BokoHaram:HowaMilitantIslamistGroupEmergedinNigeria

byFemiOwolade
March27,2014at5:00am
http://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/4232/bokoharamnigeria

TheWesterninfluenceofBritishcolonialistscausedadivisionamongthepeopleof
NorthernNigeria,whowereonceunitedbyIslam.Thisdivisionsaw,ononeside,theso
called"civilized"byWesternstandardselitewhowereusedbytheBritishasagentsof
colonizationandontheotherside,thecommoners,whovehementlyresistedWestern
influenceintheregion.
DissatisfactionwithWesterninfluencealsoledtoanemergenceofIslamistfundamentalists
amongpeopleoftheNortheasternregionofNigeria.
ThereasonMohammedYusuffoundedBokoHaramappearstobethathesawan
opportunitytoexploitpublicoutrageatgovernmentcorruptionbylinkingittoWestern
influenceingovernance.
WhatdevelopmentsmighthavetriggeredtheemergenceofviolentIslamistgroupBokoHaramduringthe
lastdecadeinNigeria?AccordingtoUmarMamodu[1]ascholarandkeyBokoHaramhistorianits
inceptionin2002resultedfromaclashbetweenthemoderateIslamicteachingsoftheprominentSheikh
JafaarAdamattheMahammaduNdimiMosqueinMaiduguriBornoStateintheNortheasternpartof
Nigeria,andthemoremilitantinterpretationoftheQur'anbyhisdisciple,MohammedYusuf.[2]
AccordingtoMamodu[3],Yusufbelievedinthecreationofaneworderinwhichthewretchedshould
inherittheearth,andforhisextremistviews,wasexpelledin2002fromtheNdimiMosqueCommittee.[4]
LaterthatyearYusufbuiltamosqueinthenortheastNigeriatoserveasamagnetforprimaryand
secondaryschoolpupilswho,inresponsetohisteachings,wouldabandonWesternizedschoolsinthe
beliefthatWesterneducation[Boko]isasin[Haram]hencethenameBokoHaram.[5]
Thegroup'sofficialname,accordingtoitsmanifesto,isJamaiatuAhlisSunnaLidda'awataWalJihad,[6]
whichtranslatesas"AssociationofSunnisforthePropagationofIslamandJihad."[7]AbulQaqa,the
officialspokesmanofthegroup,statedcategorically,inaninterviewreportedbyReportersWithout
Borders,thatBokoHaram'sobjectiveisthe"applicationofSharialawthroughoutNigeria[t]hrough
kidnappings,bombingsandsuicideattacksaimedattheUnitedNations,churchesandsymbolsofthe
federalgovernmentsuchaspolicestations."[8]
Ideologically,BokoHaramopposesnotonlyWesterneducationbutalsoWesterncultureandsciencea
positionMohammedYusufrevealedinaninterviewconductedbytheBBC,whenhestatedthatthebelief
thattheearthissphericalinshapeisasharpcontradictiontoIslamicthoughtandthereforeshouldbe
rejectedalongwithDarwinismandthetheorythatraincomesfromwaterevaporatedbythesun.[9]
Ironically,NigerianacademicHussainZakariatoldBBCNewsthatYusuf"isgraduateeducatedandvery
proficientinEnglish".[10]
ViolencelinkedtoBokoHaram'sactivitiesisreportedtohaveresultedinanestimated10,000deaths
between2001and2013.[11]Since2012alone,accordingtoanAmnestyInternationalreportthatdetails
BokoHaram'sactivitiesinNigeria,"atleast70teachersandover100schoolchildrenandstudentshave
beenkilledorwounded.Atleast50schoolshaveeitherbeenburnedorseriouslydamagedandmorethan
60othershavebeenforcedtoclose.Thousandsofchildrenhavebeenforcedoutofschoolsacross

communitiesinYobe,Kaduna,AdamawaandBornostates."[12]

AbubakarShekau,leaderoftheNigerianIslamistterroristgroupBokoHaram,appears
inavideocommuniquclaimingresponsibilityforanOctober24,2013attackthat
killed35people.

