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CHAPTER FOUR
INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Satellite images, or pictorial representations of satellite‐sensed information, are some of the most
frequently used tools in the fields of meteorology and oceanography. Since the launch of TIROS 1 on
April 1, 1960, numerous satellites with ever‐increasing capabilities and sophistication have been
deployed into space, revolutionizing the understanding and accuracy of meteorological and
oceanographic processes and predictions with the advent of each new satellite. As a Navy or Marine
Corps forecaster, or assistant forecaster, it is important for you to know how obtain required satellite
imagery, and be able to interpret it in order to identify specific details important to the success and
safety of Naval operations. The use of satellite imagery is one of the most important sources of
information when preparing meteorological and oceanographic forecasts.
We begin with an explanation of remote sensing and how electromagnetic radiation is used to develop a
satellite image. Next, we introduce the various types of satellite imagery and describe the various
considerations to take into account when viewing it. We then discuss the different types of satellite
vehicles used in obtaining imagery and complete the chapter by discussing analysis techniques used in
identifying cloud formations, non‐cloud features, and certain meteorological features.
4.2 WEATHER SATELLITE PRINCIPLES
Learning Objective
Identify the advantages and disadvantages of satellite imagery
4.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Satellite Imagery
The use of satellite imagery has some distinct advantages and disadvantages. Two major advantages are
that imagery is available at intervals as frequent as every 15 minutes, 24 hours a day. In some
specialized instances, imagery can even be obtained at intervals as frequently as every minute. This is
far superior to rawinsonde data, which is obtained only twice a day and provides data only for a specific
point. Satellite imagery also provides uniform coverage of large data sparse regions. Spatial resolution
is much better (as good as .5 km) than rawinsonde data coverage (200 km). This increase in resolution
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provides the forecaster with the ability to track developing mesoscale features that would otherwise be
missed in the large synoptic analysis.
The biggest obstacle to the use of satellite imagery is interpretation. Drawing conclusions about the
meteorological processes at work on satellite imagery is much more difficult than reaching the same
conclusions from conventional constant‐pressure charts. It takes training, time and practice to
effectively utilize a satellite image. Additionally, satellite imagery only gives information from the top
down. It is normally impossible to garner detailed information about surface weather conditions at a
specific point with just a satellite image. Surface conditions can be deduced through training, but the
same information can be gained with clarity through the observation network, where established, which
provides information from the bottom up. Hence, when forecasting or briefing, it is important to utilize
both satellite imagery and surface weather observations together to accurately portray the state of the
atmosphere.
4.2.2 Remote Sensing of Electromagnetic Radiation
Learning Objective
Describe the satellite sensor imaging process.
Remote sensing is a term used to describe the study of something without making actual contact with it.
Satellite technology is an example of remote sensing, since satellite sensors are designed to study
energy reflected, and emitted from the Earth. Weather satellite sensors work by gathering
electromagnetic radiation from the Earth and atmosphere. You need a basic knowledge of radiation
theory to understand how the sensors work.
Electromagnetic radiation is made up of waves, so it requires an understanding of wave motion basics.
Hold up the end of a long piece of rope and quickly move your hand up and down to produce a wave
that travels down the length of the rope. If you do this repeatedly and regularly, a regular series of
waves will occur. How often it repeats is the frequency of the motion (i.e., how frequently the motion
repeats). Frequency is the number of waves passing a given point per unit of time, expressed in cycles
per second, or Hertz (Hz). The wavelength is measured by determining the distance between the tops of
the waves in the rope. Wavelength is the distance measured in the direction of propagation between
two identical points on adjacent waves having the same phase. Frequency and wavelength are inversely
proportional; increase one and the other decreases.
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We describe the intensity of a wave by measuring the wave’s height, or amplitude. Radiation differs in
this respect. A beam of electromagnetic radiation resembles a stream of particles called photons. Each
photon has its own specific wavelength. The
total level of energy in a beam of radiation (the
beam’s radiance or intensity) is just the energy
of each photon, times the number of photons
in that beam. In satellite meteorology, the
preferred term for energy output is brightness
temperature, usually expressed in degrees
Kelvin (K). Brightness temperature is a photon
Figure 4‐1. Electromagnetic Spectrum
count. (Source: PDC)
Electromagnetic radiation has specific
wavelengths and frequencies, and resembles more common waves such as water and sound waves.
While there are many types of electromagnetic radiation, the only real difference between them is their
wavelength or frequency. We bring up wavelength and frequency because both are used in satellite
applications. Most users of visual and infrared satellite imagery prefer to classify radiation by
wavelength, usually measured in microns (m), or millionths of a meter. Users of microwave imagery
like to use frequency. Most microwave radiation has frequencies measured in the Gigahertz range (1
GHz is a billion cycles/second).
In general, short wavelengths and high frequencies are characteristics of high‐energy radiation, usually
coming from the Sun, and long wavelengths and low frequencies are characteristics of low‐energy
radiation, usually coming from the Earth. We separate radiation into separate bands, based on its use,
or on how familiar objects react to it. This is known as the electromagnetic spectrum. The
electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of all the types of electromagnetic radiation. Figure 4‐1
shows the range of the electromagnetic spectrum, with its respective divisions. The human eye detects
only a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, called visible light.
Some types of electromagnetic radiation can easily pass through the Earth’s atmosphere while others
are prevented from passing through. The ability of the atmosphere to allow radiation to pass through is
referred to as its transmissivity. The atmosphere also absorbs energy in specific wavelength bands,
especially in the infrared and microwave portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The areas of the
electromagnetic spectrum that are absorbed by the atmosphere are known as absorption bands.
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There are also areas within the
electromagnetic spectrum where the
atmosphere is transparent to specific
wavelengths. These wavelength bands are
known as atmospheric windows, since they
allow the radiation to easily pass through the
atmosphere. There are specific atmospheric
windows corresponding to specific
wavelengths along the electromagnetic
spectrum. The sensors on meteorological and
Figure 4‐2. Gray‐scale Enhancement. (Source:
University of Wisconsin) oceanographic satellites are designed to take
advantage of these atmospheric windows.
These instruments measure received radiation
in specific, narrow wavelength bands known as
channels. By taking advantage of atmospheric
windows, the satellite can sense the amount
of electromagnetic radiation received from
specific regions of the Earth. The sensor then
converts the amount of sensed
electromagnetic radiation to a gray shade,
Figure 4‐3. Colorized Enhancement. (Source: which is assigned to a corresponding square
University of Wisconsin) on the image called a pixel. All electronic
images, such as satellite images, consist of
pixels, which directly relate to the resolution of the image. A computer assigns one of 256 shades of
gray (ranging from black to white) to each pixel on the imagery. The contrasts in gray shades help us
interpret cloud and non‐cloud phenomena on the satellite imagery. Human eyes can distinguish only
about 15‐20 gray shades. Because of this, imagery is either gray‐shade or color‐enhanced to make
subtle differences in gray shades more noticeable to the human eye. These enhancements are known
as enhancement curves, as seen at the bottom of each image presented as Figures 4‐2 and 4‐3.
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4.3 TYPES OF SATELLITE IMAGERY
Learning Objective
Identify and describe the different types of satellite imagery available for use.
Weather satellites have instruments capable of detecting radiation from clouds as well as the Earth’s
surface. These instruments have sensors that detect both the visible (VIS) range of the electromagnetic
spectrum and the infrared (IR) range. This allows for both daytime and nighttime imagery and provides
the ability to compare the infrared and visual images over the same region.
Environmental satellites provide data through several different channels. Each channel senses radiation
at a specific wavelength or a range of wavelengths. The most commonly used channels on weather
satellites are visible, infrared, and water vapor. Specially designed sensors with specific channels are
used to pick up microwave radiation. Each of these channels are sensitive to energy in its particular
range of frequencies; therefore, each type provides a different view of the Earth and its atmosphere.
Meteorologists rely on all four types of data for understanding the interactions between the
atmosphere and the Earth's surface.
4.3.1 VISUAL IMAGERY (VIS) (0.4 – 0.74 µM)
The electromagnetic energy that your eyes can see ranges from a wavelength of 0.7 µm for red light,
through the visible spectrum (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet) to 0.4 µm for violet
light. About 44 percent of the sun's energy falls on the earth in the form of light. Although some light is
absorbed, much of the light incident on the earth's atmosphere and surface is reflected back into space.
The reflected light from the Earth is measured by a channel in the sensor aboard the satellite that is
sensitive only to electromagnetic energy in the visual wavelengths. The sensor measures the energy
received in each pixel and assigns it a reading from 0, for no energy sensed, to 256, for very high energy
sensed. Measurements are transmitted to Earth, and the consecutive pixels and scan lines are
processed to compose an image.
The brightness of an object depends on two factors: sun angle and albedo, or the reflectivity of the
object. Sun angle and the brightness of an object are directly proportional to each other. A high sun
angle equates to a high level of reflection, thus a high energy level received by the satellite sensor.
Suppose, for instance, you have a large room with a 40‐watt light bulb placed in the center of the room.
If you are holding a sheet of white paper parallel to the floor, the farther you get away from the light
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bulb (you are increasing the
Table 4‐1. Common Earth Albedos.
angle of the light hitting the Large Thunderstorm 92% Thin Stratus 42%
paper’s surface), the darker the Fresh New Snow 88% Thin Cirrostratus 32%
Thick Cirrostratus 74% Sand, No Foliage 27%
paper is going to appear. The Thick Stratocumulus 68% Sand and Brushwood 17%
sun’s angle is a function of the White Sands, NM 60% Coniferous 12%
Snow, 3‐7 Days Old 59% Water Surfaces 9%
time of day, the season, and the
latitude of your location. Albedo is dependent on the object's surface texture and color. Table 4‐1
provides some common albedos of various surfaces on the Earth.
In visual images, areas of low reflected light (low albedo), such as water and forest regions, appear black.
Areas of high reflected light (high albedo), such as snow, appear white. When looking at clouds on visual
imagery, the optical depth is a highly important aspect to consider. Optical depth and reflectivity are
directly proportional, in other words, a cloud with a high optical depth is highly reflective. The optical
depth of an object depends on four factors: thickness, cloud density, cloud composition, and particle
size.
Visible imagery is very useful in both atmospheric and oceanographic analysis because reflectivity varies
considerably among atmospheric, land, and oceanic features. Due to the reflective properties of clouds
composed of water droplets, a visual image is also excellent for identifying low clouds when compared
to an infrared image. An obvious disadvantage of visible imagery is that it is only available during
daylight hours. Another disadvantage is that low, mid, and high clouds, when placed over each other,
can be difficult to identify without the use of an infrared image.
4.3.2 INFRARED IMAGERY (IR) (0.74 – 12 µM)
The infrared sensors measure the amount of energy emitted by the earth and the atmosphere. Because
the frequency of energy emitted from the earth’s surface and meteorological elements depends on the
temperature of the surface, IR imagery is essentially a picture of the surface and cloud top temperatures
portrayed in black, white, or gray shades. This information can be used to observe thermal properties of
the Earth and the atmosphere.
Infrared imagery is an excellent tool for oceanographic analysis, such as evaluating sea surface
temperatures and determining ocean front and eddy locations. It is also very helpful for identifying high
clouds and upper‐level wind flow, but less reliable for identifying low‐level features. Another significant
advantage of IR imagery is that since it deals solely with temperature and not reflected light, it is
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available for use 24‐hours a day. A major disadvantage of IR imagery is the difficulty in displaying low
clouds when the earth’s surface and cloud top temperatures are relatively the same.
On most display systems, the gray scale of an IR image is composed of 256 gray shades ranging from
white (coldest temperatures) to black (warmest temperatures) and correlates sensed temperature with
gray shades in a simple linear relationship. In an infrared image, the highest (and therefore coldest)
cloud tops appear white. Lower, warmer clouds appear as lighter shades of gray, and warmer land and
water surfaces appear as darker shades of gray. The IR band is separated into three channels on most
satellites, the Near IR, Far IR, and Far Far IR.
4.3.2.1 Near Infrared Imagery (NIR) (0.74 – 1 µm)
This wavelength is also referred to as “near visual” because we are still dealing with reflected light. The
wavelength used here is just out of the range of what our eyes can see. Some features have higher
reflectivity in this wavelength than they do in the visual. These include aerosols and land, especially
with vegetation.
Some features emit enough radiation in the NIR wavelength to be seen. City lights and fires emit more
radiation in this band than in visible wavelengths because their emission peak is closer to the NIR
wavelengths than visual wavelengths. For this reason, this type of imagery is used in the detection of
and tracking forest fires and monitoring of urban heat islands.
4.3.2.2 Far Infrared Imagery (FIR) (10.2 – 11.2 µm)
This is the “garden variety” infrared image most weather forecasters are used to viewing. Most
satellites combine the FIR and FFIR channels into one broadband IR channel. The same factors that
affect optical depth in the visual bands affect the IR wavelengths, but for different reasons. Remember
that in the visual bands, clouds with a high optical depth are good at reflecting radiation. In the IR bands,
clouds with a high optical depth are good at absorbing radiation. By absorbing radiation, we mean that
the cloud is blocking radiation from below and re‐emitting radiation at its own physical temperature.
