Numerical Methods of Geotechnics

Prof. Minna Karstunen

University of Strathclyde

Tentative schedule: Jan 16-20, 2012

Introduction to numerical modelling & finite elements

Linear elasticity

Basic concepts of plasticity and Mohr Coulomb model

Non linear finite elements and solution techniques

Applied theory: Introduction to PLAXIS

T01 Tutorial: Soil testing tool, Mohr-Coulomb

Applied theory: Shallow foundations

Applied theory: Structural elements and interfaces

T02 Tutorial: Shallow foundation

Tentative schedule: Jan 16-20, 2012

Drained/undrained analysis

Consolidation analysis

Applied theory: Soil parameters for drained and undrained analysis

Applied theory: Slope stability and phi-c reduction

T03 Tutorial: Consolidation and phi-c reduction

Critical state models

Applied theory: Soil parameter for critical state models

T04 Tutorial: Analysis of an embankment (inc. stability)

Tentative schedule May 28-May 21, 2012

Applied theory: Analysis of an embankment

T05 Tutorial: Boston embankment (I)

Hardening Soil Model and Small Strain Stiffness

Applied theory: Soil parameters for Hardening Soil model

Applied theory: Excavations

T06 Tutorial: Excavation in Limburg

Anisotropy, bonding and creep

Applied theory: Numerical modelling of ground improvement

T07 Tutorial: Boston embankment (II)

Assessment:
Coursework (100%) : Independent numerical analysis

Part 1A: Identify a research paper with suitable numerical analysis

Date of submission April 2, 2012

Part 1B: Numerical analysis and report

Date of submission June 15, 2012

Recommended reading:
 Muir Wood, D. Geotechnical Modelling. Spon Press, 2004.
 Potts, D. & Zdravkovic L. Finite element analysis in geotechnical engineeringTheory. Thomas Telford,1999.
 Potts, D. & Zdravkovic L. Finite element analysis in geotechnical engineeringApplication. Thomas Telford,1999.
 Potts, D., Axelsson K., Grande, L. Schweiger, H. & Long, M. Guidelines for the use
of advanced numerical analysis. Thomas Telford, 2002.
 Azizi, F. Applied analysis in geotechnics. E & F. Spon, 2000.
 Muir Wood, D. Soil behaviour and critical state soil mechanics. Cambridge
University Press,1990.
 Zienkiewicz & Taylor. The Finite Element Method available through various
publishers
 PLUS selected research papers available

Main aims of the module

Give a comprehensive understanding of the role of soil
modelling and numerical analysis in practical geotechnical
context.

The focus is on:

The selection of appropriate soil model considering a particular
application and information available,

Interpretation of values for soil parameters for numerical analysis,

Idealisation and modelling of geotechnical problems with 2D finite
element code PLAXIS

Appreciation on the limitations of finite element modelling.

At the end of the course you will be competent (but not expert)
on finite element modelling, and its opportunities and
limitations, in geotechnical context.

Introduction to numerical
modelling and finite elements

Introduction
Real problem

ij, j + bi = 0

Linear Momentum Balance

North portal
(Lleida)

360

ij =

Terzaghis principle

= +

320

280

411+100

Results

1
( u j,i + ui ,j )
2

Strain displacement equation

412+000

Continuity
equation
Quaternary
Colluvion

Middle Eocene

T v =
Early Eocene

Limestone

Mathematical
Model (PDE)

Claystone & Siltstone

= D

Darcys law

v = k H

413+000

Mechanical constitutive lawMarl

Anhydritic-Gypsiferous Claystone

H=

T
r g
f

m a.s.l.
440
400

North portal
(Lleida)

360
320
280
411+100

412+000
Quaternary
Colluvion

Solution
Analytical Numerical

Relevant

400

phenomena

m a.s.l.
440

Idealized problem
Idealized
problem(conceptual
(conceptualmodel)
model)

Middle Eocene

413+000
Early Eocene

Limestone

Claystone & Siltstone

Marl

Anhydritic-Gypsiferous Claystone

Introduction

A rigorous solution must satisfy the following






Equilibrium
Compatibility
Stress-strain relationship
Boundary conditions

Introduction
 The idealized problem can be solved by different methods:

Empirical methods

Analytical methods

Numerical methods:

Outside the scope of this course

Best alternative, but it is generally quite
difficult for actual problems to obtain an
analytical solution

Finite Difference Method (FDM)

Equations in differential form

Finite Element Method (FEM)

Equations in integral form

Boundary Element Method (BEM)

