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26/10/2014

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

BEF
44903
Topic 3

Topic 3
INDUSTRIAL ENERGY MANAGEMENT
1

Outline

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

Topic 3

Power Losses in Industrial Power Systems


Loss Reduction Methods
Energy Efficiency in Industrial Power
Systems
Battery Application in Industrial Power
Systems
Application of Uninterruptible Power Supplies
(UPS)

26/10/2014

Power Losses in IPS

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Losses occurred
in the electrical
elements mainly
comprises of
ohmic and iron
losses
Mostly depends
on electrical
loading

Losses due to
theft of energy
and unrecovered
billed amount
Also called as
commercial
Losses

Technical
losses

Non-technical
losses

Power Losses in IPS

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

TECHNICAL
LOSSES

Topic 3

Current
Series
dependent Losses

Copper
Losses

Iron
Losses

Voltage
dependent

Dielectric
Losses

Shunt
Losses

Corona
Losses

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Power Losses in IPS


TX

FD
I 2R

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Power Cable
Power Transformer

Feeder

I 2R

I 2R
Power Cable

I 2R

Lighting

I 2R

Motor Loads M

I 2R

Heating Elements

Power Losses in IPS

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Line Losses are a result of passing current


through an imperfect conductor such as
copper.
The line losses can be calculated based on
the measured current load as:
Ploss = I * (I * r/l * L) = I2R
Where,,
I is current
r/l is resistance / Kilometre
L is length of cable in Kilometres

26/10/2014

Power Losses in IPS

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

For a 3-phase system, the losses for each


phase are calculated separately according to
h measured
d current as:
the
Ploss total = Ploss-a + Ploss-b + Ploss-c

I a2 Ra I b2 Rb I c2 Rc

Assumptions made:

All load currents maintain a constant ratio to


the total current
The voltage at every source bus remain
constant in magnitude
Power factor remains constant

Power Losses in IPS

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

It is not possible to measure the distribution


losses incurred by individual customers due
to many unexpected
d losses
l
factors
f
such
h as
network utilisation, network configuration,
the shape of the load profile and the level of
reactive power support.
Thus, an estimated losses calculation
app oach using
approach
sing Load Factor
Facto (LF) and Load
Loss Factor (LLF) is introduced.

26/10/2014

Power Losses in IPS

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

Load Factor Ratio of average demand


over maximum demand.
LF

Topic 3

Average demand (in kW)


Maximum demand

Load Loss Factor Ratio of average power


loss over power loss at maximum demand
LLF

Actual loss ((kWh)) duringg pperiod


Loss at maximum current (kWh)

Relationship between LF and LLF:


LLF = k * LF + (1 - k) * LF2

Power Losses in IPS

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

where k = a constant, typically 0.1, 0.2 or


0.3
Typically,

k = 0.3 for subtransmission systems


k = 0.2 for medium voltage feeders and
distribution substations
k = Sample sections of the network can be
analysed to produce an estimate of the k factor
applicable for the rest of the system

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26/10/2014

Power Losses in IPS

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Loss in a feeder for a given period (which is


one month in this case) is given by:
Technical loss in MU = I2 R L LLF
24 30 109
Where,
I = Load in ampere
R = Resistance of the conductor in ohms/ kilometre
L = Length of the feeder in kilometres
LLF = Load loss factor

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Yearly technical loss for 3- feeder in MU,


= 3 x I2 x R x L x LLF x 8760 / 109

Power Losses in IPS

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Example 3.1
Calculate LF, LLF,
and k.
Calculate technical
losses per month.
Consider following
parameters:

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300mm2 = 0.1173/km
240mm2 = 0.1267 /km
120mm2 = 0.2176 /km
L1 = 1.2 km, L2 =
0.5km, L3 = 2.4km

26/10/2014

Power Losses in IPS

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Technical loss of Transformer in MU for


year = {No load loss + [(% loading in p.u.)2
dC
l
]} * 24
2 * 365
36 / 10
06
* rated
Cu. loss
* LLF]}
Example 3.2: What is the total MU loss?