BokoHaramisconsideredathreattonotonlyNigeriabutalsotheentireworld.In2012,thenCommander
oftheU.S.AfricaCommand(AFRICOM),GeneralCarterHam,voicedconcernsabouttheintentof
terroristgroupssuchasSomalia'sAlShabaab,AlQaedaintheIslamicMaghreb[AQIM]andBoko
Haramtocollaborateandsynchronizetheirefforts.Afterthe2011ChristmasDaybombingsofchurchesin
Nigeria,GeneralHamsaidthatheremainedgreatlyconcernedaboutBokoHaram'sstatedintentto
connectwithAlQaeda'sseniorleadership.[13]

SociopoliticalstateofNorthernNigeria:Maitatsine
Nigeriawascreatedin1914fromanamalgamationofthenorthandsouthregionbyBritishcolonial
authorities.NorthernNigeriaconsistsmainlyoftheHausaandFulaniethnicgroups,whoare
predominantlyMuslim,whileSouthernNigeriaconsistsoftheYorubaandIgboethnicgroups,whoare
Christiansandanimistworshippers.
ThehistoryofNorthernNigeriahasbeenprofoundlyinfluencedbyreligionandpolitics.SincetheBorno
SultanateandtheSokotoCaliphatewhichruledpartsofwhatisnowNorthernNigeria,theRepublicof
NigerandsouthernCameroonfellunderBritishcontrolin1903,therehasbeenstrongresistanceto
WesterneducationamongtheMuslimsofthearea.[14]
IntheNorthernpartofNigeria,religionhaslongbeenusedasaunitingtool.TheFulaniJihadsof1804
1808,throughconquestandconversion,superimposedIslamontheHausaidentity,creatingacentral
politicalandreligiousauthorityonthefragmentedHausastatesofpresentdayNorthwesternNigeria,and
fusingthemintoonepoliticalandlinguisticunit.[15]AshistorianJohnPhillipsstated,tobeHausa
graduallycametomeanthatonewasaMuslim,eventhoughnotallMuslimsintheregionwereHausaand
notallHausawereMuslims.[16]
TheunityseenamongNorthernersstronglycontraststotheSouthernregionofNigeria,whichismadeup
ofvariousscatteredethnicgroups,languages,politicalorganizationsandreligions.

Britishcontrolandthesubsequentcolonizationoftheregion,however,evidentlydidnotsitwellwiththe
indigenouspeopleofNorthernNigeria.[17]OppositiontoWesterninfluencefollowed,largelyduetothe
circumstancethattheHausaelitethetraders,scribesandclerksusedbytheBritishasagentstocolonize
theregionledlivesthatwerephysically,attitudinallyandmateriallyremovedfromtheirhosts'.[18]An
accountoftheindirectruleadoptedbyBritishcolonialauthoritiesstates:"Likethewhitecolonialist,these
blackimperialistswouldnotliveamongstandmixwiththepeople.Theystayedontheirown.Theyhad
theirownquartersjustastheWhitemanhadhisownGovernmentReservationArea..."[19]Althoughthis
accountreferstotheIgedeareaofcentralNigeria,inhisexaminationoftheaccount,MosesOchonu,
AssociateProfessorofAfricanHistoryatVanderbiltUniversity,observedthat,"inmanyways,theHausa
auxiliariestoowerevictimsofacolonialadministrativepolicyshapedbytheracistnotionofthemore
civilizednativeshelpingtocivilizethelesscivilizedones."[20]
AddedtotheWesterninfluenceingovernmentandadministration,wasthesuspicionofthespreadof
ChristianityinaNorthernNigeriadominatedbyIslam.AsFaroukChothiacommentedinaBBCreport,"
[O]wingtoactivitiesofearlyChristianmissionarieswhousedWesterneducationasatoolforevangelism,
itisviewedwithsuspicionbythelocalNorthernpopulation."[21]
TheWesterninfluenceofBritishcolonialistscausedadivisionamongthepeopleofNorthernNigeria,who
wereonceunitedbyIslam.Thisdivisionsaw,ononeside,thesocalled"civilized"byWestern
standardselitewhowereusedbytheBritishasagentsofcolonizationandontheotherside,the
commoners,whovehementlyresistedWesterninfluenceintheregion.Writtenaccountsshowthatnotonly
didthesystemofgovernancecauseanimosityamongthepeoplelivinginNorthernNigeriathesystem
wasalsoseenasacheapandanineffectivecolonizationproject.[22]
IntheyearsleadingtoNigeria'sindependencein1960,therewasapopularmovementamongNorthern
NigeriansknownastheTalakawas[23]headedbyAminuKano,asocialistpoliticianwholedanIslamic
uprisingagainstBritishcolonialistsinthe1940s.TalakawashadasitsdrivingforceadistasteforWestern
influence,andplannedtousepoliticsandreligiontocreatea"NorthernNigerianSocietyofSocialJustice,
EconomicProsperityandFairness".AstudyonthegovernmentofNorthernNigeriafrom13501950
showsthatmanyTalakawas(commoners)inKanoStatesupportedthatmessagetodemonstrate
disapprovalwithwhattheyperceivedasanunrepresentativegovernmentcomposedofaselectedfew.[24]
DissatisfactionwithWesterninfluencealsoledtoanemergenceofIslamistfundamentalistsamongpeople
oftheNortheasternregionofNigeria.ProminentamongthemwasMohammedMarwa,aradicalpreacher
alsoknownasMaitatsine["theonewhocurses"],notoriousforhisviolentactivitiesduringthe1970sand
1980s.[25]MarwadenouncedWesterninfluenceandtechnology,andalsomainstreamMuslimteachers.
Theriotsandarmedclashesheinstigated,whichpittedhisfollowersagainstpoliceandthearmy,resulted
inthedeathsofthousandsofpeopleinthecountry.[26]ABBCreportquotesawitnesswhosawhundreds
ofpeoplesummarilyexecuted,astheNigerianauthoritiestriedtocrushaweeklonguprisinginDecember
1980,speakingofthehorrificnatureMaitatsine'sattacks:
"Theywereextrajudicialkillingseverywhere..Therewerehundredsofthem,innocentpeople."[27]
Thereportwentontosay,"Hereticalseemstobetheonlywordtodescribehim[Maitatsine]hehad
millennialideasoftheendoftime.Therewasacertainfanaticism[byMaitatsine'srebels]which
overwhelmedtheattempttodealwiththemIsawalotofdeadbodieseverywhere.Everywherewas
filledwithdeadbodies.Roadblocksweremountedeverybodywaslivinginabsolutelyfear.People
werelivingwiththeirheartsintheirmouth".[28]Intheaftermathoftheuprising,itwasreportedthat,"It
tookthepolicethreedaystogetthebodiesoffthestreet.Anestimated4,000peoplewerekilledinthe
weeklonguprising."[29]