Discrete Element Method (DEM)

Methods of analysis (1)



Closed form


Constitutive behaviour linear elastic

Simple




Limit equilibrium (e.g. compatibility not satisfied, soil rigid

with a failure criterion)
Stress field (e.g. compatibility not satisfied, soil rigid with a
failure criterion)
Limit analyses (e.g. lower bound does not satisfy
compatibility, upper bound not equilibrium, both assume
soil ideally plastic with associated flow rule)
Settlement calculations (immediate, consolidation, creep)
stresses from elastic theory, principle of superposition

Settlement calculations

Both assume elastic stresses & principle of superposition

Bearing capacity
 The bearing capacity theory was first introduced for plane strain
condition by Terzaghi and then developed by Meyerhof (1953), Vesic
(1979) and Brinch-Hansen (1968) for more general conditions.
 The ultimate bearing capacity of a shallow foundation is expressed
as:

1
q f = B N
2

+ Df N d

+ c' N c

where N, Nd and Nc are the so-called bearing capacity factors.

Bearing capacity
 Formula is for general bearing capacity failure, so it does not
consider local failure or punching failure
Assumes principle of superposition, so in some cases error 25%
(but on the safe side)
 Soil assumed isotropic and homogeneous
 Errors increase when foundations subjected to moment loading.
Meyerhof (1953) and Vesic (1979) account for that by considering it to
be caused by a vertical load with a particular eccentricity e, and the
effective footing area.

Methods of analysis (2)



Numerical


Beam-spring approaches
Investigation of soil-structure interaction
 Soil modelled by springs or elastic interaction factors, so
need to make gross assumptions
 Only a single structure can be analysed
 Solutions include forces and movement of the structure,
but do not provide information on global stability or
movements of the adjacent soil
 Often neglect shear stresses


Methods of analysis (3)



Numerical
 FEM- Finite Element Method (PLAXIS, SIGMA-W,
SAFE, ABAQUS, DIANA etc.)
Simulation of the BVP attempting to satisfy all
theoretical considerations
 Accuracy depends on the ability of constitutive model to
represent real soil behaviour and the correctness of the
idealization
 User defines geometry, construction procedure, soil
parameters and boundary conditions
 Effect of time on pore pressure development can be
modelled, including coupled consolidation


Methods of analysis (3)



Numerical
 FDM- Finite Difference Method (FLAC)
Same as above, but equations in differential form
 Solution explicit, so results heavily dependent on stepsize
 No matrices are formed, so e.g. not possible to check
for convergence (you get a results but have no way of
assessing its accuracy)


Finite Difference Method

FLAC Program

v&

u&

Typical FLAC Model

Typical FLAC Model

Slope at Failure

Methods of analysis (3)



Numerical


BEM- Boundary Element Method (mainly research

codes)
Only surfaces are meshed, so less unknowns than in
FEM/FDM
 Mathematically more complex than FEM, but
computationally more efficient
 Great for linear elastic materials
 Not possible to use advanced soil models


Methods of analysis (3)



Numerical


DEM- Discrete (or distinct) Element Method

(PFC2D, PFC3D, UDEC, 3DEC)
Modelling of blocks or granular assemblies by
considering individual particles/clusters
 Particle contact properties need to be calibrated, as they
cannot be directly measured


Discrete Methods

Discrete Methods

Discrete Methods

Notation and FEM fundamentals

Introduction
Problem

PDE exact solution

f3
f2

f1
PDE

Solution

Approximation

Function

Function
(approximation)

CordaoNeto

Introduction

Approximation
Numerical methods are approximations
How good are numerical models or approximations?

N=5

N=8

N=16

It is difficult to distinguish difference between the circle and the

approximation if N = 16.
CordaoNeto

Vectors, Matrices & Notation (see also separate handout)



Stress and strain vectors

x '
'
y
z '
= [ x ' y ' z ' xy yz zx ]T
' =
xy

yz
zx

d = [d x d y d z d xy d yz d zx ]T

Vectors, Matrices & Notation



Stress-strain relationship

d ' = [ D ]d
where
T

d ' = {d x ' d y ' d z ' d xy d yz d zx }

and [D] is the elastic or elasto-plastic matrix

(6 x 6 matrix in 3D).