Thin cirrus clouds that are almost invisible in the visual wavelengths can absorb and “block” some FIR
radiation. This makes them visible in the IR bands. Because of the difference in density between water
and ice, clouds with a high content of water droplets block upwelling IR radiation better than those
composed of ice. Most clouds will have a higher optical depth in IR than in visual.
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4.3.2.3 Far Far Infrared Imagery (FFIR) (11.3 – 12.5 µm)
When comparing FIR and FFIR imagery, little difference would be noticed. The only noticeable
difference would be found in areas containing moist air. The atmosphere has higher absorptivity (lower
transmissivity) as energy approaches the FFIR wavelengths, mostly due to absorption by water vapor. In
moist atmospheres, the satellite senses less FFIR radiation than FIR. Therefore, moist air appears cooler
and “murky” on an FFIR image. Dry air would look the same in both channels.
4.3.3 WATER VAPOR IMAGERY (WV) (6.5 TO 7.0 µM)
This type of imagery is created by focusing the satellite sensor on a very narrow band of wavelengths
where the absorption of emitted radiation by water vapor is very high. The earth absorbs incoming
solar radiation (shortwave radiation) and reradiates that energy as longwave radiation. The unique
ability of water vapor to absorb the wavelengths concentrated at 6.7 µm provides an extremely useful
tool we use to identify mid and upper level features that may be cloudless and not evident on visible or
broad spectrum IR imagery. Where the satellite senses abundant energy at 6.7 µm, there is a lack of
moisture at the middle and upper levels of the atmosphere. In this case, the satellite assigns a darker
gray shade to that pixel. Where the satellite senses minimal energy at 6.7 µm, there is abundant
moisture at the middle and upper levels and the satellite assigns a lighter or whiter gray shade to that
pixel.
It is important to note here, that water vapor imagery does not indicate moisture in the lower levels of
the atmosphere, only the middle and upper levels. If moisture is present in the middle and upper levels,
energy at 6.7 µm is absorbed and any moisture present in the lower levels cannot be detected. The
satellite will receive minimal amounts of energy in this moisture region and interpret the lack of energy
received as colder temperatures and higher moisture content. If moisture is minimal in the middle and
upper levels of the atmosphere, energy emitted from the atmosphere’s lower levels is not absorbed by
the middle and upper levels. The satellite will receive abundant amounts of energy in this moisture free
region and interpret the abundance of energy received as warmer and lower moisture content and
assign a dark gray shade.
Concentrated areas of very light to white gray shading signify large water vapor values that may be
associated with rain, thunderstorms and severe weather. Darker gray shades signify dry areas that
indicate sinking air typically found within high pressure regions (anticyclones or ridges).
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4.3.4 MICROWAVE IMAGERY
The Earth constantly emits microwave radiation. The Sun also emits microwave radiation, but at
amounts small compared to the visual output. Solar microwaves are not normally reflected by the Earth,
but are instead absorbed. Therefore, we can assume all radiation being received by the satellite sensor
in this frequency range is emitted by Earth. The advantage of microwave imagery is that diurnal
changes in radiance or effects of sun angle due to the rising and setting of the Sun do not impede
accurate interpretation.
Microwaves have longer wavelengths and lower frequencies which are usually measured in mm or cm.
Their frequency is in the GHz (billion cycles/sec) range. Microwave bands are usually categorized by
frequency. Most other electromagnetic spectrum bands meteorologists use are categorized by
wavelength. Because of the longer wavelength, the microwave imagery resolution is lower than visual
and infrared imagery. Typically, resolution is between 20 and 50 km for most products. On the plus side,
there is usually less attenuation in most microwave channels than in other bands. Microwaves
penetrate clouds and vegetation, making them ideal for surface monitoring.
Radiance is used to describe microwave radiation. Earth’s microwave emissions show tremendous
variance in radiance, more so than the conventional bands used by satellite sensors. Therefore,
brightness temperatures are used to measure microwave radiation and to differentiate between
features. Many surface and atmospheric features can be identified by a unique microwave radiance
signature. Radiance variables used in production of microwave imagery include frequency, polarization,
emissivity, transmissivity, and spatial uniformity.
4.3.4.1 Active vs. Passive Microwave Sensing
There are two kinds of microwave instruments in space: passive and active. “Active” refers to a sensing
strategy in which the satellite continually sends microwave pulses of energy toward the surface of the
earth. The most common active application for METOC is scatterometry, which provides ocean wind
speed and direction data (a vector quantity) as seen in Figure 4‐5. In this regard, “active” microwave
sensors are most like traditional radars, which send and receive microwaves from distant objects in
order to derive useful information. These instruments need an onboard source of power to generate
this microwave energy.
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Figure 4‐5. Active Quik Scat. Figure 4‐6. Passive TRMM.
(Source: University of Wisconsin)
“Passive” refers to a sensing strategy in which the satellite receives microwave energy naturally emitted
or scattered from the atmosphere and surface. These instruments have no power source. As
instruments, they are not as capable as “active” instruments. For example, most passive microwave
sensors can only produce oceanic wind speed, not direction, as displayed in Figure 4‐6. Notice in Figure
4‐5 the satellite‐derived product indicates wind direction and speed, a capability of an active sensor,
while in Figure 4‐6 only speed data is available from the passive microwave sensor. An advantage of
passive instruments is that they do not require an onboard power supply.
4.4 SATELLITE IMAGERY VIEWING CONSIDERATIONS
Learning Objective
Identify specific viewing considerations that must be considered when interpreting satellite imagery.
4.4.1 RESOLUTION
The word resolution is often used with respect to satellite image data. Usually, it refers to spatial
resolution, the size of the footprints, or pixels, that form an image. However, there are three other
kinds of resolution to consider as well.
4.4.1.1 Spatial Resolution
Spatial resolution is the extent of a sensors ability to detect and distinguish small objects and fine detail
and determines the size of a pixel in a raster image. Raster is simply a data structure that constructs a
graphical image by use of a rectangular grid comprised of pixels. The spatial resolution of an image is
based on the size of the field of view (FOV) measured at sub‐point. Sub‐point is the closest point on the
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Earth’s surface directly under the satellite sensor. This point is where resolution is highest on a satellite
image. Radiating outward from this point, the resolution gradually decreases (the FOV gradually
increases) due to the curvature of the Earth and the decreasing angle of incidence from the sensor to
the earth.
Satellite sensors designed to produce images of Earth, its oceans, and its atmosphere are very different
from the cameras used to take a photograph. They are more like a video camera, only much more
specialized. These scanning sensors are called radiometers, and instead of film, an electronic circuit
sensitive only to a small range of electromagnetic wavelengths measures the amount of energy that is
received. Satellites carry several different image sensors, each of which is sensitive to only a small band
of energy at a specific wavelength.
Radiometers scan across the surface of the Earth in consecutive scan lines along a path normal to the
direction of travel of the satellite. As the radiometer moves through a scan line, it very rapidly measures
energy levels for only a very small portion of the Earth at a time. Each individual energy measurement
will compose a pixel of the overall satellite image. The size of the area (FOV) scanned by the sensor
determines the spatial resolution of the overall image. Thus, the smaller the area scanned for each pixel,
the higher the spatial resolution. Some radiometers may scan an area as small as 0.5 km across (high
resolution), while others scan areas as large as 16 km (low resolution). When composed into an image,
smaller pixels allow the image to be much clearer and show greater detail. Clouds and land boundaries
appear better defined. If objects are smaller than the sensor resolution, the sensor averages the
brightness or temperature of the object with the background. Normally, the sensors aboard satellites
are able to provide better resolution for visual imagery than for infrared imagery. Also, low earth‐
orbiting satellites usually provide higher resolution capabilities than geostationary satellites due to their
close proximity to the Earth.
4.4.1.2 Spectral Resolution
Spectral resolution refers to the number of bands in the electromagnetic spectrum in which the
instrument can take measurements. A greater amount of channels means one can observe an increased
level of meteorological and oceanographic phenomena. For example, some channels are water vapor
absorption channels, meaning that they “mostly” detect water vapor in the atmosphere. Other
channels are “window” channels, meaning that the atmosphere is like a transparent window through
which it can see the surface of the earth. A greater amount of information is potentially derived from a
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data set with a higher number of bands. The different channels can be combined into “algorithms,”
which are like recipes for deriving the information sought.
4.4.1.3 Radiometric Resolution
Radiometric resolution refers to the sensitivity of the radiometer to small differences in the radiation
emitted from an observed object. The greater sensitivity an instrument has, the more detailed the
image it can produce for users.
4.4.1.4 Temporal Resolution
Temporal resolution is the frequency with which a satellite can revisit an area of interest and acquire a
new image. Geostationary satellites, seeing the same area as often as every 15 min, have higher
temporal resolution than low earth‐orbiting
satellites, which view the earth perhaps twice a day.
This is why geostationary satellite images can be
animated and low earth‐orbiting satellite images
cannot.
4.4.2 ATTENUATION
Attenuation is defined as the loss of energy due to
absorption and scattering of terrestrial radiation by
atmospheric elements. Long wave terrestrial Figure 4‐7. Aspects of attenuation.
(Source: PDC)
radiation released into the atmosphere is absorbed
by both the clouds and atmosphere itself. Absorption of terrestrial radiation is critical to warming our
atmosphere and sustaining life on Earth. Clouds and suspended particles in the atmosphere also scatter
this radiation. This process reduces the amount of energy reaching the satellite sensor so cloud tops
appear colder, and hence higher, than they actually are. This affects IR and WV imagery only and is the
principle behind water vapor imagery.
The amount of attenuation depends upon the viewing angle of the satellite, the depth of the
atmosphere the radiation must travel through, the height of the cloud tops (the lower the cloud tops,
the greater the attenuation), and the amount of water vapor in the troposphere as shown in Figure 4‐7.
Attenuation is greatest in the tropics due to a deep layer of moisture, and at the edges of the earth disk
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since the oblique (shallow) viewing angle increases the amount of atmosphere through which the
energy must travel.
4.4.3 CONTAMINATION
Contamination occurs when energy reaches the
satellite sensor from two or more sources. This can
occur with visual or infrared imagery. The amount of
contamination depends on two things: the spacing of
the cloud elements and the thickness of the cloud
layer or layers, as seen in Figure 4‐8. One example
would be in a stratocumulus field, when the land or
Figure 4‐8. Contamination. (Source: PDC)
ocean surface is evident between cloud elements.
Another would be when the energy from the warm Earth or a low cloud deck bleeds through a thin,
upper‐level cloud deck causing the thin upper‐level cloud layer to appear warmer and lower. Likewise,
on a visual image, when higher clouds are thin enough, the Earth's surface or lower clouds can be seen
through the clouds. In all three examples, the sensor averages the temperature/ brightness of the two
objects. This renders inaccurate temperature/brightness values of both objects and can make clouds
appear lower than they actually are.
4.4.4 FORESHORTENING
Foreshortening is defined as a loss of resolution caused by an oblique viewing angle. This results in
distortion of the image predominately near the edge of the Earth's surface, but can occur on any type of
satellite imagery. When the sensor looks at the
Earth at sub‐point, it is looking directly down at
the top of the cloud. However, remember, as
discussed earlier, that as we expand outward from
sub‐point, the resolution gradually decreases.
This decrease in resolution is caused by increasing
the obliquity of the viewing angle. Hence,
expanding outward from sub‐point, the sensor
Figure 4‐9. Error of parallax. (Source: PDC)
goes from looking at the top of the cloud to
looking more and more at the side of the cloud. The result is an overestimation of cloud coverage.
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Scattered to broken cloud decks appear to be overcast near the edges of the globe. The clouds will also
appear farther away on the global grid than they actually are. When not directly looking down at the
top of an object, the reading or position of the object will be off from its actual reading or position which
is called the error of parallax and is the cause of foreshortening in satellite imagery, as shown in Figure
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4.4.5 SUN ANGLE
Often, visual images taken early or late in the day will include the sunrise‐sunset line known as the
terminator. This is the actual dividing line between day and night on the Earth. In addition, the low sun
angle can enhance cloud top texture due to shadows. This can be misleading in interpreting the
development of convective activity.
4.4.6 LATITUDE
Typically in the troposphere, if two features are at the same altitude, but different latitudes, the
northern feature will appear colder due to closer proximity to the pole. This can cause difficulty in gray
shade interpretation and correct identification of cloud types. For example, fog over Maine usually
appears colder, hence higher in the atmosphere, than fog over Florida.
4.4.7 SUN GLINT
Sun glint occurs in visual imagery and is caused by the reflection of the sun's rays directly off a water
surface into the satellite sensor. Sun glint patterns are circular in shape on geostationary satellite
imagery and linear in shape on low earth‐orbiting imagery. Strong sun glint typically occurs when the
water surface is relatively calm and the winds are light. Diffuse sun glint patterns can also occur,
indicating higher wind speeds and higher sea states. The larger and more diffuse the pattern, the higher
the wind speed and hence, the sea/swell waves. Sun glint can also be seen over land masses in the
tropics as sunlight reflects off the relatively calm water surfaces of rivers, bays, and archipelagic waters.