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Loss Reduction Methods

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

Proper
p Sizing
g

Regular
Maintenance

Convert LV
to HV Lines

Minimise
Overload

Topic 3

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Improve
Power Factor

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Energy Efficiency in Industrial


Power Systems
Reduce
consumption
i

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Optimise
cost

Energy
efficiency

Reduce CO2
emission

Improve
reliability
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Energy Efficiency in Industrial


Power Systems
BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Transport 27%
Residential 16%
Commercial 8%
Industrial 49%

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26/10/2014

Energy Efficiency in Industrial


Power Systems
BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

Reduce
energy
use

Topic 3

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Use
U energy
efficient devices/
equipment
Proper control and
monitoring
Use variable
speed drives

Save
energy
cost

Proper production
planning to avoid peak
hour charges
Use automation system
in the plant

Energy
reliability
How to
increase
energy
efficiency?

Avoid energy losses


Proper maintenance
Treat PQ properly

Energy Efficiency in Industrial


Power Systems

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

Some of energy efficiency classes for LV


motors:

Topic 3

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26/10/2014

Energy Efficiency in Industrial


Power Systems

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

Energy savings based on reducing fan speed


by half:

Topic 3

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Energy Efficiency in Industrial


Power Systems

Load management strategy:

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

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Energy Efficiency in Industrial


Power Systems

Monitoring architecture for a small site:

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

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Battery Application in Industrial


Power Systems
UPS

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Voltage support

Battery
Applications

Emergency
Control/lighting

Solar power
system

Telecommunication

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26/10/2014

Battery Application in Industrial


Power Systems
Lead acid
(Mostly
used in
IPS)

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

Most economical
Not much sensitive to
temperature
p
5-7 Years lifespan
Needs special battery
room

Topic 3

Nickel
Cadmium

Sealed
Maintenance
Free

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Most expensive
20 years lifespan
Large size as
compared to same Ah

No maintenance
User friendly
Very sensitive to
temperature
Lowest lifespan

Battery Application in Industrial


Power Systems

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

Why battery sizing?

Topic 3

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Ensure the loads being supplied or the power


system being supported are adequately provided
by the battery for the period of time (i.e.
autonomy) for which it is designed.
Improper battery sizing can lead to poor
autonomy times, permanent damage to battery
cells from over
over-discharge
discharge, low load voltages,
voltages etc
etc.
Methodology Normal industry practice and
technical standards: IEEE Std 485 (Lead-Acid)
and IEEE Std 1115 (Nickel-Cadmium), based on
the ampere-hour method.

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26/10/2014

Battery Application in Industrial


Power Systems

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

Steps to be considered in battery sizing:

Topic 3

Step 1 Collect load data to be supported by


the battery
Step 2 Construct load profile and calculate the
design load (VA) and design energy (VAh)
Step 3 Select battery type and determine the
characteristics of the cell
Step
4 Select
battery
cells
be
St
S l t number
b off b
tt
ll to
t b
connected in series
Step 5 Calculate required Ampere-hour (Ah)
capacity of the battery

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Battery Application in Industrial


Power Systems
BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Design load (VA) (Step 2):

Design energy demand (VAh) (Step 2):

S d S p 1 k g 1 k C

E d E t 1 k g 1 k C

where,

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Sp is the peak load apparent power (VA)


Et is the total load energy (VAh)
kg is a contingency for future load growth (%)
(10%)
kc is a design margin (%) (10%)

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26/10/2014

Battery Application in Industrial


Power Systems

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

Factors to be considered for battery type


selection (Step 3):

Topic 3

Physical characteristics
Expected life of cell
Frequency and depth of discharge
Ambient temperature
g g characteristics
Charging
Maintenance requirements
Ventilation requirements
Seismic factors (vibration and shock)

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Battery Application in Industrial


Power Systems

Most common number of cells (Step 4):

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

Rated Voltage
g

Lead-Acid

Ni-Cd

12 V

9 10

Topic 3

24 V

12

18 20

48 V

24

36 40

125 V

60

92 100

250 V

120

184 200

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26/10/2014

Battery Application in Industrial


Power Systems

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

Number of cells calculation (Step 4):