AnalystTonyJohnsonviewsBokoHaramasaspawnoftheMaitatsineriots.[30]
ThisdisenfranchisementofcommonersintheNorthernpartofNigeriaseemstohavebeenusedasan
opportunitybythecommonerstocarryoutuprisingsforsocialjustice,anIslamicmodeofgoverningand
economicprosperityagainstthe"establishment."
ThereasonMohammedYusuffoundedBokoHaram,accordingtoaccountsofUmarMamoduanArabic
scholarandBokoHaramhistorian,appearstobethathesawanopportunitytoexploitpublicoutrageat
governmentcorruptionbylinkingittoWesterninfluenceingovernance.[31]Yusuf,accordingto
Mamodu'saccount,wantedtogatheryoungimpressionablemindsthathadnevergottenafairdealfrom
governmenthewasfascinatedwiththeideaofdestroyingthesocial,politicalandreligiousordertocreate
aneworderinwhichthewretchedwouldinherittheearth.[32]ThisnotionhaspromptedChrisKwaja,a
Nigerianresearcheronreligion,toassertthat"religiousdimensionsoftheconflicthavebeenmisconstrued
astheprimarydriverofviolencewhen,infact,disenfranchisementandinequalityaretherootcauses."[33]
AnotherNigerianresearcherwrote,"Apsychoanalysisoftheadherentsofthesectshowsthattheirmajor
beliefisinthefullimplementationofSharialawintheirrespectivestates.WithShariafullyimplemented,
therewillbesocialjustice,economicprosperity,equalityandfairnessWesterneducationisnotreally
thereproblemMaladministrationistheremotecause."[34]
AlookatthemembershipofBokoHaramwillalsorevealtherolethatbadgovernanceand
disenfranchisementofcommonersinNorthernNigerianstateshaveplayedinthegroup'semergence.
Accordingtofiguresextrapolatedfroma2001articlebyTonyJohnsonfortheCouncilofForeign
Relations,thesect'shundredsoffollowers,mostlyNortherners,knownalsoasYusuffiya,consistedlargely
ofimpoverishedIslamicstudentsandclerics,aswellasuniversitystudentsandprofessionals,manyof
whomwereunemployed.[35]HumanRightsWatchresearcherEricGuttschusstoldIRINNewsthat
Yusufsuccessfullyattractedfollowers"byspeakingoutagainstpoliceandpoliticalcorruption"onbehalf
ofthecountry's"vastnumbersofunemployedyouth[who]hewasabletotapintoforrecruits".[36]He
alsowentontosuggestthattheemergenceofBokoHaramislargelyduetocorruptionandpoor
governance.[37]