4.5 TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITES
Learning Objective
Describe geostationary and low‐earth orbiting imaging and identify specific meteorological satellite
capabilities.
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4.5.1 GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITES
Geostationary satellites orbit the Earth at an altitude of approximately 22,300 miles (35,800 km) above
the Equator and travel at the same angular velocity as the Earth. In order to stay over the same
geographical location, the satellite axis of rotation needs to be parallel to the Earth’s axis . The only way
the satellite can do this is to orbit directly over the equator. This type of orbit, known as a
geosynchronous orbit, allows frequent monitoring of the same portion of the Earth. A succession of
photographs from these satellites can be animated in sequence to produce a time‐lapse motion loop
showing cloud movement. This allows forecasters to monitor the progress of large weather systems
such as fronts, storm complexes, and hurricanes. Wind direction and speed can also be determined by
monitoring cloud movement.
Some of the advantages of geostationary satellites are spatial and temporal resolution. Spatial
resolution means that a wide area of the earth is being viewed. With the exception of the poles,
geostationary satellites have an unmatched view of the Earth. The imagery from these satellites covers
140° of longitude and latitude, resulting in approximately 120° longitude and latitude of useful data.
The other 20˚ is considered mostly useless due to foreshortening. This limits the area of effective
coverage to around one quarter of the earth’s surface from near 60N to 60S, and 60east and west of
sub‐point. Polar Regions are not covered and resolution decreases as you move out from sub‐point.
Temporal resolution refers to the fact that these satellites view their portion of the Earth continuously.
Most geostationary satellites produce an image every half‐hour at a minimum. Currently, there are five
different geostationary satellite missions (U.S., Europe, India, Japan, and China) in space providing global
atmospheric coverage for specified regions of the Earth. Imagery from each of the satellites covering
the different regions of the globe can be obtained on the Internet at http://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/sat‐
products.html.
4.5.1.1 Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES)
GOES satellites are a mainstay of weather forecasting in the United States and are the backbone of
short‐term forecasting. The real‐time weather data gathered by GOES satellites, combined with data
from weather surveillance radar (WSR‐88D), and automated surface observing systems tremendously
aid weather forecasters in providing warnings of thunderstorms, winter storms, flash floods, hurricanes,
and other severe weather. These warnings help to save lives and preserve property.
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There are four GOES currently in orbit. GOES‐10, stationed over 60° west, provides 24‐hour coverage of
South America. GOES‐11 is stationed over 135° west and is the primary western U.S. satellite. Coverage
from GOES‐11 extends from middle America westward to near the dateline in the Pacific ocean, and
north and south to around 60° latitude. GOES‐12 is stationed over 75° west and provides 24‐hour
coverage for the eastern portion of the U.S. to nearly the west coast of Africa and north and south to
around 60° latitude. GOES‐13 is first of the new generation of GOES and is stationed over 105° west.
GOES‐13 currently serves as a backup to GOES‐11 and 12.
Improvements in technology have allowed us to take atmospheric soundings with the GOES‐11 and 12
and the current GOES satellites have a separate imager and sounder that allow them to continuously
scan and sample the atmosphere without one interfering with the other. Other improvements include
three‐axis stabilization and enhanced signal to noise capability. Three‐axis stabilization is a significant
improvement over the spin scan sensors. Three‐axis stabilization allows the satellite to keep sensors
continuously aimed at the earth instead of wasting time looking out into space. The improved signal‐to‐
noise function allows for more accurate sensing and improved imaging.
4.5.2 LOW‐EARTH ORBITING (LEO) SATELLITES
When a satellite circles close to Earth, we say it is in Low Earth Orbit (LEO). Unlike geostationary
satellites, which stay at one place with respect to the Earth, low earth orbiting satellites are placed in
sun‐synchronous orbit , imaging as they go. LEO satellites carry microwave instruments in addition to
visible and infrared imagers. Geostationary satellites are too far away from the Earth to carry
microwave instruments using today’s technology. However, since low earth orbiters fly at a low altitude,
their spatial resolutions are generally superior to geostationary satellites. Thus, they produce detailed
images in a much narrower swath.
Satellites in low earth orbit are just 200 ‐ 500 miles (320 ‐ 800 kilometers) high. Because they orbit so
close to Earth, they travel very fast so gravity does not pull them into the atmosphere. They can circle
the Earth in about two hour, allowing them to provide global coverage every 12 hours. The path width
varies with latitude, and is about 27 at the equator. All of these factors are dependent upon the height
of the orbit above the Earth’s surface.
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Figure 4‐10. Coverage shift due to Earth’s rotation. (Source: COMET)
Sometimes these satellites are called polar‐orbiting satellites, but this is somewhat of a misnomer.
Polar‐orbiting satellites closely parallel the Earth's meridian lines, and passes over the north and south
poles with each revolution. As the earth rotates to the east beneath the satellite, each satellite pass
monitors an area to the west of the previous pass. Earth rotates about 25.4 to the east in the time it
takes the satellite to make an orbit. Because of this, each pass will be 25.4 west of the previous pass,
as shown in Figure 4‐10. These passes can be pieced together to produce a picture of a larger area.
Many LEOs cross near the poles but do not cross directly over the poles. Some LEOs, like TRMM, cover
only tropical areas and never come near the poles. While we use the term “polar orbiters” to refer to
satellites orbiting near the poles, low earth orbiting (LEO) is a more general term that applies to all types
of low earth orbiting satellites.
LEO satellites are placed in orbits whose inclination angles are nearly perpendicular to the earth's
equatorial plane. Polar Operational Environmental Satellites (POES) are a special case of low earth
orbiting satellites as they orbit the Earth at an altitude of about 450 nm. These satellites rotate around
the Earth in an almost north‐south track and come within a few degrees of the poles in every orbit. This
is how polar orbiters got their name. They pass over any particular spot on the earth's surface either
moving south to north (an ascending pass or node) or north to south (a descending pass or node).
Most areas on Earth can receive two POES passes per day, one ascending and one descending. However,
the number of passes you are able to catch increases as you increase latitude. This gives the Polar
Regions a significant advantage in coverage than the equatorial areas, with access to eight or more
passes per day. Because the orbital plane of the satellite maintains a near constant angle with the sun,
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the satellite will pass over the same spot on earth about the same time every day. This is referred to as
a sun‐synchronous orbit, as shown in Figure 4‐11.
Figure 4‐11. Sun‐synchronous orbit. (Source: NASA)
4.5.2.1 Polar Operational Environmental Satellite (POES)
NOAA TIROS‐N National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) satellites are managed by the
National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service (NESDIS), and form the Polar Operational
Environmental Satellite (POES) system.
Because of the polar orbiting nature of the NOAA TIROS‐N satellites, these satellites are able to collect
global data on a daily basis for a variety of land, ocean, and atmospheric applications via the AVHRR,
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer imager. The AVHRR is characterized by a very wide field of
observation, nearly 2700 km and has a spatial resolution of 1.1 km, and utilizes five channels in the
visible, near infrared, mid‐infrared and thermal infrared spectral bands. NOAA satellites also carry the
TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder (TOVS) that is designed to study the vertical temperature and
atmospheric chemical composition of the atmosphere. TOVS is comprised of 3 sensor sub‐assemblies
including the HIRS, High‐resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder, MSU, Microwave Sounding Unit, and
SSU, Stratospheric Sounding Unit. The 3 sensors are specifically designed for studying the profiles of
water vapor, temperature, and total atmospheric ozone content. Data from the TIROS‐N series supports
a broad range of environmental monitoring applications including weather analysis and forecasting,
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climate research and prediction, global sea surface temperature measurements, atmospheric soundings
of temperature and humidity, ocean dynamics research, volcanic eruption monitoring, forest fire
detection, global vegetation analysis, search and rescue, and many other applications. The current
setup, a morning and afternoon satellite, provides global coverage over each region of the earth four
times daily. Polar orbiting satellites are defined by the ascending (north to south) node time, which is
the local time when the satellite crosses the equator. There are currently 6 satellites in orbit: NOAA‐15
and 16 serve as the AM and PM secondary satellites respectively; NOAA‐17 serves as the AM backup,
NOAA‐18 serves as the PM primary, and NOAA‐19 is currently undergoing operational verification.
NOAA satellites The sixth satellite is called METOP‐A, was developed by a consortium of European
companies, and is part of a new European undertaking to provide weather data services used to monitor
climate and improve weather forecasts. METOP‐A serves as the AM primary satellite.
4.5.2.2 Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP)
Since the mid‐1960's, when the Department of Defense (DoD) initiated the Defense Meteorological
Satellite Program (DMSP), low earth orbiting satellites provided the military with important
environmental information. The DMSP satellites "see" such environmental features as clouds, bodies of
water, snow, fire, and pollution in the visual and infrared spectra. Scanning radiometers record
information which can help determine cloud type and height, land and surface water temperatures,
water currents, ocean surface features, ice, and snow. Communicated to ground‐based terminals, the
data is processed, interpreted by meteorologists, and ultimately used in planning and conducting U.S.
military operations worldwide.
There are currently 6 DMSP satellites in orbit. F‐12 is used to provide tactical data, F‐13, 14, and 15 are
secondary satellites, while F‐16 and 17 serve as primary satellites. Each DMSP satellite has a 101 minute,
sun‐synchronous, near‐polar orbit at an altitude of 830 km above the surface of the earth. The visible
and infrared sensors collect images across a 3000 km swath, providing global coverage twice per day.
The combination of day/night and dawn/dusk satellites allows monitoring of global information every 6
hours. The microwave imager (MI) and sounders (T1, T2) cover one half the width of the visible and
infrared swath. These instruments cover the polar regions at least twice and the equatorial region once
per day.
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4.5.2.3 The National Polar‐orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS)
NPOESS is the next generation of low earth orbiting environmental satellites. The NPOESS will circle the
Earth approximately once every 100 minutes. During these rotations, the NPOESS will provide global
coverage, monitor environmental conditions, and collect, disseminate and process data about the
Earth’s weather, atmosphere, oceans, land, and near‐space environment.
NPOESS will have 5 major sensors on board. The MIS (Microwave Imager/Sounder, will perform key
measurements for the NPOESS system to include soil moisture and sea surface winds by collecting global
microwave radiometry and sounding data. ATMS, Advanced Technology Microwave Sounder, will
operate in conjunction with the Cross‐track Infrared Sounder (CrIS) to profile atmospheric temperature
and moisture. CrIS, in conjunction with the ATMS, will collect atmospheric data to permit the
calculation of temperature and moisture profiles at high temporal resolution. OMPS, Ozone Mapping
and Profiler Suite, will monitor ozone from space. And finally, VIIRS, the Visible/Infrared
Imager/Radiometer Suite will collect visible and infrared imagery and radiometric data.
NPOESS is being developed under an historic agreement among civil, scientific and military communities
and will eventually replace both POES and DMSP.
4.5.2.4 Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM)
The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) is a joint mission between NASA and the National
Space Development Agency (NASDA) of Japan. TRMM is a research satellite designed to help our
understanding of the water cycle in the atmosphere. By covering the tropical and semi‐tropical regions
of the Earth, TRMM provides much needed data on rainfall and the heat release associated with rainfall.
This helps understand the interactions between water vapor, clouds and precipitation, which are central
to regulating the earth’s climate. The TRMM satellite carries five instruments; the first space borne
Precipitation Radar (PR), a Visible and Infrared Scanner (VIRS), a Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS), a Cloud
and Earth Radiant Energy System (CERES), and the TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI). The sensors allow
us to measure the surface rain rate, atmospheric liquid water, as well as “dissect” tropical cyclones at
various levels by using microwave frequencies.
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4.6 CLOUD AND NON‐CLOUD FEATURE IDENTIFICATION
4.6.1 Satellite Imagery Interpretation
When interpreting satellite imagery, it is important to ensure you look at the whole image to determine
what the feature is and how it fits into the synoptic situation. Do not get tunnel vision and just look at
one feature. Ensure different types of imagery (VIS, IR, WV, and/or microwave) are used together to
take advantage of each of their unique properties. Using the different types of imagery together will
usually eliminate several obstacles to accurate interpretation and help narrow identification down to
one specific feature. Visual imagery will define small‐scale features such as terrain, cloud shadows,
texture, and small low clouds. Infrared imagery makes relative cloud height analysis possible, and thus,
specific cloud types. To assist with satellite interpretation at night when no visual imagery is available,
compare the last visible and infrared images of the day. Identify each feature evident on visible imagery
and determine how those features are represented in infrared imagery. Once you have identified each
feature in infrared imagery, using the visible imagery as a tool, follow those features using infrared
imagery throughout the night, keeping in mind how they appeared on the last visible image of the day.
Always use an atlas or local terrain map when interpreting the imagery. This ensures that you do not
mistake terrain features, such as snow on mountaintops, for clouds.
4.6.1.1 Cloud Type
The three designated cloud types are cumuliform, stratiform, and cirriform. Understanding how each of
these appear in imagery can help predict the type of precipitation, if any, a particular region may be or
will be receiving. Cumuliform clouds produce showery precipitation, while stratiform clouds produce
intermittent to continuous precipitation. Cirriform clouds form in the upper levels of the atmosphere
and are composed mostly of ice crystals. Any precipitation falling from them typically evaporates before
hitting the surface of the Earth.