N max

Topic 3

VDCC 1 Vl ,max
a
Vc

N min

VDCC 1 Vl ,min
Veod

where,

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Nmax/ Nmin is the max. or min. of cells


VDC is the nominal battery voltage
Vl,max is
tolerance
(%)
i the
th max. load
l d voltage
lt
t l
Vl,min is the min. load voltage tolerance (%)
VC is the cell charging voltage (charge cycle)
Veod is the cell end of discharge voltage

Battery Application in Industrial


Power Systems

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Min. battery capacity required (Step 5):


Cmin

where,

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Ed (1 k a ) (1 kc ) kt
VDC k dod

Cmin is the min. battery capacity (Ah)


Ed is the design energy over autonomy time (VAh)
VDC is the nominal battery voltage
ka is a battery ageing factor (%) (25%)
kc is a capacity rating factor (%) (10%)
kt is a temperature correction factor
kdod is the max. depth of discharge (%) (80%)

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26/10/2014

Battery Application in Industrial


Power Systems

Cell correction fa
actors for temperature

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

IEEE Std 485-1997

Topic 3

31

Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

32

The primary function of uninterruptible


power supplies is to ensure continuity of
electrical
l
l power during
d
power outage or
contingencies.
UPS can be used to improve PQ especially
voltage quality in IPS.
Static transfer switches can be used to
supply power to a load via two independent
power sources. In the event of a fault, they
automatically transfer the loads from one
source to the other.

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26/10/2014

Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)
BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

Online

Topic 3

Offline

Lineinteractive

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Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)
Online or Double conversion UPS
BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

In normal operation, the load is supplied with power


permanently
l via the
h inverter.
Bypass channel can be used to increase the
availability of the power supply in the event of an
overload or if the inverter shuts down following a
fault or for maintenance purposes.

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26/10/2014

Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)
Line-interactive UPS
BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

Topic 3

The load is supplied from power supply via power


f
h h connected
d in parallel
ll l with
h the
h
interface
in which
inverter. Can improve voltage quality/ harmonics.

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Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)
Offline or passive stand-by UPS
BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

In normal operation, the load is supplied with power


d
directly
l via the
h line.
l
If the line voltage strays outside the permissible
load tolerance limits, the inverter takes place.
This configuration is designed for low-sensitivity
loads such as personal computers.

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26/10/2014

Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

Steps in UPS sizing:

list Consider apparent


Step 1 Prepare load list.
power and autonomy hour:
P
S
cos

Step 2 Construct load profile


Step 3 Calculate peak design load (in kVA) and
design energy demand (kVAH)

Topic 3

S d S p 1 k g 1 kc

Ed Et 1 k g 1 kc

kg future load growth (10%)


kc design margin (10%)
Sp peak load
Et total load energy (VAh)

37

Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Step 4 Battery sizing


Step 5 Rectifier/ Charger sizing. The design
DC load current:
S is the selected UPS rating (kVA)
S
I L , DC
VDC is the nominal battery/ DC link
V DC
voltage
The maximum charging current:
IC

C k l
tC

C is the selected battery capacity (Ah)


kl is the battery recharge efficiency/ loss
factor (pu) (1.1)
tc is the min. battery recharge time (hrs)

The total min. DC rectifier/ charger current:


I DC I L , DC I C
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26/10/2014

Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Step 6 Inverter/ Static switch sizing.


For a three-phase UPS:
S
IL
3 V0
For a single-phase UPS:
S
IL
V0
where,
where
S is the selected UPS rating (kVA)
V0 is the nominal AC voltage

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Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Example 3.3
An inverter based UPS is installed in a
factory to run 10 Nos of 250 VA ESD
cabinets for at least 3 hours during blackout
period. The battery bank output voltage is
120 VDC. The future growth contingency and
the design margin are both considered as
10%.
10%

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26/10/2014

Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Example 3.3

a) The cell charging voltage is 2.25 VDC/cell, the endfd h


l
8 VDC/cell,
/ ll and
d the
h
of-discharge
voltage
is 1.8
minimum and maximum load voltage tolerance are
10% and 20%, respectively. Decide the number of
cells in series.
b) Given a depth of discharge is 80%, battery ageing
factor is 20%, temperature correction factor for
vented
t d cellll att 30C is
i 0.956
0 956 and
d the
th capacity
it rating
ti
factor is 10%. Compute the minimum battery size
(in AH).