Vectors, Matrices & Notation

Differential matrix for 3D

continuum:

0 0
=

0 z

z 0

z x

z

y

Vectors, Matrices & Notation

 Nabla operator is a vector
defined as:

It is an operator because it assumes a meaning only

when applied to a matrix or vector, such as:

v =
x
T

u
u v w
v =
+ +
z x y z
w

x

=
y


z

Vectors, Matrices & Notation

 Gradient:
The gradient of a scalar
function f(x,y,z) is a vector
whose components are the
partial derivatives of f with
respect to x, y, and z

f

x
f
f =
y
f

z

General Formulation (3D)

Soils are multiphase materials which

are commonly assumed to have two
phases:
pores
1. Solid particles
2. Water (saturated soils) or air (dry
soils)

grains

The resolution of equilibrium equations involves the static equilibrium of soil

particles, subjected to self weight, external loads and buoyancy due to the
presence of wetting fluid.
The simultaneous fulfilment of static and hydraulic equations is commonly
referred to as fully coupled problem.

General Formulation (3D)

Balance Equations (global)

soil

Constitutive Equations
(related to the behaviour of
the materials)
dz

y
z
x

dx

dy

General Formulation (3D)



Linear Momentum Balance

Equation of motion (which reduces to Newtons second law if the quasi-static

problem is approached (no time derivatives) are considered) :

+ b = 0

where b is a vector of body forces

xy
x
xz
+
+
+ bx = 0
x
y
z
yx
y
yz
+
+
+ by = 0
x
y
z
zy
zx
z
+
+
+ bz = 0
x
y
z
xy = yx ; xz = zx ; yz =

zy

General Formulation (3D)



Small deformation formulation (1)

Assumed that all elongations, distortions and the rates of change of displacements
are small. All higher order terms are ignored and it is assumed that strains are
linear function of displacements and their derivatives.

1 ui u j
+
ij =
2 x j x i

u
v
w
x = ; y = ; z =
x
y
z
1 u v
1 v w
1 w u

xy = + ; yz = + ; zx = +
2 y x
2 z y
2 x z

General Formulation (3D)



Small deformation formulation (2)

We normally use the Cartesian notation:

u
v
w
x = ; y = ; z =
z
x
y
u v
v w
w u
xy = 2 xy = + ; yz = + ; zx =
+
y x
z y
x z

General Formulation (3D)



Terzaghis principle

= +
where is the vector (1,1,1,0,0,0)T and the pore water pressure.


Continuity equation
When a fluid is flowing through the soil mass, the mass conservation law has to be
fulfilled. Such a conservation equation (the continuity equation) reads
T

v =

p
t

within the hypothesis of incompressible fluid and without sources or sinks.

v is the flow velocity
is the volumetric strain, given by the trace of the strain tensor (=x+y+z).
p

General Formulation (3D)

A further set of equations are the constitutive equations (or constitutive
laws) for the mechanical and hydraulic problem.


Mechanical problem

The mechanical constituve law can be simply considered as a law which correlates
strain and effective stress tensor.

= D


Hydraulic problem

The link between velocity of fluid flowing through the soil mass (v) and hydraulic head
(H) is established via the Darcys equation, as a function of soil permeability k:

v = k H
Note that Bernoullis equation defines the hydraulic head
(neglecting the dynamic term).

General Formulation (3D)

Equation Name

Linear Momentum Balance

+ b = 0

Strain displacement equation

ij =

Terzaghis principle

= +

Mathematical form

1
( u j,i + u i ,j )
2

N
Equations

N
Unknown
s

6 (
)

3 (u)

6 (
)

1 (
)

Continuity equation

T v =

Mechanical constitutive law

= D

6 ()

v = k H

+ 3 (v)

25

25

Darcys law
Total

Finite Element Method

What we do?
System the Partial
Differential
equations (PDEs)
+
Boundary
Conditions

System of
Equations in
Integral form

System of algebraic
equations

Domain + Boundary

We solve this
system

Different techniques can be used to obtain the system of algebraic equations:

 Weighted Residual Method
 Variational Method
 Virtual Work Principle (very
common in structural problems)

Typical 2D mesh
Footing
width = B

Elements connected
together in nodes
Primary variables
(displacements) are
calculated in nodes
Node

Gauss point

Typical 2D mesh
Footing
width = B

Displacements interpolated
within element to calculate
strains at Gauss points

Node

Gauss point

Constitutive law is
used to relate strains
to stresses

Forces acting at nodes

are calculated (inc.
body forces and
surface tractions)