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4.6.1.2 Cloud Element
A cloud element is the smallest distinguishable
unit in a cloud mass that can be displayed in a
satellite image and is determined by the spatial
resolution of the sensor). See Figure 4‐12.
Individual cloud elements
Figure 4‐12. Cloud elements. (Source: NOAA) 4.6.1.3 Cloud Fingers
These are narrow cloud bands, less than one degree
latitude in width, which develop as a result of low‐level
Arrows represent
convergence. These are found in the warm sector streamlines
indicating wind
ahead of a cold front. See Figure 4‐13. direction.
4.6.1.4 Cloud Streets
Cloud streets are composed of a series of aligned
Figure 4‐13. Cloud fingers.
individual cloud “elements” that are not (Source: NOAA)
interconnected. Cumuliform clouds will organize into lines
parallel to the low‐level wind direction as seen in Figure 4‐
14, may be curved or form in straight lines, and are usually
Arrow indicates evenly spaced. Cloud streets usually form when the low‐
wind direction.
levels of the atmosphere are unstable, but descending air
(subsidence) forms a cap and limits vertical extent of cloud
development.
Figure 4‐14. Cloud streets.
(Source: NOAA) 4.6.1.5 Cloud Lines
A cloud line is much like cloud streets except the elements are connected and have a general width of
less than 1 degree latitude. Cloud lines are most predominant over tropical oceans but are observed at
all latitudes. This cloud formation primarily develops off the east coasts of continents where a
continental polar air mass moves over warmer waters during the winter time. It can occasionally form
over land in the right conditions. Cloud line elements are connected, while cloud street elements are
not connected. The cloud lines outline the low‐level wind direction.
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4.6.1.6 Cloud Shield
These are large extensive, comma shaped cloud areas most commonly associated with large‐scale
synoptic systems. Cloud shields can exist separately from large scale systems, but should be watched
for development.
4.6.2 Cloud Identification
The low cloud etage extends from the Earth’s surface up to 6,500 feet. Clouds that develop within this
range can have a significant impact on flying operations. The middle cloud etage extends from 6,500
feet to anywhere between 18,000 feet and 22,000 feet, depending on latitude. These clouds are
sometimes indicators of storm systems moving into the area. The high cloud etage extends anywhere
from 18,000 feet to 22,000 feet and above, depending on latitude. Because the air at these elevations is
quite cold and "dry," high clouds are composed almost exclusively of ice crystals and are usually rather
thin.
4.6.2.1 Fog and Stratus (ST)
Fog and stratus layers appear smooth, fairly uniform in area and slightly gray or milky in imagery. In
visible imagery. On VIS imagery, fog/stratus appears white to light gray in a uniform sheet with little
texture as seen in Figure 4‐15 over eastern Kentucky, West Virginia, and western New York. Also in
Figure 4‐15, notice on infrared imagery, fog is difficult, if not impossible to interpret due to the low
contrast in temperature between the earth’s surface and the warm temperatures of the fog. Continuing
in Figure 4‐15, water vapor imagery is a poor tool to use for fog and stratus since this type of imagery
detects moisture only in the mid and upper levels of the atmosphere. Water vapor imagery displays a
dark region through the area of stations reporting fog. If terrain features penetrate the cloud top, fog
and stratus will have sharp boundaries at these points. In mountainous or hilly terrain, fog and stratus
in small valleys often have a branching or vein‐like appearance called a dendritic pattern as seen in
Figure 4‐16
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IR VIS
WV SFC
Figure 4‐15. VIS image of fog/stratus Figure 4‐16. Dendritic Pattern
(Source: NOAA) (Source: NOAA)
4.6.2.2 Stratocumulus (SC)
Stratocumulus forms due to a shallow layer of instability in the low levels with a stable atmosphere aloft,
as shown in Figure 4‐17. On visible imagery, stratocumulus appears as continuous cloud sheets
composed of parallel rolls or cellular elements. It will appear light gray to white with a textured look, as
seen in Figure 4‐18 over northern Kansas, Nebraska, and Iowa. On infrared imagery, it appears dark gray,
indicating warm temperatures, as seen in Figure 4‐19. The cellular or textured appearance evident in
visible imagery is not observed on infrared imagery due to the lower resolution of the IR sensor and
contamination.
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Stable Aloft
Stable air suppresses vertical
development, causing a
flattened cloud.
Figure 4‐18. VIS image of SC. Figure 4‐19. IR image of SC.
(Source: NOAA) (Source: NOAA)
4.6.2.3 Cumulus (CU)
On visible imagery, cumulus appears as a small white cloud usually existing within a field of unorganized
"popcorn" clouds, as seen in Figure 4‐20 over the Southeastern United States. Cumulus may appear
grayer, at times, if not of sufficient vertical extent to eliminate all energy emitted from below reaching
the satellite sensor. On infrared imagery, individual cloud elements usually are not discernible since
they are smaller than the resolution of the sensor, as seen in Figure 4‐21 over the same area. Large
Figure 4‐20. VIS image of cumulus. Figure 4‐21. IR image of cumulus.
(Source: NOAA)
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concentrated areas of cumulus are usually discernible and they will appear as dark gray since the cloud
temperature is averaged with the warmer temperature of the underlying surface around the clouds.
More vertically developed cumulus clouds within the field will assist greatly in identification on infrared.
4.6.2.4 Cumulonimbus (CB)
Cumulonimbus appear bright white on visible imagery, due to their high albedo, with a round or
elongated anvil plume as seen in Figure 4‐22 over east‐central Africa. They have a sharp upstream cloud
edge and a thin, diffuse anvil, which spreads out downstream.
Figure 4‐22. VIS image of CB. Figure 4‐23. IR image of CB.
(Source: NOAA)
On infrared imagery cumulonimbus appear bright white even in un‐enhanced imagery, as seen in Figure
4‐23. With enhancement, step contouring will help identify cells. A tight gray shade or color‐enhanced
gradient is often present on the upstream edge of the anvil cirrus and will loosen rapidly downstream.
This tight gradient indicates strong updrafts resisting the
upper level flow. Individual updraft cells known as
overshooting tops are often visible as a bulge above the
otherwise smooth anvil top. Overshooting tops
normally indicate severe weather below the
cumulonimbus. They may also cast shadows on lower
cloud decks if the sun angle is low as seen in Figure 4‐24
On water vapor imagery, cumulonimbus appear as a
Figure 4‐24. Overshooting Tops
bright white area in a region of darker shades, as viewed
in Figure 4‐25. Cumulonimbus anvils are normally the brightest features on a water vapor image. Often
there is a darkening upwind of a severe thunderstorm. This indication of strong subsidence implies
strong upward vertical motion nearby.
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4.6.2.5 Stratocumulus Lines
Stratocumulus elements form in areas of low‐level
instability, which is caused by air‐sea temperature
differences. The lines are created by the strong vertical
wind shear and an inversion, which caps the vertical
development of the cloud. Stratocumulus appear on
visible imagery as light gray to white depending on the
Figure 4‐25. WV image of CB. amount of contamination. The smallest cells are
(Source: NOAA)
normally on the upstream side of the line. The upstream
edge of the clouds may conform to the coastline if the
air is destabilizing because it is moving out over
warmer water. A cloud‐free area usually exists
between the coast and where the first elements form.
The distance between the coast and the first element
is a function of how much moisture exists in the air
mass before it moves out over the water and wind
speed, as seen in Figure 4‐26. On infrared imagery,
they appear medium to dark gray and the individual
Figure 4‐26. Stratocumulus lines off
lines may or may not be identifiable depending on the East Coast of U.S. (Source: NOAA)
sensor resolution.
4.6.2.6 Closed‐cell Stratocumulus
Closed‐cell stratocumulus are typically
found in large sheets associated with
anticyclonic flow in the stable area of the
subtropical high over oceanic regions.
Cloud elements are typically anywhere
from 20‐100 km in width with a very small
gap existing between each element, as
seen in Figure 4‐27, producing a quilt‐like
Figure 4‐27. Large Scale Descending Air Motion.
(Source: PDC) look to the pattern which helps to easily
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identify it. The clouds are often found in the southeast, southern, and southwestern peripheries of
surface high‐pressure centers.
Figure 4‐28. VIS image of closed‐cell SC. Figure 4‐29. IR image of closed‐cell SC.
(Imagery source: NOAA)
They appear on visible imagery, as seen in Figure 4‐28 over the Pacific Ocean off the coast of California,
as white in the center and medium gray to white on the edges. Due to sensor resolution, closed‐cell
stratocumulus will usually appear similar to stratus with a very uniform, medium to dark gray shade on
infrared imagery, as seen in Figure 4‐29. Notice the cloud form along the California coastline, this is not
stratocumulus, but fog/stratus but on infrared imagery, the difference is difficult to discern. The
stratocumulus forms further out over the ocean, away from the cold California Current, over areas
where the water is much warmer and conducive to the development of stratocumulus.
4.6.2.7 Open‐cell Cumulus
Open‐cell cumulus clouds which
form over water behind mid‐
latitude cyclones and are caused by
the resulting instability of cold‐air
advection over warmer water.
There is typically anywhere from a
20 km to 100 km gap between
cloud elements, as seen in Figure 4‐
30. There is usually a sharp
transition between open‐ and Figure 4‐30. Vertical slice of open‐cell cumulus.
closed‐cell clouds indicating a (Source: PDC)
separation between stable and unstable air in the colder air to the rear of a cold front.
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On visible imagery, open‐cell cumulus appear as open and circular ringlets of cumulus with clear centers,
as viewed in Figure 4‐31 over the North Pacific Ocean. In strong low‐level winds, these ringlets will
become distorted into lines and individual elements may become difficult to detect due to sensor
resolution. On infrared imagery, they appear medium to dark gray due to sensor resolution and
contamination as viewed in Figure 4‐32. Even though open‐cell cumulus are not capped and grow to
greater vertical extent than closed‐cell stratocumulus, open‐cell cumulus may appear warmer due to
contamination.
Figure 4‐31. VIS image of open‐cell cumulus. Figure 4‐32. IR image of open‐cell cumulus.
(Visual and Infrared Imagery Source: NOAA)
4.6.2.8 Enhanced Cumulus
These tell‐tale clouds are found in an area of open‐cell
cumulus and will appear more vertically developed
than the remainder of the open cell cumulus field, as
depicted in Figure 4‐33. In visible imagery, they appear
similar to towering cumulus or small cumulonimbus
clouds while the elements comprising the feature will
form into a coma shape indicating a vorticity maximum
in the mid‐levels of the atmosphere. On infrared
Figure 4‐33. Enhanced cumulus. (Source: PDC)
imagery, enhanced cumulus appears similar to towering
cumulus or small cumulonimbus and the comma shape is often easiest to detect in the colder cloud tops.
4.6.2.9 Actiniform Clouds
Actiniform clouds are the skeletal remains of closed‐cell stratocumulus, as viewed in Figures 34 and 35.
They appear similar to open‐cell cumulus, but are found along the western edge of the closed‐cell
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stratocumulus field or sometimes developing in the middle of the stratocumulus field on the southern
side of the high, located well within the warm air mass. On visible imagery, they appear light gray due
to contamination, often with a fish bone or chicken wire appearance. Actiniform are slightly warmer on
infrared imagery so will appear medium to dark gray; slightly grayer than open‐cell cumulus, and
individual elements are not identifiable. If too much contamination occurs, the area will appear as a
dark spot or hole in the stratocumulus field.
Figure 4‐34. Close‐up of actiniform clouds Figure 4‐35. Actiniform clouds west of SC field.
(Imagery Source: NOAA)
4.6.2.10 Rope Clouds
A rope cloud is composed of cumulus or
towering cumulus clouds which are organized
into a line at the trailing edge of an oceanic cold
front, and depicts the exact location of that
surface cold front. On visible imagery, it appears
as a very narrow line of cumuliform clouds and is
best identified by observing the rope‐like
configuration, as seen in Figure 4‐36 just off the
west coast of Africa. On infrared imagery, the
rope cloud formation is somewhat difficult to
detect due to sensor resolution. If detected, it
Figure 4‐36. Rope cloud associated with cold front.
will appear as a thin, dark gray line.
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4.6.2.11 Arc Clouds
A curved line of cumulus clouds formed due to a
thunderstorm downdraft of cold air, as depicted in
Figures 37 and 38. As the cold air downdraft of a
Figure 4‐37. Top‐down view of arc cloud.
cumulonimbus spreads out in all directions, it acts
as a pseudo‐cold front and displaces the relatively
warmer air at the surface forming clouds at the
lifting condensation level (LCL). On visible imagery
an arc clouds appears similar to a rope cloud Figure 4‐38. Side‐view of arc cloud.
except that the parent thunderstorm is normally still in the vicinity on the concave side of the arc cloud.
On infrared imagery they may be undetectable depending on their vertical extent and sensor resolution.
