Hydraulic structures I (Ceng-4013)

Chapter 1 Elements of Dam Engineering

1. ELEMENTS OF DAM ENGINEERING

Introduction
Dams are structures controlling the flow of a river by completely blocking the valley of a given
river or drainage system. Through the blockage, storage is formed, which can be utilized for
various water resources development or water control purposes. Thus, retained body of water is
RESERVOIR, the retaining structure whether earth/rock/concrete is the dam.
The preliminary purpose of a dam may be defined as to provide for the safe retention and
storage of water. The specific main functions /advantages of dams and reservoirs are:
Temporal and quantitative balancing between available water and demand.
Water storage for days, weeks, months, years, and over years for power generation
and sediment control
Water supply (municipal, industrial or community water supply, irrigation
purposes)
Flood control
Regulation/balancing of river flow (such as navigation, low flow augmentation)
Recreation
Multipurpose
The presence of a dam with its storage reservoir interferes with the natural system. Associated to
this, the main disadvantages include:
Distraction of fauna and flora in the dam valley
Interference in the landscape through dams and reservoirs
Change of ground water level
Strong influence on sediment balance
Change in water temperature
Influence on fish
Dam structures and Reservoir
Structure related to dams include: the dam structure, reservoir, diversion structure, appurtenant
structures such as spillways, bottom outlets, intakes and gates as well as service roads and
bridges. The schematic diagrams of the components are shown below.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Reservoir
Dam
Service Intake
Bottom outlet
Spill structure
Diversion structure
Service road

Fig 1.1
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Chapter 1 Elements of Dam Engineering

Storage Components
The reservoir volume is sub divided in to the following parts, when seen in its vertical section.

Reservoirs
Functions of reservoirs in Hydraulic Engineering
Balancing water demand and supply
Storage of water for further usage
Provision of storage: flood storage, sedimentation storage, for industrial sewerage,
nature protection
Classification of storage based on use:
Use and drinking water storage
Storage for irrigation
Storage for hydropower
Storage for low flow augmentation
Storage for cooling water
Flood storage
Artificial lakes, e.g. for recreation, fish protection, nature protection
Single or multiple purpose reservoirs
Classification based on storage or balancing period:
Day, week, month, year storage
Classification based on art of storage:
Surface storage
Subsurface storage (Caverns, Ground water)

Reservoir parameters

The most important reservoir parameters are reservoir volume (storage) S (m3), the reservoir area
A (m2) which can be related to the elevation or water level in the reservoirs. These parameters can be
computed with the help of topographic maps or surveying. The reservoir surface area can be
computed using planimetery related to a given contour height.

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Chapter 1 Elements of Dam Engineering

Based on the derived elevation-area curve and depth, elevation-volume can be computed using
various methods:
I. Average area or trapezoidal method
A Ai 1i
Si hi
2
II. Simpsons 1/3 rule method
A 4 Am Ai 1i
Si hi
Where Am= mean area between Ai & Ai+1
6
III. Simpsons 3/8 rule method
h 3
9
9
3
Si i A1 A2 A3 A4
3 8
8
8
8
Where h: depth magnitude between interpolation points
A1, A2, A3 and A4: are planar areas at interpolation points.

Classification of Dams
Dams are numerous types and there are various ways of classifications.
Classification Based on Purpose
a) Storage Dams
i) Flood control
ii) Water supply: domestic, municipal, industrial, irrigation
iii) Hydroelectric power
iv) Recreation storage
v) Pollution control
b) Stage control Dams
i) Diversion
ii) Navigation
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iii) Check
c) Barrier Dams
i) Levees and dykes
ii) Coffer dams
d) Multipurpose Dams
Classification based on Hydraulic design
a) Overflow dams
b) Non overflow dams
c) Composite dams
Classification According to Material of construction
a) Embankment Dams
b) Concrete Dams
a) Embankment Dams
They are constructed of earth fill/earth fill. Upstream and upstream faces are similar and moderate
angles, giving a wide section and a high construction volume reltive to height.
b) Concrete Dams
They are constructed of mass concrete. Face slopes are dissimilar, general steep downstream and
near vertical upstream slopes, and dams have relatively slender profile dependent on the type.
Other type such as timber, steel, etc dams in some cases may be constructed.

