
profile. The problem of stable operation
between generators operating in parallel had
been met in the very early days of AC power
generation. When two generators were
paralleled there was a tendency for one of
them t o 'grab' all of the reactive power, and
the other t o oscillate wildly. It was found that
by compounding a current signal as well as a
voltage signal in the voltage regulator control
circuits, generators could be made t o share
reactive power. In high-voltage systems, the
reactances of the step-up transformers
performed a similar function, but for
transmission over large distances,
transformer tapchangers were essential t o
ensure a match between sending-end and
receiving-end voltages.
The ability of power systems to grow, with
more generators and loads operating in
parallel, over longer distances, outgrew (for a
POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL APRIL 1994

time) the ability of switchgear to interrupt

current under system fault conditions. This
potential limitation to the growth of
transmission was overcome by the use of air
or iron-cored reactors. These consisted of
series-connected coils with iron or air cores.
The inductance of the reactor presented low
impedance to the flow of load current, but
under fault conditions restricted fault
currents t o within the switchgear rating.
The problems of high fault current were
eventually overcome by the development of
oil and air-blast switchgear with higher
current ratings, but even today, the
switchyard at the huge4 OOOMW Drax
power station has a reactor rated at
ZOOOMVA to control power flow and restrict
fault levels. Such reactors, which have t o be
in service continuously, have high capital
costs and continuous on-load losses. These
disadvantages can be overcome by the use of
superconducting windings, which have
negligible losses, but also enable a more
compact design with lower capital costs.
(One of Charles Parsons' successor
companies developed such a fault-limiting
reactor a few years ago.) The recent discovery
of so-called 'high-temperature'
superconductors promises even lower capital
costs.
The design of the 175kV and 400kV
transmission networks was carried out in
such a way for the line reactances to assist in
determining the load flows around the
network, yet enabling the balance of
magnetising and charging currents to be
controlled t o maintain acceptable stability.
Only in a few parts of the network were
reactors required. Generator power factors
were standardised at 0.85, and standard
tapping ranges were established for
generator and system transformers. The
Ferranti effect on HV transmission lines is
largely offset by the reactive voltage drop due
to load flow, in medium-sized systems such
as that in the UK.

Reactive power control in the 1980s and

1990s
In the very large transmission systems such
as the 500kVand 750kV systems used in
North and South American countries as well
as in continental Europefor transmission
over very long distances, charging currents
due to shunt capacitance can result in a
pronounced Ferranti effect, even under load
conditions. Such effects can be offset by
installing either reactors in shunt at intervals
along the line or, alternatively, large
capacitors in series. The latter are often
preferred as they can be switched in small
blocks t o effect control under varying load
conditions. However, the development of
large power thyristors which enable pointon-wave switching of AC power flows have
resulted in the use of controlled reactors and
capacitors which enable continuously
variable control, and better matching of
reactive power loads to real power loads.
Even UK networks can benefit from this
73

technology Such static VAr compensators,

or SVCs as they are called, have been installed
on the south coast lines in the UK, where
there is relatively little rotating generating
plant available to provide reactive
compensation, and in city conurbations
where cable capacitance can cause problems
Paradoxically,the biggest challenges to
reactive power control in recent years have
come from DC systems and local distribution
networks
When the cross-Channel DC link was built
in the early 1980s, it was connected into the
UK400kV network at Sellindge, in Kent,
where the south-coast double-circuit line
turns northwardsto loop back towards east

for which it was not designed. The

integration of such schemes into a local
network requires careful engineering and
reactive power flow planning.
One further source of reactive power
control problems is the advent of large
numbersof wind-powered generators. Such
a machinefor reasons of cost, robustness
and reliability, usually uses an induction
generator. This has no internal source of
excitationand therefore needs to draw its
magnetising current from the power system.
This causes a voltage drop but, in addition,
because of the variable nature of wind,
produces large voltage fluctuations. A degree
of self-excitation can be provided by fitting
capacitorsacross the terminals of the
generator, but control still remains a
problem, as self-excitation can occur if
system frequency changes significantly, and
overvoltages can arise.
Measurement

UK400kV

transmission neworkin
'Outhem

74

A sound maxim is that 'if you can measure

it, you can control it'. Now, following the
privatisation of the electricity industry, a
more recent maxim would be 'if you can
measure it, you can sell it'.
Even before electricity becamegenerated
and sold commercially, the need to measure
U energy generatedwas recognised. In early DC
systems, measurement was made by
connecting an electrolytic cell in series with
London (Fig. 7). The ZOOOMW power-flow
the load. The increase in weight of the
when the link was in service caused large
electrode was a direct measure of energy
reactive voltage drops along the two sections consumed, provided that the voltage
of this line. A particular failure mode of the
remained constant. This method could not
DC link is when, due to a control fault on the be used, however, for alternating current
thyristor convertors, power flow is suddenly
supplies, and by the 1880sthe moving-coil
blocked. Instantaneouspower flows such as
wattmeter has been developed. It was soon
this cannot occur on AC circuits, but when
realisedthat by altering the coil connections
they occur on a DC link into an AC system, an it was possible to measure reactive power. In
instantaneousvoltage rise can occur, which
the early 1890sthe energy meter of the type
can cause severe damage to generating plant we know today was developed, using a thin
and consumers' equipment.To prevent this
disc rotating between the poles of a currenthappening, a special design of saturable
carrying coil. In 1893 the first 'reactive
reactor was designed, and installed at
energy' meter was made. It is thusjust a
Sellindgeand also at Ninfield substations.
century since reactive power was provento
Such reactors, connected in shunt across a be very real, i.e. measurable.
network, have high impedanceunder normal
Since privatisation of the electricity supply
conditions. However, should the terminal
industry the commercial value of reactive
voltage rise, the reactor saturates and draws
power has been recognised. Active MW
a large reactive current, thereby holding the
power is traded through the electricity Pool
system voltage down to an acceptablelevel.
which was created with privatisation. In this
Privatisationof the electricity supply
Pool, generating companiesparticipate in a
industry has brought about a wealth of new
day-ahead bidding system; they are required
entrants to the generation business. One
to submit the price at which they are
particular kind of new generation is autopreparedto operate each of their generating
generation, where the owner of a small
units to the NationalGrid Company, which
company, or even a household, builds a small has responsibility for the secure operation of
the transmission network. As the generator
generator to meet his own needs for power
and/or heat. He is also permitted to connect
has no indication at this stage whether any of
it to his local distribution network, and sell
its generating units will be required also to
provide reactive power, this price is based on
the output to his Regional Distribution
Company (REC). The reactive power and
the costs of operating each generating unit
to provide active energy only.
voltage control systems on such distribution
As no direct provision was made in the
networksare designed for a flow of power
pooling arrangementsfor reactive power
from the REC to the consumer. The reversal
other commercial arrangementswere
of the power flow from the consumer to the
REC can lead to voltage rises on the network, required to reward those providing reactive
POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL APRIL 1994