4.6.2.12 Altostratus and Nimbostratus (AS/NS)
Altostratus and nimbostratus are extensive sheets of
stratiform cloudiness found in the mid‐layers. These
clouds are found in the eastern portion of surface cyclones,
ahead of warm fronts, and on the leading edge of frontal
systems. These clouds are often masked by cirrostratus
shields in active regions of comma cloud systems, as
depicted by the red arrows in Figure 4‐39. On visible
imagery, they will appear as bright white and uniform,
normally covering extensive areas. Shadows cast on or by
the AS/NS from high clouds will help distinguish them from
Figure 4‐39. AS/NS covered by cloud shield. CS or ST. On infrared imagery, they appear in uniform gray
(Source: NOAA)
shades ranging from medium gray to light gray and
depending on the enhancement curve used and the thickness of the layer, may appear as an enhanced
region of very light gray to white.
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4.6.2.13 Altocumulus (AC)
Often appear on visible imagery as a bright white cloud sheet with a textured appearance. On infrared
imagery, altocumulus may appear similar to altostratus or nimbostratus due to sensor resolution.
4.6.2.14 Altocumulus Standing Lenticular (ACSL)
Also known as mountain wave clouds, they form when strong
mid‐level winds flow nearly perpendicular to a mountain
range in a stable atmosphere, as depicted in Figure 4‐40.
These clouds are an indicator of moderate to extreme
turbulence, depending on their proximity to the mountain
range. On visible imagery, they are light gray to white with a
Figure 4‐40. Formation of ACSL.
washboard (banded) (Source: University of Wisconsin)
appearance, as viewed in Figure 4‐41. On infrared imagery,
they range from medium gray to white. Individual elements
are often too small to be detected by the infrared sensor.
4.6.2.15 Cirrus (CI)
Thin cirrus is very difficult to detect on visible imagery due to
contamination from below, as depicted in Figure 4‐42 by the
Figure 4‐41. Altocumulus standing
lenticular. (Source: NOAA) red arrow. Dense cirrus looks like patches, streaks, or bands,
and has a milky appearance. On infrared imagery, thin cirrus is normally contaminated, but is cold
enough to be discernible over the warm background, as seen in the same area on Figure 4‐43 over the
Atlantic Ocean. Dense cirrus appears cold. On water vapor imagery, it ranges from light gray to bright
white, as viewed in Figure 4‐44 over the same area, depending on cloud thickness.
4.6.2.16 Cirrostratus (CS)
Cirrostratus is a shield of continuous, variably dense clouds covering an extensive area. On visible
imagery, it will appear bright white, as seen in Figure 4‐45 associated with the low‐pressure center over
the North Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Alaska. It is thick and uniform except along the edges where it
becomes thin and wispy. On infrared imagery, it will appear as a uniform white shade, as viewed in
Figure 4‐46 with the same system, except at the edges where contamination may occur.
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Figure 4‐41. VIS image of cirrus Figure 4‐42. IR image of cirrus.
Figure 4‐43. WV image of cirrus. Figure 4‐44. VIS image of CS.
Figure 4‐45. IR image of CS. Figure 4‐46. WV image of CS.
(Source of all Imagery: NOAA)
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In enhanced infrared imagery, with a specifically designed temperature correlated gray scale, the
assistant forecaster and forecaster can determine cloud heights by comparing gray scale shades to
upper level charts. In water vapor imagery, it will show up as bright white, as viewed in Figure 4‐47.
Outside of CBs, cirrostratus are normally the coldest cloud tops.
4.6.2.17 Cirrocumulus (CC)
Due to spacing and size of cirrocumulus, this cloud type may not readily show up on visible imagery due
to extensive contamination. Infrared imagery may serve as the better tool to identify cirrocumulus due
to their very cold temperatures.
4.6.2.18 Cirrus Streaks
Cirrus streaks are small isolated patches of cirrus generally occurring away from other clouds. They are
elongated by the upper wind flow, develop where there is insufficient moisture for an entire cirrus
shield to form, and are associated with jet stream maximums. On visible imagery, as shown in Figure 4‐
48 over South Dakota, they are very difficult to discern because they are highly contaminated from
below. On infrared imagery a cirrus streak will appear medium gray to white but may still suffer a
degree of contamination as evidenced in Figure 4‐49. In water vapor imagery, cirrus streaks will appear
light gray to white and you may be able to determine curvature associated with the cirrus streak
associate with a vorticity maximum. Cirrus streaks in a water vapor image can be interpreted in Figure
4‐50.
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4.6.2.19 Transverse Bands
This cloud formation consists of irregularly spaced,
parallel bands of thin cirrus filaments and strands
oriented perpendicular to the wind flow, as shown in
Figure 4‐51 over Northern Mexico. Wind speeds in
transverse bands are usually greater than 80 knots.
Transverse bands are most often associated with the
subtropical jet.
Figure 51. Transverse Banding Over Mexico.
4.6.2.20 Lee‐of‐the‐Mountain Cirrus
(Source: NOAA)
This cloud formation is a multi‐layered cirrus cloud
shield that occurs on the leeside of a mountain range. A sharp, stationary, upstream cloud edge along
the ridgeline indicates the presence of standing mountain wave clouds. It tends to form late at night
when a nocturnal inversion develops over the
mountains and dissipates during the afternoon when
the inversion is broken by daytime heating. The
occurrence of lee‐of‐the mountain cirrus seems
highly dependent upon the presence of a high‐level
moisture source in a strong wind zone. On visible
imagery, it appears as bright white and as thick as
cirrostratus, with a sharp edge along the mountain
ridgeline, upwind, becoming more diffuse downwind
where contamination can become significant. On
Figure 4‐52. Lee of the mountain CI.
infrared imagery, it appears bright white, as shown (Source: NOAA)
in Figure 4‐52, east of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. On water vapor imagery, they appear bright
white extending downstream from the mountains. A dark band, which extends upstream and
downstream from the mountains on the northern edge of this cloud formation, indicates the position of
the polar front jet.
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Figure 4‐53. Formation of billow clouds. (Source: University of Wisconsin)
4.6.2.21 Billow Clouds
These clouds are regularly spaced clouds that advect with the wind and usually only last for a few
minutes at a time. They are caused by vertical wind shear due to stronger winds aloft and can occur in
the mid to upper levels of the atmosphere, as depicted in Figure 4‐53. Generally, billow clouds look very
similar to ACSL clouds, although spacing tends to be less between the billow clouds than with the ACSL
clouds. On visible imagery, they appear as light gray to white with a washboard appearance and will
show slight movement. Contamination is often a problem due to the small spacing between the
elements. On infrared imagery, their appearance ranges from medium gray to white. Individual
elements are often too small to be detected by the infrared sensor.
4.6.2.22 Anvil Cirrus
This cloud formation is exhaust from the
top of a thunderstorm that forms a sharp
upwind edge with a fuzzy, diffuse
downstream edge. Blow‐off from
numerous cells may form an extensive
cirrostratus canopy. On visible imagery,
the anvil will appear as bright white on the
upstream edge and gradually darken
downstream as it thins, as seen on Figure
4‐54. (Two well‐defined arc clouds are Figure 4‐54. VIS image of anvil cirrus. (Source: NOAA)
also visible on Figure 4‐54.) Generally,
anvil cirrus appears very smooth except when overshooting tops are present. On infrared imagery, it
will appear as bright white patches and on enhanced infrared imagery, gray shade contouring will assist
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in determining cloud height by again comparing gray shades to the image temperature scale, then
determining at what level of the atmosphere that temperature exists.
4.6.3 NON‐CLOUD FEATURES
In addition to the several different cloud features, non‐cloud features are also predominant and
important to a forecaster. In some ways, non‐cloud features can be confused with cloud features, so it
is important to understand what the telltale signs are separating the two.
4.6.3.1 Snow
Snow covered ground appears on visible imagery better than
infrared imagery because of the brightness contrast between
the reflective snowfield and the surrounding bare ground.
Snow has a dendritic (vein‐like) pattern in mountain areas, as
viewed in Figure 4‐55 over the Sierra Nevada Mountains.
Snow fields over flat
regions can be
Figure 4‐55. Dendritic snow pattern. identified by the
(Source: NOAA)
snow‐free rivers and
lakes and also tend to be long, narrow, and smooth with sharp
edges, as seen in Figure 4‐56 over Illinois. Snow will also
exhibit a mottled (blotchy) appearance in forested areas, as
seen in Figure 4‐57 over central Mississippi. It will be bright
Figure 4‐56. Snow fields over Illinois.
white in the (Source: NOAA)
plains and decrease brightness with increasing vegetation
density and height. On infrared imagery, fresh snow will
often appear colder than surrounding snow‐free areas,
especially around sunrise, but otherwise blends in with
surrounding ground temperatures.
Figure 4‐56. Snow over forested region.
(Source: NOAA)
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4.6.3.2 Ice
Ice is usually only discernible on satellite imagery in
large lakes, bays, and seas. Offshore winds will move
and break up ice adjacent to the shore. Water and
new, thin transparent ice will appear as dark bands
along the shore. On visible and infrared imagery, ice
will have the same gray shade as snow and is difficult
to distinguish from snow cover. There may be dark
fractures or cracks in the ice to help identify it, as
seen in Figure 4‐58 over Lake Erie. Knowledge of the
location of bodies of water compared to land is very Figure 4‐58. Ice over Lake Erie.
(Source: NOAA)
important when identifying ice.
4.6.3.3 Sand / Dust
Sand and dust, also referred to as lithometeors, are
suspended surface particles carried aloft by strong
synoptic‐scale surface winds, often for long distances, with
the most common occurrences in desert regions. The
upstream edge is usually not well defined and may be
difficult to distinguish on visible imagery, appearing as a
Figure 4‐59. Blowing dust diffuse area of a medium to light gray, as seen in Figure 4‐
over the Texas Panhandle.(Source: NOAA) 59 over Iraq. It is very difficult to detect on infrared
imagery since the sand or dust are usually near the
same temperature as the land, but if can be seen, it
will be a dark to medium gray shade.
Figure 4‐60. Haze over the U.S. East Coast
at sunrise/sunset. (Source: NOAA)
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4.6.3.4 Haze
Haze is very difficult to detect, especially on infrared imagery. Visible imagery will depict a milky
appearance, similar to thin cirrus, but it is typically more widespread, as shown in Figure 4‐60 over the
United States eastern seaboard. Infrared imagery will favor the underlying surface temperatures. Haze
will be evident and persist under stagnant conditions (subsidence from a high). Sun angle is also a key
factor in interpreting haze. Haze is much more identifiable with a low sun angle, compared to a time
during a high sun angle.
4.6.3.5 Smoke/Ash
Smoke from fires and industry usually has a sharp
boundary at the source of the plume, as seen in Figure
4‐61 over Mexico. Smoke and ash from volcanoes may
be discernible depending on the level of volcanic
activity, but the ash reaches ambient air temperature
very rapidly so may become less identifiable over time.
If a volcanic plume reaches high altitudes, the ash cloud
will appear cold on infrared imagery. Ash clouds that
Figure 4‐61. Smoke plumes. reach the upper levels can be advected long distances
(Source: NOAA)
downstream by upper level wind flow. The upstream
edge is normally thick, while downstream, the
ash cloud is more diffuse and thin. If thick, it
will look the same as thick cirrus on visible and
infrared imagery, as seen in Figure 4‐62 over
New Zealand.
Figure 4‐62. Volcanic ash plume.
(Source: NOAA)
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4.6.3.6 Water Temperature
Differences in water temperature are readily
recognized in good infrared imagery, as long as
there is no significant low‐level cloud coverage, as
seen in Figure 4‐63. The NIR band is usually best for
interpreting water temperature. Water
temperature is not recognizable on visible imagery
Figure 4‐63. Gulf Stream water temperatures. because illumination is the key means of deriving
(Source: NOAA)
the product, not temperature. Water temperature
is also not recognizable on water vapor imagery. Visible imagery must be used, if available, to verify
there is no significant cloud coverage in the lower levels.
4.6.4 SYNOPTIC SCALE CLOUD ORGANIZATIONS
Comma clouds are associated with synoptic scale, low‐pressure systems within the mid‐latitude
westerlies. There is one basic cloud
system that starts the comma cloud and
three basic cloud systems which make up
the synoptic‐scale comma cloud itself.
Certain parts of a comma cloud have their
own special names and can be used to
readily identify different features, as
depicted in Figure 4‐64. The surge region
is where dry, subsiding air flows into the
comma cloud. It is also known as the dry
slot. The comma head is the northwest
portion of the cloud system. It is
composed of the deformation zone cloud Figure 4‐64. Parts of the synoptic
scale comma cloud. (Source: NOAA)
system. The comma tail is the long and
relatively narrow band of clouds which extends southward from the main comma. It is associated with
the trailing portion of the vorticity comma cloud system. The cusp is the pointed region on the southern
edge of the deformation zone cloud system. A well defined cusp may or may not be present with any
given system.