Dam

Embankment

Concrete
Gravity

Arch

Arch-Gravity

Massive
buttress

Rockfill

Earth fill

Combination

Classification of dams based on material of construction

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Chapter 1 Elements of Dam Engineering

Types of Embankment Dams and their General characteristics

Embankment Dams are dam constructed of natural materials excavated or obtained near the dam
site. They are of relatively (compared with concrete dams) soft and elastic structures. Loads are
transmitted in to the dam body. The foundation requirement is lower compared to gravity dams.
Most of the dams of today (more than 60%) are embankment dams.

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Chapter 1 Elements of Dam Engineering

Embankment dams constitute the following advantages

Suitability to wide valley & steep gorges alike
Adaptability to wide range of foundation conditions
Use of natural materials, minimizing cost of transportation of processed materials
Insensitive (can accommodate) to settlement
Insensitive (can withstand)to earth quake
Simple construction, effectively continuous construction & high mechanized process
Unit cost of embankment risen much more slowly in real terms than mass concrete
Increasing dam height is simple
Can be well integrated to the landscape
Disadvantages:
Sensitive to wave action
Higher free board is needed (3-4m)
Overtopping is not allowed (intake structures and spillways should be constructed
separate from the dam structure & adequate spillway size should be ensured )
Erosion danger on the down stream sides unless bermes are provided
Construction material and construction progress are affected by weather
Huge mass volume (large transportation, settlement)

1.6.1. Earth fill embankment dams

This indicates type of dam constituting more than 50% compacted earth fill. An earth fill
dam is constructed primarily of engineering soils compacted uniformly and intensively in
relatively thin layers and at controlled moisture contents (see Figure 2.5 for principal
variants). They are designed to resist loads by gravity and by mechanisms of embankment
stability. They are strictly non overflow types.
1.6.2. Rock fill embankment dams
This indicates type of dam constituting more than 50% compacted rock fill. The section
includes a discrete impervious element of compacted earth fill or a slender concrete or
bituminous membrane. Rock fill embankments employing a thin upstream membrane of
asphalt concrete, reinforced concrete or other non natural material are referred to as decked
rock fill dams
1.7. Characteristics of Concrete Dams
Concrete dams are hard, none yielding and rigid structures. Loads are transmitted through the
dam body and to the foundation. It requires strong and more or less uniform rock foundation.
Many early dams were constructed as rubble masonry or random masonry. From about
1900, mass concrete, initially without formed transverse contraction joints, began to displace
masonry for the construction of large non embankment dams. From about 1950 mass
concrete increasingly incorporated bulk material additives such as slags or pulverized fuel
ash (PFA), in order to reduce thermal problems and to contain escalating costs.
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Concrete dams constitute the following advantages:

Good for narrow valleys. Except arc or cupola, also suitable for wide valleys.
Smaller construction fill volume (compared to embankments)
Construction can takes place irrespective or weather condition
Smaller free board (1-1.5m)
Can be constructed as overflow dam, i.e. can accommodate spillway, hence cost for
separate spillway reduced.
Outlet pipe work, valves and other ancillary works can be provided within the body
of the dam
Disadvantages:
Sensitive to settlement, demanding sound rock foundation
Sensitive by earth quake
Depending on the dam type, its construction is demanding (technical personnel,
machine requirement, form work)
Difficult heightening (simplification by pre-stressing)
Bad interference in to natural landscape
Completed unit costs are much higher than for embankment fills, which seldom
balanced by the much lower volumes of concrete required in a dam of certain height.
1.7.1. Gravity Dams
Concrete gravity dam is designed so that its stability is maintained on it own mass. Its profile
is essentially triangular, to ensure stability and to avoid over stressing of the dam or its
foundation. It may be straight or curved in plan.
1.7.2. Buttress Dams
Consist of a continuous upstream face supported at regular intervals by downstream buttress.
Buttress dams were first developed to conserve water in regions where materials were scarce
or expensive but labor was cheap. Normally needs up to 60% less concrete than gravity dams
of the same height, but needs more form work and reinforcement.
(See figure 1.6.c)
1.7.3. Arch Dams
Loads resisted mainly by arch action and transmitted through abutments. It requires constant
solid and strong abutments. The type is suitable in narrow gorges when the length of the
crest is not more than 5 times the height of the dam. Its particular derivation is the cupola or
double curvature arch dam, which is the most sophisticated concrete dams, and is extremely
economical in concrete. (Refer figure 1.6. b)
1.7.4. Other Concrete Dams
There are member of less common variant of the major types of concrete dams, which also exist.
They include hollow gravity, decked buttress, flat slab (ambursen) buttress, multiple arch (multiple
cupola) dams.
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1.8. Site Investigation, Selection of Sites and Type of Dam

1.8.1. General
A dam and reservoir site must satisfy certain functional and technical requirements. Whether
these requirements are satisfied can be found out through site investigations and technical
evaluations
Functional: the functional suitability of a site is governed by the balance between its natural
physical characteristics and the purpose of the dam/ reservoir. The catchment hydrology,
available head and storage volume etc, must be matched by the operational parameters
needed of the project.
Technical: Technical suitability is associated to the presence or absence of suitable site for a
dam, material of construction, and integrity of reservoir basin with respect to leakage.
Hydrological, geological/geotechnical characteristics of catchment and site are the principal
determinants establishing the technical suitability of reservoir site.
In addition, assessment of the anticipated environmental consequences of construction and
operation of the dam is needed to be evaluated to select site for storage and dam construction.

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Chapter 1 Elements of Dam Engineering

The following are major considerations:

1.
2.

3.

4.

Major design inputs: geotechnical, structural, hydraulic, hydrological and also

environmental impacts/effects
Optimum design solutions: solution of appropriate type of dam (no clear-cut-rule)
derives from interaction of the above inputs with economic factors including
constructional constraints.
As 2 implies, there are frequently several alternatives solutions, which are of equal
technical but of different economic validity. Note that, both relative economic
validity and to a lesser extent technical validity are subject to change as technology
develops.
Each and every dam is quite unique solution to the problems of the site in question, in
terms of the balance of technical and economical factor at the time of consideration.
Principal stages involving site appraisal and leading to selection of optimum dam site
and type of dam are indicated schematically in Figure 1.7 (After Novak et al)
In order to meet the requirements of dam site investigation, design and construction, a
fully coordinated team of specialists is needed. A team of hydraulic, structural,
material, and geotechnical engineers, geologists, and hydrologists should ensure that
all engineering and geological considerations are properly integrated into the overall
design.
Some of the critical aspects of the analysis and design process that require
coordination are (US Army Corps of Engineers):
a.
b.

c.
d.
e.

f.
g.
h.

Preliminary assessments of geological data, sub-surface conditions, and rock

structure.
Selection of material properties, design parameters, loading conditions,
loading effects, potential mechanisms, and other related features of the
analytical models.
Evaluation of the technical and economic feasibility of alternative type
structures.
Constructability reviews to see whether design assumptions and construction
procedures are compatible.
Refinement of the preliminary structure configuration to reflect the results of
detailed site explorations, materials availability studies, laboratory testing,
and numerical analysis.
Cofferdam and diversion layout, design, and sequencing requirements.
Size and type of outlet works and spillway.
Modification to the structure configuration during construction due to
unexpected variations in the foundation conditions.