2D FEM - Mechanical Problem

Differential Equation of Equilibrium

x xy

+ bx = 0
+

x
y

y
xy +
+ by = 0
x

LT + b = 0

x
T
L =
0

x 0 y x bx 0

y + by = 0

0
y x xy

b: body forces

x

= y
xy

x xy

+
+ bx = 0

x
y

y
xy +
+ b y = 0
x

2D FEM - Mechanical Problem

Displacements

u
( x, y) = u =
v

u
= u =
v

u
x

u = u i N i = u1 N1 + u 2 N 2 + u 3 N 3
i =1

v = vi N i = v1 N1 + v 2 N 2 + v3 N 3
i =1

u1
v
1
u N1 N2 N3 u2
e
e e
=
= u = =
N
a

v N1 N2 N3 v2
u3

v3

2D FEM - Mechanical Problem

Deformations (1)

u
x =
x

x x

= y = 0
xy

x
y =
y

xy

u v
=
+
y x

u
x

u
u
e
e

=
=

L
N
a
L
{

v
y v

Be

(Deformation
Vector)

(Displacement
Vector )

L N a{e
3x 2 2x 6
123 6 x 1
Be

3x6

Note. The unknowns of the

problems are the nodal
displacements

2D FEM - Mechanical Problem

Deformations (2)

x x

= y = 0
xy

y
N 1

LNe = Be = 0

N 1

u
u
e
e

L
N
a
L

v {
y v

Be

x
0

N 2
x

N 1
0
y
N 1 N 2
x y
B ea e

N 3
x

N 2
0
y
N 2 N 3
x y

0
N 3
y
N 3
x

u
x

B is the matrix that

relates nodal
displacements to
strains

2D FEM - Mechanical Problem

Stresses

B ea e
Deformations

Mechanical law

Stresses

Constitutive laws expresses the relationship between stress () and the strain ()
vectors in a matrix equation of the form:

=D
where D is often referred to as the material stiffness matrix.
For the case of linear plane strain isotropic elasticity, the matrix is:

1 v

E
v
(1 2 v )(1 + v )
0

v
1 v
0

0
0
1 2v

where E is the Young's modulus and is the Poisson's ratio.

Because the coefficients are constants (for the case where geometry changes are assumed
to be small) the resulting FE equations are linear and can be solved in a one step.

2D FEM - Mechanical Problem

fy2

Stresses and element matrix

= D
= L

e = Neae

= DL ;

fy2
fx1

e
e
e e
e = D L
N
a
=
D
B
a
{

(L N i )

d =

ib d +

fy1

Be

fx2

T
i

td

Equation of equilibrium applied to the element as a whole

T
e
T
T

B
D
B
d

a
=
N
b
d

+
N
td
i
i
1 e442

e
e
4 43
1
4 4 442 4 4
4 43
K

ae = f e

fe

B eT
6x3

D Be = K

3x3

3x 6

6x6

fx3

2D FEM - Mechanical Problem

Local matrix (element)

ae = f e

f x1
u1
f
v
1
y1

fx2
u2
e
e
a = ; f =

f
v
y2
2
f x3
u3

f
v
y 3
3

fy2
2

fx2
fy2

fx1

Body forces and surface tractions applied to the element may be

generalized into a set of forces acting at the nodes.

fy1

3
fx3

Assembly of the global matrix

Footing
width = B

Node

Gauss point

2D FEM- Solution
The global stiffness matrix generally contains many terms that
are zero. If node numbering is efficient these are clustered in a
band along the diagonal. In this case it is necessary to store
only element within the bandwidth saves considerably on
amount of storage.

s
0
N
0

2D FEM- Solution
Skyline profile
Band profile

PLAXIS uses skyline

procedure and some
of the zero terms
within the band are
not stored.
To determine the nodal
displacements corresponding
to the applied forces it is
necessary to solve the global
stiffness equation ( KU = P )
subject to the appropriate
boundary conditions.

FEM- Solution

Forces are related to

displacement via stiffness
equations which are solved
within the FE code to find
values of nodal
displacements

Elements for 2D analysis

(a) Triangular elements

(b) Lagrange elements

A polynomial interpolation function is used to describe the displacements

within each element (higher order polynomial yields more accurate results)

Elements for 3D analysis

(a) Tetrahedron

(b) Hexahedron

(c) Pentahedron

Some practical aspects

FE meshes for geotechnical analysis

Typically the aspect ratio of the

elements should be smaller than
3

Typically for triangular elements

in internal angles should be 15
< < 165

Fine mesh for area with high

gradients

FE meshes for geotechnical analysis

Summary of FE method


FEM is a computational procedure that may be used to obtain

approximate solutions to mathematical problems

Governing mathematical equations (generally continuous) are

approximated by a series of algebraic equations involving
quantities that are evaluated at discrete points within the
region of interest

Linear elasticity

Constitutive equations

Relate generally stress and strain, i.e. not just in

1D or for a special stress path

A variety of constitutive equations available and

important to adopt a model that is most
appropriate for the particular analysis to be
carried out. Choice depends on:

material (clay, sand)

information available (in situ & lab. tests)
type of problem (embankment, excavation..)
knowledge of the user

Constitutive equations (cont.)