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4.6.4.1 Baroclinic Leafs
A baroclinic leaf is a mid and upper‐level cloud pattern associated with a system which is just beginning
to develop, as shown in Figure 4‐65 over the North Pacific Ocean. It normally has a shallow "S" shape on
the sharp upstream edge of the cloud system. A
unique characteristic is the "V" notch in the tail of
the leaf (this is where the polar front jet is entering
the leaf). Baroclinic leaves are smaller than the
more developed synoptic scale comma clouds and
may not be evident on the surface analysis. They
vary more in shape than the other cloud systems, so
identifying large regions of organized or unorganized
mid and upper‐level cloudiness can possibly identify
the presence of a baroclinic leaf, such as the area
over Montana in the same image, Figure 4‐65.
Figure 4‐65. Baroclinic leafs. (Source: NOAA)
4.6.4.2 Baroclinic Zone Cloud System
The baroclinic zone cloud system is a large,
extensive area of multilayered clouds which are
associated with a baroclinic zone (frontal zone). A
large cirrostratus shield associated with cold and
warm fronts usually tops the multilayered clouds.
The cloud shield forms in an area where the
temperature field is out‐of‐phase with the
pressure/wind field (described as baroclinicity, or,
simply put, when thermal advection is occurring.)
Precipitation falling from this cloud shield is usually
of a steady, stratiform nature. Areas of convection
can be embedded within the stratiform Figure 4‐66. Baroclinic zone cloud system.
(Source: NOAA)
precipitation field, depending on the strength of
the baroclinic zone. Figure 4‐66 identifies the baroclinic zone cloud system associated with a synoptic
scale comma cloud.
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4.6.4.3 Vorticity Comma Cloud System
The vorticity comma cloud system is composed of an area of low or mid‐level convective clouds
organized into a comma shape and is caused by the upward vertical motion resulting from the
divergence ahead of a vorticity maximum, as shown in Figure 4‐67. If the atmosphere is unstable
enough to support strong convection, the comma can also be composed of the cirrus anvils of
cumulonimbus clouds and precipitation is convective with rain showers or snow showers.
Figure 4‐67. Vorticity comma cloud system. (Source: NOAA)
4.6.4.4 Deformation Zone Cloud System
The deformation zone cloud system is an elongated area of multilayered clouds that are being
stretched" and "sheared" by an upper‐level deformation zone, as depicted in Figure 4‐67. The multi‐
layered clouds are usually topped by a cirrostratus shield. The cloud mass elongates along the axis of
dilatation and shrinks along the axis of contraction. The upward vertical motion causing the clouds is
usually due to divergence aloft associated with the ascent of the cold conveyor belt and the divergent
quadrant of a jet maximum. The deformation of the upper‐level wind field then "rearranges" the cloud
mass into the classic deformation pattern. Precipitation is normally stratiform and heaviest in the
southern portion of the deformation zone cloud system.
4.6.4.5 Type‐A Occluded Systems
Type‐A synoptic scale comma cloud systems show a distinct separation between the baroclinic zone
cloud system and the deformation zone cloud system, as viewed in the enhanced IR image in Figure 4‐68.
This separation is caused by the jet stream cutting through the cirrostratus shield. The deformation
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zone cloud system is lower and thinner than the baroclinic zone cloud system. Type‐A systems are
formed primarily from Meridional cyclogenesis.
Figure 4‐68. Type‐A Occluded System Figure 4‐69. Type‐B Occluded System
(Source: NOAA)
4.6.4.6 Type‐B Occluded Systems
Type‐B synoptic scale comma cloud systems show the baroclinic and deformation zone cloud systems
merged. While the wind continues to flow across the baroclinic zone cloud system and deformation
zone cloud systems such as in Type‐A system, the wind speed drops to less than jet stream criteria.
Hence we say the jet “stops” and “reforms” on the northern side of the baroclinic zone cloud system.
The deformation zone cloud system is approximately the same height (temperature) as baroclinic zone
cloud system, as viewed in Figure 4‐69. Type‐B systems are formed primarily from split‐flow
cyclogenesis.
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4.7 ANALYSIS OF METEOROLOGICAL FEATURES
Learning Objective
Identify synoptic scale meteorological features identifiable on satellite imagery.
Low‐level features are easiest to identify on visible satellite imagery since the contrast between low
clouds and the Earth's surface is the greatest. Still, the identification of low‐level features is more
difficult than the identification of upper‐level features. Since visible imagery is only available half of the
time, you will need to be able to estimate the position of these features using infrared data. As an
assistant forecaster, you will be locating fronts and pressure systems using satellite imagery which does
not have the resolution of visible imagery, so exact position of weather elements is often much more
difficult to determine. The best approach is to combine conventional data, where available, with
satellite imagery in data
sparse regions.
4.7.1 JET STREAMS
The first rule for placing the
jet stream axis on satellite
imagery is to place it about 1
of latitude poleward of the
sharp northern edge of the
baroclinic zone cloud shield,
as shown in Figure 4‐70. Figure 4‐70. Placing the jet in relation to the baroclinic cloud shield.
(Source: NOAA)
The second rule for
placement is where the upper‐level clouds are advanced downstream the furthest, as viewed in Figure
4‐71 with the red arrow where the jet axis and cloud band intersects. This is most often seen with
occluded systems where the jet axis enters the surge region. The southern portion of the surge regions
typically displays a “U” shape where the jet stream starts to intersect the cloud band and will display a
“V” shape where the clouds are most advanced downstream.
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Figure 4‐71. Second rule of jet placement.
The third rule for placement of the jet stream is when no high clouds are present, the axis of the jet
stream will normally be located 1‐3 of latitude on the cold side of the boundary between the open‐cell
cumulus and closed‐cell stratocumulus cloud fields, as shown in Figure 4‐72. Even though the jet stream
is an upper level feature, we can still use the low‐level clouds in the absence of cirrus based on the
temperatures those particular clouds develop in. Open‐cell cumulus is associated with cold unstable air,
while closed‐cell stratocumulus is associated with more stable, warm air. Since the jet stream exists
where there is a significant thermal discontinuity, we can place the jet stream in its approximate
position using the boundary between these two different low‐level clouds.
Figure 4‐72. Placing the jet with no high clouds present.
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The polar front jet axis flows through synoptic‐scale comma cloud systems in one of two configurations,
Type‐A or Type‐B. In a Type‐A system, the jet is continuous across the system and crosses the cloud
mass at or just north of the surface front triple point. There will be a distinct separation between the
deformation zone cloud system and the baroclinic zone cloud system. In a Type‐B system, the jet is
discontinuous through the cloud system. There is no separation between the deformation zone cloud
system and the baroclinic zone cloud system. Latent heat release has caused the jet to fan out and wrap
into the low.
Water vapor imagery is a valuable tool when
analyzing the jet stream. Often, water vapor
imagery is the only imagery which can be used to
accurately place the jet axis in cloud free regions.
The jet stream is associated with the boundary
between darker (drier) stratospheric air and
lighter (moister) tropospheric are, as seen over
the central United States in Figure 4‐73. To
analyze the jet stream using water vapor
Figure 4‐73. WV image of jet stream.
imagery, locate the tightest moisture gradient
(where the image turns most rapidly from white to dark) and place the jet axis in the dark band closest
to the area of moisture as seen in Figure 4‐74. Figure 4‐75 provides explanation on this technique. The
Polar Front Jet (PFJ) lies between the mid‐latitude Ferrel Cell and the Polar Cell. Imagine the Polar Front
Jet (PFJ) in Figure 4‐75 is propagating away from you and into the page. The cold and moist upper
troposphere lies to the right of the PFJ axis, while the warmer, dry air of the stratosphere lies to the left
of the PFJ axis. As the PFJ propagates, it is also rotating in a counter‐clockwise fashion (as you are
viewing it.) To the right of the PFJ, motion is upward lifting any existing moisture and enabling cloud
formation. To the left of the PFJ, motion is downward and subsidence is prevalent eliminating any
possibility of cloud formation. A dark band that becomes better defined (darkening/widening) indicates
a strengthening of the associated jet stream.
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Stratosphere
Polar Front Jet
Ferrel Cell
Troposphere
Polar Cell
Figure 4‐75. Polar Front Jet in
Figure 4‐74. WV image of jet stream.
4.7.2 UPPER‐LEVEL BAROCLINIC LOWS
Upper‐level baroclinic lows that support baroclinic lows at the surface will exhibit a large vertical tilt and
are usually found with the upper‐level deformation zone. At this stage in the development of the
system, an extensive shield of cold cloud tops will be associated with the system. The upper low is
located at the cusp of the upper‐level deformation zone cloud system, as depicted in Figure 4‐76. Water
vapor imagery shows a dark slot spiraling around the low and a dark region normally on the west or
northwest side. This is associated with the axis of dilatation in the deformation zone.
Figure 4‐76. Upper‐level baroclinic low located at the cusp.
(Source: NOAA)
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4.7.3 UPPER‐LEVEL LOWS ASSOCIATED WITH DECAYING WAVES
Upper‐level lows associated with decaying waves often show cold cloud tops that are fragmented and
disorganized, indicating the system is weakening. The upper low is located in the dry region, as depicted
in Figure 4‐77. Water vapor imagery will indicate a dark band that wraps almost completely around the
low.
Figure 4‐77. Upper‐level low associated with a decaying wave.
(Source: NOAA)
4.7.4 CUT‐OFF LOWS
Cut‐off lows are deep pools of cold air located equatorward of the main polar front jet. There are three
typical cloud formations associated with cut‐off lows, as depicted in Figure 4‐78.
Figure 4‐78. Cloud types associated with a cut‐off low.
(Source: NOAA)
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In the baroclinic zone cirrus, the jet stream
normally flows from the southwest to northeast
just east of the low center. The deformation zone
cirrus is a band of cirrus, which stretches out, in an
east‐west or northeast‐southwest direction, north
of the upper low, as viewed in Figure 4‐79. This
band of cirrus develops due the deformation zone
created by the convergence between the low
circulation and the prevailing flow. Core
Figure 4‐79. Cut‐off low over the Midwest U.S.
(Source: NOAA) convection appears as convective clouds located
directly under the upper low within the cold upper level core. Water vapor imagery indicates a dark
band spiraling around the low. Weak cut‐off lows may be barely discernable on infrared imagery, but
stand out clearly on water vapor imagery.
4.7.5 SURFACE LOWS
During the initial stages of development of
a mid‐latitude cyclone, the frontal clouds
associated with a slow moving cold front or
stationary front will begin to widen and
have a slight “S” shape on the +n side of the
cloud band, as viewed in Figure 4‐80. The
surface low will be located halfway into the
cloud pattern from the inflection point in
the frontal band. This pattern is quite
common with stable waves or young,
Figure 4‐80. Initial stage of development of a
unstable waves along the frontal boundary. baroclinic surface low. (Source: NOAA)
During the intensification stage of the surface low‐pressure center, the synoptic‐scale comma cloud will
become larger and better defined with a developing dry slot or surge region, as viewed in Figure 4‐81.
The dry slot will begin to wrap around the upper low (if already present). The surface low will propagate
along the back edge of the comma head, which is composed mainly of the vorticity comma cloud
because the upper‐level low has not developed yet.
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Figure 4‐81. Intensification stage of a baroclinic surface low. (Source: NOAA)
During the mature stage, the surface low is starting to become more vertically stacked with the upper
low. As the surface low occludes, it migrates onto the cold side of the jet, as seen in Figure 4‐82. The
position of the surface low will be on the upstream edge of the vorticity comma cloud, beneath the
upper‐level dry slot, just east of the deformation zone cloud system. In many cases, the deformation
zone cirrus and the dry slot have wrapped around the surface low.
Figure 4‐82. Mature stage of a baroclinic surface low. (Source: NOAA)
Finally, we have the Dissipation Stage; also know as the decaying wave stage. During the decaying wave
stage, the surface low begins to fill and becomes somewhat difficult to identify on satellite imagery.
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However, the upper level and surface lows are, in this stage, nearly vertical in structure so the center of
the cyclonic swirl in the low clouds will identify the general location of the surface low pressure center.
as seen in Figure 4‐83.
Figure 4‐83. Decaying stage of a surface low. (Source: NOAA)
4.7.6 FRONTS
Fronts are normally located within a comma cloud structure or an organized multilayered cloud band. In
most cases with satellite imagery, you can only place the general position of the front. To get an
accurate frontal position, you will need to supplement satellite analysis with conventional synoptic data.
Fronts are normally easier to identify over water than land because more moisture is available for cloud
formation along the frontal boundary.
4.7.6.1 Cold Fronts
Typically, a cold front is located under the multilayered, baroclinic zone cirrus of the comma cloud
structure beginning at the rear portion of the comma cloud structure closest to the low, moving toward
the middle of the cloud formation about midway through the comma, then toward the forward part of
the comma and finally into the rope cloud if one exists, as seen in Figure 4‐83. The cloud type normally
changes across the front. Ahead of the front there is usually a mix of scattered stratocumulus and
cumuliform cloudiness. Behind the cold front over water, open and closed‐cell cumulus will be present.