Nigeria:NorthSouthDivide
SincetheamalgamationofSouthernandNorthernNigeriain1914,ithasbeenarguedthatNigeriahas
favoredtheelitesoftheNorthattheexpenseofinhabitantsoftheSouthernregion.AtNigeria's100year
anniversary,constitutionallawyerFredAgbajesuggestedthattheamalgamationbytheBritishwasaself
servingalliance.Theamalgamation,hewrote,"putthepoliticaladministrationofNigeriainthehandsof
somepeopleinsteadofanequitabledistributionofpower."[38]
AfterNigeria'sIndependencein1960,theNorthSouthdivisionledtodiscriminationagainstSoutherners.
Between1963and1998,NigeriasawanearunbrokenchainofrulersfromtheNorth.[39]Duringthis
period,therewere16PoliceCommissionersinchargeofLagosState(aSouthernState).Outofthis
number,eightwereNortherners.IntheNorthernstateofKaduna,withthesamenumberof
Commissioners,onlyone,JosephAdeolawasaSouthernertheremaining15wereallNortherners.[40]
Thisdisproportionatedistributionofpositionsofpowernotonlyexistedinthepolice,butalsoinmost
NorthernledmilitaryjuntasinwhichgovernorsofSouthernStatesweremostlyNortherners.[41]
Inthebankingsector,SouthernerswerenotsparedthediscriminationofaNigeriadominatedby
Northerners.ThedisplayofuneventreatmentreacheditspeakduringGeneralSaniAbacha'sregime,
whichwasdominatedbyNortherners.ThecentralgovernmentpassedtheFailedBanksdecree,ostensibly
tocleanupcorruptioninthebankingsectorofNigeriaand"sanitize"it,however,thiswasactuallyusedto

persecuteSoutherners[42]bydeliberatelytargetingandarrestingformerbankerswhowereGeneralSani
Abacha'spoliticalandpersonalenemies[43]andwhoweremembersofSouthernstates,allthewhile
shieldingtheNortherners.AnexampleofthepreferentialtreatmentofNorthernersisthecaseofahigh
profileNorthernerwhohadacompanythatwasindebtfor300millionnairatooneofthedistressed
banks.[44]HewasnotchargedbeforeanytribunalincontrasttomanySouthernbankdirectorsand
companyownerswhowerekeptindetentionindefinitely.[45]
ThedisbursementofproceedsfromNigeria'sPetroleumTrustFund[PTF]alsoseemstodiscriminate
againstSoutherners.AlthoughtheoilproducingstatesaresituatedintheSouthernregionofthecountry,
thesestateshavebenefitedtheleastfromtheoilwealth.[46]BeforeOlusegunObasanjobecamethefirst
PresidentofNigeria'sthirdrepublicin1999,thePTFgeneratedmorethan70%ofitsrevenueintheSouth,
whiledisbursinglessthan40%ofthemoneyintheSouth.
TocompoundtheunfairtreatmentofSoutherners,therewasaworrisometransferoffederalpublic
institutionstoAbuja,astatedominatedbyNorthernHausaspeakingpeople,aftertheFederalCapital
TerritoryofNigeriawasmovedtherefromLagos,astateintheSouthernregion:Inparticular,therewas
theeconomicallyandlogisticallyimpracticaldecisiontohavetheNigerianPortsAuthority[NPA]and
NigerianMaritimeAuthority[NMA]relocatetoAbuja,whenthemajorportsareinLagosandother
coastalstatesintheSouth.[47]