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Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)
a)
BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

N max
a

Topic 3

N min

VDC 1 Vl ,max
Vc
VDC 1 Vl ,min
Veod

1201 0.2
64 cells
2.25

1201 0.1
60 cells
1.8

The selected n
number
mbe of cells in se
series
ies is 62
cells.

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26/10/2014

Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)
b)
E d 10 250 3 1 0.1 1 0.1 9075VAH

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

The minimum battery size,


C min

E d (1 k a ) (1 k c ) k t 9075 1.2 1.1 0.956


119.29 AH

VDC k dod
120 0.8

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Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Example 3.4
Table E3.4 shows the critical loads for a
plastic packaging plant that to be supplied
by UPS during power outage period. Figure
E3.4 depicts the connection diagram of the
proposed UPS and its main configurations.

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26/10/2014

Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)
BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

a) Construct the load profile (VA versus period


in hour) for the UPS loading
b) Compute the peak design load and design
energy demand if the future growth
contingency and the design margin are
both considered as 10%
c) Design the UPS based on the ratings of the
battery bank, the rectifier system, the static
switch and the inverter system

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Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)

BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Table E3.4

Load Description
Distributed Control System
Cabinet
Electrostatic Discharge
Cabinet
Telecommunications
Cabinet
Computer Console
HMI Units

Rating
(VA)

Nos
(Unit)

350

10

Autonomy
Time
(Hours)
4

400

10

180

120
150

5
10

2
4

46

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26/10/2014

Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS) Figure E3.4
BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Bypass
AC Input
Supply

Static
Switch
415V AC
Output

Main AC
Input Supply

Rectifier

Inverter

Battery
Bank

Output voltage is 120 VDC


Depth of discharge is 85%
Battery ageing factor
is 25%
f

Temperature correction factor for vented cell at 30C is 0.956


Capacity rating factor is 8%
Recharge efficiency factor is 1.1
47

Minimum recharge time is 3 hours

Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)
a) Load profile of the UPS loading:
BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems

VA
12000

Topic 3

10000
8000
6000
4000
2000

2
48

Operating
hour

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26/10/2014

Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)
BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

b) The peak design load = 540 + 4000 + 3500


+ 1500 + 600 = 10,140 VA
Total energy demand,
= 540(8) + 4000(6) + 3500(4) + 1500(4) +
600(2) = 49,520 VAH
The design energy demand,
E d 49,520 1 0.1 1 0.1 59,919.2VAH

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Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)
c) Battery bank sizing,
BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

50

C min

E d (1 k a ) (1 k c ) k t 59,919.2 1.25 1.08 0.956

758.15 AH
VDC k dod
120 0.85

A battery bank capacity of 800 AH is


selected.
Rectifier sizing,
sizing
Design load = 10140 (1.1)(1.1) = 12,269.4
VA
The 15,000 VA of design load is considered.

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26/10/2014

Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)
c) Design DC load current,
BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

I L , DC

Maximum battery charging current,


IC

51

15,000VA
125 A
120V

8001.1
293.3 A
3

Total minim
minimum
m DC rectifier
ectifie and charging
cha ging
currents,
IDC = IL,DC + IC = 125A + 293.3A = 418.3A
A DC rectifier rating of 420A is selected.

Design of Uninterruptible Power


Supplies (UPS)
Inverter and static switch sizing,
BEF 44903
Industrial
Power Systems
Topic 3

Output AC voltage is 415V,


Design AC load current,
I L , AC

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15,000VA
3 415V

20.87 A

An inverter and static switch rating of 30A is


selected.

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