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An active cold front is slow moving, between 5 and 15 knots, and will have a more stratified cirrus cloud
shield with uniform cloud top temperatures with an extensive baroclinic zone cloud shield. The cold
front in the case of an active cold front, will be located near the east side of the comma tail with the
majority of the cloudiness behind the front, as depicted in Figure 4‐84. The polar‐front jet flows parallel
to the front and does not push the front along, hence the reason for its slow movement and relatively
wide cloud shield. Temperatures will drop rapidly across the front and dew points will drop gradually
due to the associated moisture being located at and behind the front. The slope of the front is typically
shallow.
Figure 4‐84. Active, slow‐moving cold front. (Source: NOAA)
Clouds, if present, along a fast‐moving, inactive cold front are convective in nature. Strong
perpendicular wind flow, relative to the front, pushes low level convergence ahead of the front often
forming squall lines ahead of the surface front. A fast‐moving cold front will not have a large baroclinic
zone cloud shield. The cold front will be located along the backside of the cloudiness, often in the clear
air as seen in Figure 4‐85 in the vicinity of the North and South Carolina coastline. The polar front jet will
be more perpendicular to the front, pushing the front along at a faster pace. Temperatures will drop
gradually across the front and dew points will drop rapidly since the associated moisture is located
ahead of the front. This slope of the front is typically steep slope.
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Figure 4‐85. Inactive, fast‐moving cold front.
4.7.6.2 Warm Fronts
Warm fronts are more difficult to position
because cloudiness ranges from scattered
to multilayered clouds. The surface warm
front is located within the “V” notch or
wedge on the warm side of the baroclinic
zone cloud shield, as depicted in Figure 4‐
86. A low cloud band normally extends
eastward along the front. This cloudiness
is formed by warm moist air ascending the
warm frontal slope. Imbedded convection
may form ahead of the warm front due to
the lifting of unstable air along the warm
frontal surface.
Figure 4‐86. Warm front located within the “V” notch.
4.7.6.3 Occluded Fronts
The occlusion is located along the back edge of the low clouds in the comma cloud head. The occluded
front will wrap from the back edge of the clouds toward the low center. Type‐A systems show a sharp
cloud boundary on the +n side of the baroclinic zone cloud system across the entire system. The triple
point is located on the ‐n side of this boundary and is near the back of the upstream cloud edge of the
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baroclinic zone cloud system, as depicted in Figure 4‐87. On water vapor imagery, there is a gray shade
difference between the baroclinic zone cirrus and the lower vorticity comma cloud.
Figure 4‐87. Type‐A occluded front. Figure 4‐88. Type‐B occluded front.
(Source: NOAA)
In Type‐B systems, triple point placement is not so straightforward. Extrapolation of the warm and cold
frontal positions is required to find the triple point. Once the cold and warm fronts have been located,
simply extend the frontal surfaces until they intersect on the +n side of the baroclinic zone cirrus, as
shown in Figure 4‐88.
4.7.6.4 Stationary Fronts
The stationary front is normally located along the southern edge of the cloud band that typically extends
more east to west as seen in Figure 4‐89. Over water there may be a rope cloud, which indicates the
exact location of the front. Clouds are normally cumuliform on the warm side of the front, while the
type of cloudiness on the cold side of the front depends on the stability of the overlying warm air and
the steepness of the front. If the overlying warm air is stable, stratiform cloudiness will develop. If the
overlying warm air is unstable, stratiform cloudiness with embedded cumuliform activity will develop.
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Figure 4‐89. Placement of a stationary front. (Source: NOAA)
4.7.7 UPPER‐LEVEL HIGHS
Upper‐level highs are difficult to position since they produce subsidence, downward vertical motion, and
inhibit vertical cloud development. Water vapor imagery is particularly useful for identifying closed
upper‐level highs. Within the long‐wave ridge, water vapor imagery indicates a boundary between the
moist air to the west and drier air to the east. This boundary is normally ragged.
H
H
Figure 4‐90. IR image of U/L high Figure 4‐91. WV image of U/L high
(Source: NOAA)
As a closed high circulation develops within the ridge, the moisture boundary west of the developing
high, called an inside boundary, will change character. It will become smooth and move slowly
westward. As the anticyclonic circulation strengthens, the dark side of the boundary will become more
curved, as seen in Figures‐90 and 91. Visual and infrared imagery may indicate this inside boundary, but
it is best seen on water vapor imagery.
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4.7.8 SURFACE HIGHS
Highs over land can be located by noting the
effect of the wind flow on low clouds. In late
fall to early spring, stratocumulus lines
develop on the leeward side of lakes and off
coastlines. Fog and stratus normally develop
with upslope flow associated with west side
of a high, as viewed in Figure 4‐92 over
Oklahoma and Arkansas. Surface highs can
also be identified by a lack of mid and upper
Figure 4‐92. Upslope flow showing a high to the east.
level cloudiness as seen over the Appalachian
(Source: NOAA)
Mountains in the same image.
Over water, the high center is located using a
combination of cloud patterns and the low pressure
center location. In the southern half of a high,
closed‐cell stratocumulus is normally present with a
clear zone to the west. West of the clear zone is
another frontal system with low‐level cloudiness.
The high center is normally located in the eastern
portion of the clear zone, as seen in Figure 4‐93. The
ridge axis is located where the clouds show
Figure 4‐93. High pressure center located over the coast
the strongest anticyclonic turning in the of California. (Source: NOAA)
cumulus lines.
When two frontal systems come in close proximity, a sharp surface ridge is found between them, as
depicted in Figure 4‐94. On the northern side of the surface high, winds shift from a southwesterly
direction to a northwesterly direction east of the surface ridge. The surface axis is positioned along a
line where the cumulus clouds first develop in the low‐level cold air having a northerly component over
warmer water. This line is usually coincident with the forward edge of the overcast clouds from the
upstream storm system moving over the upper‐level ridge. A good rule in placing the surface high is to
divide the width between the +n and ‐n side of the thin cirrus filaments of the upstream system in half.
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Figure 4‐94. Surface ridge between two close frontal systems.
(Source: University of Wisconsin)
4.7.9 TROPICAL WEATHER SYSTEMS
Tropical cyclones are storms that originate in tropical latitudes; they include tropical waves, tropical
disturbances, tropical depressions, tropical storms, hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones. These various
types of tropical systems are similar; their main difference is where they form. Hurricanes occur in the
Atlantic Ocean, typhoons in the western Pacific Ocean, and cyclones are found in the Indian Ocean.
They are associated with a central core of low pressure and convective clouds that are organized into
spiral bands. Unlike mid‐latitude systems, these cyclones are storms without associated fronts.
Tropical cyclone development will only occur when very specific conditions exist. A hurricane originates
as a tropical disturbance, with relatively
light winds, a weak area of low pressure,
extensive cloudiness, and some
precipitation. Many of these
disturbances exist at any given time, but
few actually develop into hurricanes due
to the specific conditions required. They
typically begin in the tropics along a
narrow line of convective clouds called
Figure 4‐95. Easterly wave. (Source: NOAA)
the equatorial trough (ET) or Inter‐
Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Hurricanes can also originate from tropical waves. A tropical wave is
seen as an inverted "V" or "Screaming Eagle" pattern on satellite imagery. These waves are commonly
called easterly waves in the Atlantic Ocean, as viewed in Figure 4‐95. Movement is typically 10 to 15
knots to the west, or about 5 latitude per day.
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Occasionally, when conditions are favorable, a tropical disturbance evolves into a tropical depression, a
closed low‐pressure system with a more
organized cyclonic wind pattern. As the
pressure drops, winds around the low
increase but remain less than 60 km/hr (39
mph). For a depression to reach the
tropical storm stage, a distinct rotation
must exist around the central area of low
pressure and wind speeds must be
between 60 and 120 km/hr (39‐74 mph).
At this point the tropical storm is given a
name. To reach the hurricane stage, a Figure 4‐96. Tropical Storm Cesar with no “eye” feature.
pronounced rotation around the core must (Source: NOAA)
be evident and winds speeds must be at least 120 km/hr (74 mph). Note that the presence of an “eye”
does not necessarily signal the tropical cyclone is a hurricane or typhoon. Tropical storms can also have
a well‐defined eye feature, or they can exhibit a weaker looking cloud pattern as viewed in Figure 4‐96.
Using animated satellite imagery, we are able to closely monitor the development and movement of
storms. As the tropical system develops, an eye may form which provides a much clearer indication of
the center position. When the eye is not discernable, usually due to mid and high cloud coverage called
a central dense overcast (CDO), the exact location of the center of the storm is more difficult to locate.
Thus, tracking the movement is more difficult. The use of enhancement curves can help with the
identification of the storm’s center.
4.8 SUMMARY
In this chapter we examined the advantages and disadvantages associated with satellite imagery.
Remember that it is important to understand the processes used in obtaining satellite imagery, such as
how electromagnetic radiation is sensed and converted to gray shades in order to produce a satellite
image. We discussed visible, infrared, water vapor, and microwave imagery and some of the
considerations an interpreter needs to consider when viewing them. We broke down the various types
of satellite vehicles, giving emphasis to the GOES geostationary orbiter and the NOAA TIROS‐N and
DMSP polar orbiters. We finished with a comprehensive lesson on the identification of various cloud
types and non‐cloud features, as well as certain meteorological features. Understanding this material
4‐58
puts you well on the road to assisting your forecaster in identifying meteorological processes imperative
to writing a good forecast.
4‐59
METOC‐045‐841‐609‐001
CHAPTER FOUR
INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITES
REVIEW TEST QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is a disadvantage of satellite imagery?
(Section 4.2.1, par 2, page 4‐2)
a. Spatial resolution
b. Interpretation
c. Uniform coverage of large data sparse regions
d. 24 hr coverage
2. What term is known as the ability of the atmosphere to allow radiation to pass through it?
(Section 4.2.2, par 5, page 4‐3)
a. Enhancement curve
b. Atmospheric windows
c. Absorption bands
d. Transmissivity
3. Sensors that are used to gather information for a visual satellite image measure is which of the
following items?
(Section 4.3.1, par 2, page 4‐5)
a. Reflected light
b. Temperature
c. Microwave radiation
d. Brightness temperature
4. Which of following items has the highest albedo?
(Section 4.3.1, table 4‐1, page 4‐6)
a. Sand and Brushwood
b. Thin stratus
c. Large thunderstorm
d. Fresh new snow
4‐63
5. On most display systems, the coolest temperatures on an infrared image appear which color?
(Section 4.3.2, par 3, page 4‐7)
a. Gray
b. Black
c. Tan
d. White
6. Which of the following types of imagery are used in the detection and tracking of forest fires?
(Section 4.3.2.1, par 2, page 4‐7)
a. Visual
b. Near infrared
c. Far infrared
d. Microwave
7. What is the most common METOC application derived from “active” microwave sensing?
(Section 4.3.4.1, par 1, page 4‐9)
a. Scatterometry
b. Surface temperature
c. Cloud cover
d. Ocean currents
8. What term refers to the frequency with which a satellite can revisit an area of interest and acquire a
new image?
(Section 4.4.1.4, par 1, page 4‐12)
a. Temporal resolution
b. Radiometric resolution
c. Spectral resolution
d. Spatial resolution
4‐64
9. Which of the following viewing considerations occurs when energy reaches the satellite sensor from
two or more sources?
(Section 4.4.3, par 1, page 4‐13)
a. Attenuation
b. Foreshortening
c. Contamination
d. Error of parallax
10. Which of the following viewing considerations is defined as a loss of resolution caused by an oblique
viewing angle?
(Section 4.4.4, par 1, page 4‐13)
a. Attenuation
b. Foreshortening
c. Contamination
d. Error of parallax
11. At what altitude do geostationary satellites orbit the Earth?
(Section 4.5.1, par 1, page 4‐15)
a. 200 ‐ 500 nm (320 ‐ 800 km)
b. 22,300 nm (35,800 km)
c. 25,000 nm (46,300km)
d. 800 ‐ 1200 nm (1,480 – 2,220 km)
12. Which program has provided the military with important environmental information since the mid‐
1960s?
(Section 4.5.2.2, par 1, page 4‐19)
a. GOES
b. NOAA TIROS‐N
c. DMSP
d. TRMM
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13. Which term defines the smallest cloud that can be seen by a satellite?
(Section 4.6.1.2, par 1, page 4‐22)
a. Cloud line
b. Cloud element
c. Cloud street
d. Cloud finger
14. On visual imagery, which cloud appears as continuous cloud sheets composed of parallel rolls or
cellular elements?
(Section 4.6.2.2, par 1, page 4‐24)
a. Cumulonimbus
b. Cumulus
c. Stratocumulus
d. Stratus
15. Which cloud is normally the brightest feature on a water vapor image?
(Section 4.6.2.4, par 3, page 4‐26)
a. Cumulonimbus
b. Cumulus
c. Stratocumulus
d. Stratus
16. Which clouds form over water behind mid‐latitude cyclones and are caused by cold‐air advection
over warmer water?
(Section 4.6.2.7, par 1, page 4‐28)
a. Stratocumulus lines
b. Closed‐cell stratocumulus
c. Open‐cell cumulus
d. Enhanced cumulus
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17. Which clouds appear similar to towering cumulus or small cumulonimbus clouds?