power. Whilst reactive energy may be

'imaginary', the costs of providing it are
nevertheless real! These arrangements are
captured in the ancillary services contracts
which have been signed between the new
generating companies and the ancillary
services business of the National Grid
Company. This business is operated on behalf
of members of the Pool by the Grid
Company.
Establishingthe real-time requirement for
reactive power is one of the tasks of the
National Grid Company under its
responsibility for the safe, secure and
economic operation of the transmission
network. It continually evaluates its needs,
based on the pattern of generation and the
location of demand, and it ensures that it has
adequate reserve of reactive power available
to maintain system stability under both
normal and fault conditions.
The commercial arrangements for trading
reactive power made a t the time the industry
was privatised reflect the limited time
available to deal with what was considered to
be a secondary, but nevertheless essential,
component in the new market structure.
Payments made to the generating companies
under the initial contracts were fixed lump
sum payments that were intended simply to
cover the costs of supplying reactive power.
Contracts were put in place for both reactive
generation from steam generating units
when instructed to provide active energy,
and also for gas turbine units operating in a
synchronous compensation mode, when
they are effectively operating as an electric
motor. The remaining equipment with a
reactive power capability is compensation
equipment owned and operated by the
National Grid Company. No contracts were
signed for this plant; its provision and
maintenance is currentlyfunded by the Use
of System Charges levied by the Grid
Company on all users of the Grid.
These initial arrangements were
recognised as a short-term measure which
did not properly value the provision of either
reactive capability nor the provision of
reactive energy. In particular, it could not
differentiate the value of reactive capability
between areas of the country where there is
excess reactive capability, and those where
the capability is limited.
All generating units connected to the Grid
are currently required to have a set level of
reactive capability, reflecting the importance
attributed by the Grid Company to reactive
capability. As a consequence, however, in the
initial post-privatisationcommercial
arrangements there is no payment for
capability, it being simply part of the cost of
entry for new generating capacity, rather like
the window-cleaner's ladder.
Active consideration is now being given to
the introduction of a market mechanism to
allow sources of reactive power to compete
to supply reactive power and reserve. In one
scenario being considered the National Grid
Company would invite tenders from all
POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL APRIL 1994

existing and potential suppliers of reactive

power, including generation and
compensation plant, t o supply reactive
power and capability in zones of predicted
reactive power deficit at a three year ahead
timescale.
Consideration is also being given t o where
the existing arrangements for charging
consumers (or more precisely their supply
companies) the costs of reactive power and
capability are robust, but any changes are
unlikely in the very near future. The existing
arrangements are based on the fact that
maintaining the stability of the transmission
system was seen to be of benefit to all those
who consume electricity. As a result, it was
agreed a t the time of privatisationthat all
consumers should contribute to the costs of
providing reactive capability and energy
according to their level of active energy
demand.
I suggest that the stability provided by
reactive power can be considered as part of
the 'quality' of the supply which customers
for electricity now regard as essential for their
purpose. In certain parts of the system, the
requirements for reactive power support to
maintain this quality of supply are such that
generating plant is instructed to operate,
despite the fact that it is not economic in
power generation terms: i.e. the plant is
'constrained on' to provide the voltage
control essential for system stability. The
costs of operating this plant are borne by all
consumers.

Conclusion
I have tried to explain the concept of
reactive power, and to demonstrate that no
matter how abstract the concept is, requiring
the use of 'imaginary' algebra to calculate, it
plays a vital role in the stable operation of
power systems.
Charles Parsons' role in recognising the
need to control reactive power flows via
voltage regulation ought, like his other
achievements, to be fully recognised.
Thecompanieswhich hefounded, and
their successors, continue to this day to
manufacture the exciters, voltage regulators,
transformers, reactors and capacitors which
are so vital t o reactive power control. From
his earliest controllers using rotating
magnets, to the latest equipment using
superconducting technology, reactive power,
although abstract and 'imaginary' in
concept, yet measurable and having
commercial value, has proved to be very 'real'
indeed.
This article is based on the Parsons Memorial
Lecture delivered by the author at Savoy Place,
London, on the 30th November 1993.
0 IEE: 1994

Prof. Bill Fairney is Director of Project Development

and Construction, National Power plc. Windmill
Hill Business Park, Whitehill Way, Swindon, Wilts.
SN5 6PB. UK. He is an IEE Fellow.

75