TerrorismagainsttheNigerianState
AftertheelectionofGoodluckEbeleJonathan,aChristianSoutherner,asthePresidentoftheFederal
RepublicofNigeriain2010,therewasanincreaseinviolentactivitiesbytheBokoHaramsect,who
begantowagewaronthenewgovernmentledbyPresidentJonathan,whohasoftenbeencriticizedfor
indulginginethnicfactionalismandfavoringtheIjawethnicgroupsituatedinSouthernNigeria.[48]
BeforethebombingoftheUnitedNationsbuildinginNigeria'scapitalofAbujaonAugust16th2011,the
mostdaringactivityofBokoHaramhadbeenthegroup'sJune7,2011bombingofAbuja'spolice
headquarters.ThatattackappearedtobespecificallytargetedtheInspectorGeneralofPolice,Hafiz
Ringim.[49]
OnJuly10,2011,aChristianFellowshipChurchinSuleja,NigerState,inthe"MiddleBelt"partof
Nigeria,wasbombed.ThenextdaytheUniversityofMaiduguri,intheNorthernpartofNigeria,closed
ontheorderoftheUniversityAuthority,citingsecurityconcerns.[50]
BokoHaramhasmadeitknownbywayofpublicannouncements,[51]backedbyterroristactions,thatits
strategyistoundermineNigeriangovernmentalauthority.BokoHaram'svideoclipswhichcanbe
viewedonYouTubefeaturingthegroup'sleader,AbubakarShekau,stressdisdainfortheSouthern
dominatedgovernment.[52]Apartfromvideofootage,theShekau,hasunderlinedhisantigovernment
positioninofficialstatements.[53]
Apartfromcountlessattacksoncivilians,otherattackshavebeencarriedoutthatshowdirectoppositionto
theNigeriangovernment.InSeptember7,2010attack,membersofBokoHaramsetfreeover700inmates
fromaprisoninBauchiState.[54]InBornoState,BokoHaram'sviolencehaskilledapproximately800
people,includingrelativesofhighrankingstateofficials.[55]
In2013,BokoHaramtookcontrolofthelocalgovernmentsofMarte,Mobbar,Gubio,Guzamala,
Abadam,Kukawa,KalaBalgeandGamboruNgala,inBornoState,chasingoutgovernmentofficials,
takenovergovernmentbuildingsandimposingSharialaw.[56]

ThoughtheinsurgencycarriedoutbyBokoHaramhasnotbeenlimitedtoanygeographicalareato
denoteaNorthSouthdispute,anexaminationoftheaforementionedattacksshowsasystematicassaulton
symbolicentitiesoftheNigerianState.

BokoHaramAGenuinelyIslamicGroup?
SincethebeginningofBokoHaram'sinsurgencyinNigeria,thereisnodoubtthatreligioustensionhas
beenontherise.ItmayhoweverbeoverstatedtoconcludethattheIslamChristianitydisputesolelyledto
thegroup'semergence.
LookingbackatBokoHaram'shistory,whichismarredbyMuslimvs.Muslimconflict,itcanbeseenthat
theintrareligiousdisputeadherentsofIslamplayedakeyroleinBokoHaram'screation.Notonlyare
mostofthegroup'sactivitiesspecificallylocatedintheMuslimpopulatedNorthernregionofNigeria,
evidencealsoshowsthatthemajorityofNigeria'sMuslimpopulationdonotsupporttheactivitiesofBoko
Haram,andithasbeenreportedthatthemembersofBokoHaramdonotinteractwiththelocalMuslim
populations.[57]Also,severalprominentMuslimfiguressuchasthegovernorofNigerState,[58]the
SultanofSokoto[59]andtheCoalitionofMuslimClericsinNigeria[CMCN][60]havepublicly
denouncedthegroup.
NigerianshavebeencaughtupinanimbroglioindistinguishingthepoliticallydrivenIslamistmovement
fromafaithdrivenIslam.ThishascausedareligioustensionbetweenChristiansandMuslimssincethe
onsetoftheinsurgencyledbyBokoHaram.
BokoHaramfallsprimarilyunderthecategoryofapoliticalgroupconsistingfundamentallyofIslamists
who,byusingreligiousobscurantism,hideunderthecloakofthefaithbasedIslam.