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Chapter 1 Elements of Dam Engineering

1.8.2. Collection of Data

Physical and Topographical Data
Selection of dam and reservoir sites requires presence of suitable topography. Information can be
obtained through site visit and from large scale topographic maps or aerial photographs. The criteria
for the choice of the site include investigation of:
Valley form

Canon and V-shape: due to erosion,

U-shape: due to glacier cut,
Wide valley: due to strong bank erosion,
Box valley; due to fluvial deposit on the other shapes

The valley width at the dam site is required to be narrow and wide in the storage part. Figure 1.8
shows the various forms of valley shapes.

Slope: upstream of the dam site, the possible small slope and downstream of the dam site the
possible large slope (by hydropower scheme)
In the collection of relevant topographical information, the following may be followed:
General Plan:
-

Obtain a general plan of the catchment and project area from relevant sources (e.g. EMA)
Carry out limited survey to include additional information in this plan (aerial reconnaissance,
physical survey, walkovers)
It must include: the dam site, spillway site, irrigable area/power house site, catchment are of
the stream, locality to be supplied with potable water (if any) Scale may vary from 1:10001:10,000
The following features should be included:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Contours at 0.5mto 1.5m interval

location of existing works, if any, affected by the proposed development
proposed relocation of roads, railways, transmission lines, etc
additional transportation facilities such as access roads; cable ways, etc,
required for the execution of the project
location of the stream gauging stations, water sampling and meteorological
stations, if any in the area
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Large Plans of the Dam and Spillway Sites:

These should be in the scale of 1:500 to 1:000 with contours as close as possible. These plans
should show:
Over banks
Location and elevation of all features such as buildings roads etc
Location and numbering of test pits and borings.
Geotechnical and Geological Data
A geological map of the entire catchment and project area is essential. Investigation of geological
and geotechnical information of the origin, deposition, formation and physical characteristics of the
dam foundation and reservoir area are needed. As a basis for the investigation, if there is no
accurately describing geological map exists, such maps are produced on large scale for the dam site
and on small scale for reservoir area.
Dam and Spillway Site
Subsurface investigation should be carried out by experienced geologist to obtain the following:

Geological section of the selected dam site

Quality of the overburden if an earth dam is to be built

Shearing strength of the material of overburden and of the dam material

Quantity and Quality of the overburden material for construction purpose

Presence of joint planes, caverns, solution channels

Quality of rock if concrete dam is to be built

Depth to which rock is weathered

Presence & extent of seams and joint planes (and orientations)

Strength of the rock (hardness and durability)

Availability of aggregate
Reservoir Site

Check the existence of cracks which are potential leakage source

Banks should be checked for possible zones of landslide

Earth quake
Information on seismic activity of the area should be obtained
Here it is assumed that, adequate knowledge of the relevant engineering geology, soil
mechanics and geotechnical parameters are acquired.
Water Resources Data
Data regarding the following are required for water resources planning and reservoir design:

Catchment area (surface and subsurface0

Discharge (surface and sub-surface); daily/monthly volume of flow in the stream and
peaks of stream flow at or near dam site

Sediment carried by the stream

Maximum observed flood, report on damage caused by flood (extent of flood)

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Data establishing water demand (number of people to be served, approximate

maximum and minimum daily requirement, irrigation water requirement, other
requirement for industries, livestock,, etc)
Meteorological data such as average temperature, average monthly rainfall, maximum
recorded storm intensities, rate of evaporation
Ground water level
Data on minimum downstream water requirement

Project Development Data

Data such as agricultural, hydropower and other relevant data to the project purpose Eg. For
irrigation purpose, the following data are essential for the determination of water requirement:

size of the area to be irrigated

soil structure
possible type of crops
types of soils along the conveyance canals

Miscellaneous Data
-

Materials data: soil, gravel and stone (for aggregate and riprap) are needed in good quantity
and quality for dam construction (possible borrow sites for these materials should be
identified), the borrow area should be within the reasonable distance from the site. Selection
of suitable borrow area is identified by:
Thickness of the top organic soil which has to be discarded
Content of organic matter in the rest of the soil
Quantity of oversized cobbles which would have to be removed from the
soil
Rock for aggregate and riprap has to pass the standard tests of specific gravity, absorption,
abrasion, soundness, etc.
Erosion in the catchment area- identify sources of erosion
Transport-Existing facilities and rates
Local labor-availability and rates
Information at the desk study stage
Notes on site reconnaissance
Which are generally valid for site investigation for civil engineering purposes.
1.8.3. Investigations
The purpose of site or material investigation in the context of dam engineering is to determine the
suitability of the selected site for dam construction and reservoir storage as well as to describe the
geotechnical parameters necessary for the design and construction of the structures.

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For such purposes, thus, general site exploration and investigations, in addition to the above data
collection, involve the following:
Field investigation
In situ tests/ Field tests
Laboratory tests
(See details of these soil mechanics and foundation engineering courses)
1.8.4. Location of Dam
Influencing factors:

Plan for the use of water

Width and shape of the valley

Load carrying capacity and impermeability of foundation

Seepage lose in the reservoir area

Quantity, quality and transport distance of the construction materials

Suitability for appurtenant structures (bottom outlet, intake, spillway, power house)

Danger due to slide, avalanche, etc

Influence on environment and landscape

Recreation value

Available storage area

Dam heightening and capacity augmentation possibilities

Cost

Social and political implications

1.8.5. Height of a Dam
The selection of the height of a dam influenced from:

Local topographic conditions

Dam type

Required storage

Finance
1.8.6. Selection of Dam Type
Influencing factors:
Topography (valley form see Figure 1.8 and 1.10)
Foundation (stability, impermeability)
Geology (layers, fishers)
Required height
Purpose of the dam
Climate (ice)
Flood spillway
Availability, quality (nature, state) of construction materials
Construction (Supply, transport, equipment, qualification of personnel)
Landscape
Cost (economics)

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It is necessary to make open the possible alternative solutions until an optimum solution is found
w.r.t cost, construction program and available resource. Novak et al consider four cardinally
important points in selection of dam type as:
1.
Hydraulic Gradient: the nominal value of hydraulic gradient I for seepage under,
around or through dam varies by at least one order of magnitude according to type
(0.5 for homogenous dam to 10 or more for buttress or coupola)
2.
Foundation stress: nominal stress transmitted to the foundation vary greatly with dam
type (The notional maximum stresses due to dam height of 100m varies between 1.8
to 10 MN/m2 for embankment to arch dams)
3.
Foundation deformability: certain types of dams are better able to accommodate
significant foundation deformation /settlement without damage.
4.
Foundation excavation: economic considerations dictate the excavation volume and
foundation preparation should be minimized.
Figure 1.10 illustrate examples of valley profile with suggested dam type and Table 1.3 provide type
characteristics with respect to choice of dams 9After Novak et al)
Figure 1.10: Illustrative examples of valley profile in relation to dam type

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Type
Embankment
Earth fill

Rock fill

Concrete
Gravity

Buttress
Arch/Cupola

Chapter 1 Elements of Dam Engineering

Notes and Characteristics

Suited to either rock or soil foundation and can accept limited
differential settlement given relatively wide and plastic core. Cut-off
to sound, i.e. less permeable, horizon required. Low contact stress
Rock foundation preferable; can accept variable quality and limited
weathering. Cut-off to sound horizons required. Rock fills suitable for
all weather placing. Requires materials for core, filter, etc.
Suited to wide valleys, provided that excavation depth is less than c.
5m. Limited weathering of rock acceptable. Check discontinuities in
rock with regard top sliding. Moderate contact stress. Requires
imported cement.
As gravity dam, but higher contact stress require sound rock.
Concrete save relative to gravity dam 30-60%.
Suited to narrow gorges, subject to uniform sound rock of high
strength and limited deformability in foundation and most practically
in abutments.
High abutment loading. Concrete saving relative to gravity dam is 5085%

Table 1.3: Dam selection: Type characteristics

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