(Section 4.6.2.8, par 1, page 4‐28)
a. Closed‐cell stratocumulus
b. Actiniform clouds
c. Open‐cell cumulus
d. Enhanced cumulus
18. Which cloud is formed due to a thunderstorm downdraft of cold air?
(Section 4.6.2.11, par 1, page 4‐31)
a. Enhanced cumulus
b. Arc cloud
c. Nimbostratus
d. Actiniform cloud
19. Which of the following cloud types does not readily show up on visible or infrared imagery due to
extensive contamination?
(Section 4.6.2.17, par 1, page 4‐34)
a. Stratus
b. Cumulus
c. Cirrus
d. Cirrocumulus
20. Which cloud formation is a multi‐layered cirrus cloud shield that has a sharp, stationary, upstream
cloud edge?
(Section 4.6.2.20, par 1, page 4‐35)
a. Transverse bands
b. Lee‐of‐the‐mountain cirrus
c. Billow cloud
d. Anvil cirrus
4‐67
21. Which non‐cloud feature has a dendritic appearance in mountain regions on satellite imagery?
(Section 4.6.3.1, par 1, page 4‐37)
a. Snow
b. Ice
c. Dust
d. Haze
22. What part of the synoptic scale comma cloud is located in the northwest portion of the cloud
system?
(Section 4.6.4, par 1, page 4‐40)
a. Surge region
b. Comma tail
c. Comma head
d. Cusp
23. What cloud system is an elongated area of multilayered clouds that are being stretched" and
"sheared"?
(Section 4.6.4.4, par 1, page 4‐42)
a. Baroclinic leaf
b. Baroclinic zone cloud system
c. Vorticity comma cloud system
d. Deformation zone cloud system
24. What are the four stages of a mid‐latitude cyclone?
(Section 4.7.5, par 1‐4, page 4‐49 to 4‐50)
a. Initial, Intensification, Mature, and Dissipation
b. Initial, Deepening, Mature, Filling
c. Forming, Intensification, Mature, and Decaying
d. Initial, Deepening, Mature, and Filling
4‐68
25. What type of imagery is particularly useful for identifying closed upper‐level highs?
(Section 4.7.7, par 1, page 4‐55)
a. Visual
b. Infrared
c. Water Vapor
d. Microwave
4‐69
4‐1a 4‐1b
26. Using slides 4‐1a and 4‐1b, what is causing the cloud/non‐cloud feature identified by the arrow?
a. Cirrus c. Stratocumulus
b. Dust d. Water temperature
4‐70
4‐2a 4‐2b
27. Using slides 4‐2a and 4‐2b, identify the type of cloud within the circle.
a. Open‐cell cumulus c. Cirrostratus
b. Altostratus d. Stratocumulus
4‐71
4‐3a 4‐3b
28. Using slides 4‐3a, 4‐3b, and 4‐3c, identify the type of
synoptic scale, comma cloud system over the east coast of
the United States.
a. Type A c. Type C
b. Type B d. Type AB
4‐3c
4‐72
4‐4a 4‐4b
29. Using slides 4‐4a and 4‐4b, identify the type of cloud over the San Joaquin Valley.
a. Cirrocumulus c. Altostratus
b. Fog/stratus d. Stratocumulus
4‐73
4‐5a 4‐5b
30. Using slides 4‐5a and 4‐5b, identify the type of cloud over central Nebraska.
a. Altocumulus c. Cirrostratus
b. Altostratus d. Stratocumulus
4‐74
4‐6a 4‐6b
31. Using slides 4‐6a and 4‐6b, identify the cloud/non‐cloud feature over southern British Columbia.
a. Cirrus c. Ice
b. Snow d. Stratus/fog
4‐75
4‐7a 4‐7b
32. Using slides 4‐7a and 4‐7b, identify the type of cloud over the central Gulf of Mexico.
a. Altostratus c. Altocumulus
b. Cirrocumulus d. Stratocumulus
4‐76
4‐8a 4‐8b
33. Using slides 4‐8a and 4‐8b, what is the cloud feature identified by the arrows?
a. Transverse banding c. ACSL
b. Billow clouds d. Cirrus streaks
4‐77
4‐9a 4‐9b
34. Using slides 4‐9a and 4‐9b, what is the cloud feature identified by the arrows?
a. Cumulonimbus c. Arc clouds
b. Rope clouds d. Billow clouds
4‐78
4‐10
35. Using slide 4‐10, which synoptic scale cloud system is identified by the arrow?
a. Deformation zone cloud system c. Baroclinic zone cloud system
b. Vorticity comma cloud system d. Baroclinic leaf
4‐79
4‐11a 4‐11b
36. Using slides 4‐11a and 4‐11b, identify the type of cloud within the circle.
a. Closed‐cell cumulus c. Closed‐cell stratocumulus
b. Open‐cell stratocumulus d. Open‐cell cumulus
4‐80
4‐12a 4‐12b
37. Using slides 4‐12a and 4‐12b, identify the type of cloud off the east coast of Florida.
a. Altocumulus c. Stratocumulus
b. Altostratus d. Cirrus
4‐81
4‐13a 4‐13b
38. Using slides 4‐13a and 4‐13b, identify the type of cloud within the circle.
a. Altocumulus c. Cirrocumulus
b. Stratocumulus d. Open‐cell cumulus
4‐82
4‐14
39. Using slide 4‐14, which portion of the synoptic scale comma cloud is identified by the arrow?
a. Comma head c. Cusp
b. Comma tail d. Surge region
4‐83
4‐15a 4‐15b
40. Using slides 4‐15a and 4‐15b, identify the type of cloud within the circle.
a. Stratocumulus c. Cirrostratus
b. Altostratus d. Fog/stratus
4‐84
4‐16a 4‐16b
41. Using slides 4‐16a and 4‐16b, identify the type of cloud within the circle.
a. Stratus c. Altostratus
b. Stratocumulus d. Cirrostratus
4‐85
4‐17a 4‐17b
42. Using slides 4‐17a and 4‐17b, what type of cloud is identified by the arrow?
a. Cumulus c. Cirrocumulus
b. Cumulonimbus d. Altocumulus
4‐86
4‐18a 4‐18b
43. Using slides 4‐18a and 4‐18b, what cloud feature is identified by the arrow?
a. Anvil cirrus c. Billow cloud
b. Cirrus streak d. Arc cloud
4‐87
4‐19a 4‐19b
44. Using slides 4‐19a and 4‐19b, identify the type of cloud located over the Four Corners region.
a. ACSL c. Transverse banding
b. Cirrus streaks d. Lee of the mountain cirrus
4‐88
4‐20
45. Using slide 4‐20, which portion of the synoptic scale comma cloud is identified by the arrow?
a. Cusp c. Comma head
b. Surge region d. Comma tail
4‐89
3‐21
46. Using slide 4‐21, which synoptic scale cloud system is identified by the arrow?
a. Baroclinic leaf c. Baroclinic zone cloud system
b. Deformation zone cloud system d. Vorticity comma cloud system
4‐90
3‐22
47. Using slide 4‐22, identify the cloud/non‐cloud feature within the circle.
a. Snow c. Ice
b. Cirrus d. Cirrostratus
4‐91
3‐ 4‐
48. Using slides 4‐23a and 4‐23b, identify the type of cloud within the circle.
a. Cirrostratus c. Altocumulus
b. Open‐cell cumulus d. Stratocumulus
4‐92
4‐24a 24b
49. Using slides 4‐24a and 4‐24b, identify the type of cloud within the circle.
a. Enhanced cumulus c. Closed‐cell stratocumulus
b. Open‐cell cumulus d. Closed‐cell cumulus
4‐93
4‐25a 4‐25b
50. Using slides 4‐25a and 4‐25b, identify the type of cloud within the circle.
a. Cirrostratus c. Altostratus
b. Cirrus d. Cumulus
4‐94
4‐26
51. Using slide 4‐26, which portion of the synoptic scale comma cloud is identified by the arrow?
a. Comma tail c. Surge region
b. Comma head d. Cusp
4‐95
4‐27
52. Using slide 4‐27, what is the cloud/non‐cloud feature highlighted by the yellow lines?
a. Cirrus c. Ash
b. Fog/stratus d. Haze
4‐96
4‐28a 4‐28b
53. Using slides 4‐28a and 4‐28b, identify the type of cloud over southeastern Georgia.
a. Cirrostratus c. Altocumulus
b. Stratus d. Stratocumulus
4‐97
4‐29a 4‐29b
54. Using slides 4‐29a and 4‐29b, identify the type of cloud within the circle.
a. Cirrostratus c. Cirrus
b. Stratus d. Altostratus
4‐98
4‐30
55. Using slide 4‐30, which synoptic scale cloud system is identified by the arrow.
a. Baroclinic leaf c. Baroclinic zone cloud system
b. Vorticity comma cloud system d. Deformation zone cloud system
4‐99
4‐31a 4‐31b
28. Using slides 4‐31a and 4‐31b, identify the type of cloud over Cuba.
a. Stratocumulus c. Cumulonimbus
b. Cumulus d. Altocumulus
4‐100
4‐32a 4‐32b
57. Using slides 4‐32a and 4‐32b, what type of cloud is identified by the arrow?
a. Actiniform c. Open‐cell stratocumulus
b. Closed‐cell cumulus d. Towering cumulus
4‐101
4‐33
58. Using slide 4‐33, which portion of the synoptic scale comma cloud is identified by the arrow?
a. Comma head c. Comma tail
b. Cusp d. Surge region
4‐102
4‐34
59. Using slide 4‐34, which synoptic scale cloud system is identified by the arrow?
a. Baroclinic zone cloud system c. Vorticity comma cloud system
b. Deformation zone cloud system d. Baroclinic leaf
4‐103
4‐35
60. Using slide 4‐35, what is the cloud/non‐cloud feature identified by the black lines?
a. Cirrus c. Altostratus
b. Dust d. Smoke
4‐104
4‐36a 4‐36b
61. Using slides 4‐36a and 4‐36b, what is the cloud feature identified by the arrow?
a. ACSL c. Billow clouds
b. Transverse banding d. Cirrocumulus
4‐105
4‐37
62. Using slide 4‐37, identify the type of cloud along the coast of California.
a. Fog/stratus c. Altostratus
b. Stratocumulus d. Cirrostratus
4‐106
4‐38a 4‐38b
63. Using slides 4‐38a and 4‐38b, identify the type of cloud over Mississippi.
a. Fog/stratus c. Stratocumulus
b. Cirrostratus d. Altostratus
4‐107
4‐ 4‐
64. Using slides 4‐39a, 4‐39b, and 4‐39c, identify the type of
synoptic scale cloud system over the Great Australian Bight.
a. Type A c. Type B
b. Type C d. Type AB
4‐
4‐108
4‐40a 4‐40b
65. Using slides 4‐40a and 4‐40b, identify the type of cloud feature over the Gulf of Mexico south of Mississippi and Louisiana.
a. Open‐cell cumulus lines c. Cumulus
b. Stratocumulus lines d. Altocumulus
4‐109
4‐41
66. Using slide 4‐41, which cloud/non‐cloud feature is identified by the arrow?
a. Dust c. Cirrus
b. Smoke d. Stratus
4‐110
4‐42a 4‐42b
67. Using slides 4‐42a and 4‐42b, identify the cloud feature over Colorado.
a. Cirrocumulus c. Lee of the mountain cirrus
b. Altocumulus d. ACSL
4‐111
4‐43a 4‐43b
68. Using slides 4‐43a and 4‐43b, identify the cloud/non‐cloud feature over Missouri.
a. Fog/stratus c. Stratocumulus
b. Snow d. Haze
4‐112
4‐44a 4‐44b
69. Using slides 4‐44a and 4‐44b, which type of cloud is identified by the arrow?
a. Closed‐cell stratocumulus c. Open‐cell cumulus
b. Actiniform d. Open‐cell stratocumulus
4‐113
4‐45a 4‐45b
70. Using slides 4‐45a and 4‐45b, what is the cloud feature identified by the arrow?
a. Arc cloud c. Transverse banding
b. Actiniform cloud d. Rope cloud
4‐114
4‐46
71. Using slide 4‐46, which synoptic scale cloud system is identified by the arrow?
a. Baroclinic zone cloud system c. Baroclinic leaf
b. Deformation zone cloud system d. Vorticity comma cloud system
4‐115
4‐47
72. Using slide 4‐47, which portion of the synoptic scale comma cloud is identified by the arrow?
a. Cusp c. Comma head
b. Surge region d. Comma tail
4‐116
4‐48a 4‐48b
73. Using slides 4‐48a and 4‐48b, identify the type of cloud over the Yucatan Peninsula.
a. Cumulus c. Stratocumulus
b. Cirrocumulus d. Altocumulus
4‐117
4‐49a 4‐49b
74. Using slides 4‐49a and 4‐49b, what is the cloud feature identified by the arrow?
a. ACSL c. Billow cloud
b. Arc cloud d. Rope cloud
4‐118
4‐50a 4‐50b
75. Using slides 4‐50a and 4‐50b, identify the cloud/non‐cloud feature over North Dakota.
a. Fog/stratus c. Ice
b. Cirrostratus d. Snow
4‐119