Conclusion
EvidenceshowsthattheoriginofBokoHaramislinkedtothepovertyandlackofdevelopmentin
NorthernstatesofNigeriaintheeraofcolonialism.BokoHaram,whichperceivestheWestasa
corruptinginfluenceonthegovernanceofNorthernStates,emergedasanarmedrevoltagainstawidening
regionaleconomicdisparity.
AlthoughtheelectionofNigeria'sPresidentGoodluckJonathanaSouthernChristianprovokedmany
NorthernersandcoincidedwithanincreaseinBokoHaram'sviolentactivities,thereisnoevidence
indicatingconclusivelythatBokoHaramemergedsolelyinresponsetoNorthSouthtensionsinNigeria.
Also,alackofviolenceactivitiesbythegroupintheSouthfurtherdisprovesthenotionthatBokoHaram's
emergedprimarilyduetotheNorthSouthdivide.
Lastly,inthedifferentiationofIslamandIslamism,faithbasedIslamdoesnotplaytheparamountrolein
inspiringBokoHaram'sactivities.Instead,politicallydrivenIslamismwasadoptedasadoctrinetowage
waronall,includingMuslimswhoadoptWesternization.ThereligiousfaceusedbyBokoHaramisa
deceptivecloaktodeceiveNigeriansthatshareIslamicsentiments.ButthereisnoevidencethatMuslims
generallyendorseorcondoneactivitiesofBokoHaram.ThespecificattacksonIslamicStatesinthe
North,suchasthemosquebombinginBornoState,indicatefurtherthatthisviolentgroupisprimarilyan
ideologicallydrivenpoliticalorganizationtryingtoweakentheinfluenceofmoderateIslaminNorthern
Nigeria,whichtheydeemasWesternized.
FemiOwoladeisaLaw(LLB)graduateofKingstonUniversityLondon.Hecurrentlylivesin
NigeriaandserveasaLegalAssistanttotheDLD(DirectorofLegalDrafting)ofKwara

State'sMinistryofJustice.

Notes
[1]UmarMamodu,"BokoHaramTheBeginning"Lagos[2011].UmarMamoduisanArabicScholarin
theNorthernpartofNigeria,Kano(NorthernStateofNigeria).HehasdebatedonmattersrelatingtoIslam
inNigeriaandiswellversedintheHistoryofBokoHaram.HehasalsobeenasourceforNigerian
newspapers.In2009,hehadaconversationonBokoHaramwithNiyiOwolade,aformerAttorney
GeneralandCommissionerforJusticeofOsunState(southwestNigeria)andAtireneWilson,alawyer
fromSouthNigeria.
[2]Ibid
[3]Ibid
[4]Ibid
[5]Ibid
[6]ReporterswithoutBorders,"InnermostthoughtsoftheIslamistGroupBokoHaram,"Reporters
withoutBordersParis[2012]
[7]SamuelA.Ekanem,JacobA.DadaandBasseyJ.Ejue,"BOKOHARAMANDAMNESTY:A
PHILOLEGALAPPRAISAL",InternationalJournalofHumanitiesandSocialScienceVol.2No.4
NewYork[Feb2012]
[8]ReporterswithoutBorders,"InnermostthoughtsoftheIslamistGroupBokoHaram,"Reporters
withoutBordersParis[2012]
[9]JoeBoyle,"Nigeria'sTalibanEnigma",BBCNews,London31July2009
[10]Ibid
[11]JohnAllen,"TheCatholicChurch:WhatEveryoneNeedsToKnow",OxfordUniversityPress
London{2013]P166167
[12]AmnestyInternational,"KeepawayfromSchoolsorwe"llkillyou:Educationunderattackin
Nigeria",
[13]MarkDoyle,"Africa'sIslamistMilitantsCoordinateEfforts"BBCNews,LondonJune262012
[14]Ibid
[15]MosesOchonu,"ColonialismwithinColonialism:TheHausaCaliphateImaginaryandtheBritish
ColonialAdministrationoftheNigerianMiddleBelt",AfricanStudiesQuarterly"Gainsville[2008]
[16]J.Philips,"SpuriousArabic:HausaandColonialnorthernNigeria",AfricanStudiesCenter,Madison
2000
[17]IraMarvinLapidus,"IslaminWestAfrica",CambridgeUniversityPressCambridge[2002]P405
[18]MosesOchonu,"ColonialismwithinColonialism:TheHausaCaliphateImaginaryandtheBritish
ColonialAdministrationoftheNigerianMiddleBelt",AfricanStudiesQuarterly"Gainsville[2008]
[19]A.P.Anyebe,"ManofCourageandCharacter:TheOgbulukoWarinColonialIdomaland"Fourth
DimensionPublishers,Enugu2002
[20]MosesOchonu,"ColonialismwithinColonialism:TheHausaCaliphateImaginaryandtheBritish
ColonialAdministrationoftheNigerianMiddleBelt",AfricanStudiesQuarterly"Gainsville[2008]
[21]FaroukChothia,"WhoareNigeria'sBokoHaramIslamists?",BBCNews,London11January2012
[22]MosesOchonu,"ColonialismwithinColonialism:TheHausaCaliphateImaginaryandtheBritish
ColonialAdministrationoftheNigerianMiddleBelt",AfricanStudiesQuarterly"Gainsville[2008]
[23]M.GSmith"GovernmentinKano,13501950",WestviewPressBoulder[1997].ThetermTalakawa
isusedtodenoteacommonerfromtheNorthernpartofNigeria.
[24]Ibid
[25]TonyJohnson,"Backgrounder:BokoHaram",CouncilonForeignRelations,NewYork31,August
2011

[26]Ibid
[27]BBCWitness"Maitatsine".
[28]Ibid
[29]Ibid
[30]TonyJohnson,"Backgrounder:BokoHaram",CouncilonForeignRelations,NewYork31,August
2011
[31]UmarMamodu,"BokoHaramTheBeginning"Lagos[2011].
[32]Ibid
[33]ChrisKwaja,"Nigeria'sPerniciousDriversofEthnoReligiousConflict",AfricaSecurityBrief
(AfricaCenterforStrategicStudies)Washington,DC[2011]
[34]Temidayo,A."BokoHaram:TheWayOut",theNationLagos[2011]p.13.
[35]TonyJohnson,"Backgrounder:BokoHaram",CouncilonForeignRelations,NewYork31,August
2011
[36]IRINNews,"Analysis:UnderstandingNigeria'sBokoHaramradicals",IRINNews,Nairobi,18July
2011
[37]Ibid
[38]"ProminentNigeriansreactoverAmalgamationof1914",TheDailySunLagos,1stJanuary,2014.
[39]"AbrahamAdesanya"Afeniferi:YorubaNationEndangered,"Abeokuta[1998].Textofthemaiden
conferencedeliveredinLagosbytheNationalLeaderoftheAfenifereSocioCulturalOrganization,
SenatorAbrahamAdesanya.
[40]Ibid
[41]Ibid
[42]Ibid
[43]BanjiAyiloge,"Abachadefendsnonexistingintegrity"Soc.culture.nigeriaLagos[1997]
[44]Afenifere,"YorubaNationEndangered"Abeokuta[1998].Textofthemaidenconferencedelivered
inLagosbytheNationalLeaderoftheAfenifereSocioCulturalOrganization,SenatorAbraham
Adesanya.
[45]Ibid
[46]O.Douglasandothers,"OilandMilitancyintheNigerDelta:TerroristThreatorAnother
Columbia?"apaperpresentedduringapeacerally,InstituteofInternationalStudies,Universityof
California,Berkeley,USA.[2004]
[47]"AbrahamAdesanyaAfeniferi:Strugglefordemocracy,"Abeokuta[1998].Textofthemaiden
conferencedeliveredinLagosbytheNationalLeaderoftheAfenifereSocioCulturalOrganization,
SenatorAbrahamAdesanya.
[48]EricOsagie,"Obasanjo'sletterbomb",DailySun,Lagos,December162013,p61
[49]TheNation,Lagos,June182011,pp12
[50]DailySunNewspaperEditorials,Lagos,June282011,p4
[51]YouTube,30December2013
[52]Ibid
[53]AislinnLaing,"BokoHaramLeadertauntsUSoverBounty",
[54]SamuelA.Ekanem,JacobA.DadaandBasseyJ.Ejue,"BOKOHARAMANDAMNESTY:A
PHILOLEGALAPPRAISAL"InternationalJournalofHumanitiesandSocialScienceVol.2No.4,
NewYork[Feb2012]
[55]TheNationNewspaperEditorial,Lagos,July3,2011,p13
[56]IntegratedRegionalInformationNetworks,"NigeriansontherunasmilitarycombatBokoHaram",
IrinNewsNairobi[May2013]
[57]"DozenskilledinNigeriaclashes"BBCNews,London,July262009
[58]JimmohAbbas,"BokoHaramnotrepresentingIslamGovernorAliyu",SundayTrust,Abuja,June
132011.

[59]BayoOladejiandGeorgeAgba,"SmokeoutBokoHaramSponsors,JonathanOrdersSecurity
Chiefs",AllAfrica,December302011
[60]"GallupPoll,NigerianMuslimsOverwhelmingOpposeBokoHaram",IslamToday,February20
2012
RelatedTopics:Nigeria
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