The simplest: linear elastic model (Hookes law)
a xx

xx

b yy
xx

2b

2a

In the case of a uniaxial tensile stress applied to an elastic bar,

the strains produced in two perpendicular directions are related
by the expression:

y
= v
x
where is an elastic constant known as Poisson's ratio.

Constitutive equations (cont.)

In 3D the stress-strain equations take the form:
yy
1
x = ( x v y v z )
E
1
y = ( y v x v z )
E
1
z = ( z v x v y )
E

zz

xx

Constitutive equations (cont.)

If a shear strain in applied to an elastic material, a
shear strain is produced.
yx

xy =

xy
G

xy
xy

xy

yx

where G is the shear modulus.

Constitutive equations (cont.)

Four elastic parameters are commonly used :
Young's modulus, E
Shear modulus, G,
Poisson's ratio
Bulk modulus, K
An elastic material is fully specified, however, when
values of two of these parameters are given.

E
G=
2(1 + v)

E
K=
3(1 2v)

2D elastic analysis
P

z
x

To carry out FE analysis of

2D problems, it is
necessary to specify the
condition in the third
dimension. The plane strain
condition is most commonly
used in soil mechanics.

y
P

x
y

zz = 0

2D elastic analysis (cont.)

In plane strain condition the out-of

plane strain is set to zero and Hookes
law gives:
x

E
((1 v) x + v y )
(1 2v)(1 + v)
E
((1 v) y + v x )
y =
(1 2v)(1 + v)
xy = G xy

x =

Drained and Undrained Analysis

u=
=0

Dissipation of
u with time

1. Undrained

3. Drained

2. Consolidation

u=0
=

Drained and Undrained Analysis (cont.)

(a) The shear modulus is identical for drained and undrained loading.

Gu = G = G
(b) The drained and undrained Young's moduli are related by the
expression:

E =

2
(1 + v ) E u
3

Note that for most soils the value of generally lies in the range 0.3 to 0.35
for sands and 0.2-0.3 for clays. Youngs modulus values, however, may vary
substantially between different materials and stress levels.

Isotropic elasticity in 3D

y
yz

yx

xy
x

zy

xz zx

1
x = ( ' x v' ' y v' ' z )
E'
1
y = ( ' y v' ' x v' ' z )
E'
1
z = ( ' z v' ' x v' ' y )
E'

xy =
yz =
zx =

xy
G'

yz
G'

zx
G'

Cross-isotropic elasticity (around y-axis)

Sampling direction

h
v

yz

y
yx

x =

xy
x

zy

xz zx

General 3D elasticity
would require the
specification of 21
elastic constants!

'x
Eh '

vhh '
v '
' y vh ' z
Ev '
Ev '

' y vhh '

vhh '
y =
'x +

'z
Ev '
E v ' Ev '
vvh '
vhh '
'z
z =
'x
'y +
Eh '
Ev '
Eh '

xy =
yz =
zx =

xy
Gvh '

yz
Gvh '

zx
Ghh '

Needs 5
elastic
constants!

Oedometer test
Load

Soil

Lateral strains are

zero, therefore
measure modulus is
not Youngs modulus.
Based on Hookes law:

Eoed
=

(1 v ) E
(1 2v )(1 + v )

Vertical
strain
yy

mv = 1 / E ' oed
E'oed
1

Unload/reload
path

1
E'oed,ur
Primary
compression

yy

Triaxial test (see also Muir Wood 1990)

Deviator
stress

E'ur

qf

E'50
1

qf / 2
Axial strain, a

Shearing with constant cell pressure

Secant or Tangent E?

'1

'1
Et

Youngs modulus E

Es
1

Poissons ratio

1 < ' < 0 .5

G' =

E'
2(1 + ' )

K'=

E'
3(1 2 ' )

Non-Linear Elasticity


Non linear elasticity

e

ln(p')

Bulk modulus K
K'=

dp '
dp ' (1 + e) p '
= (1 + e)
=
d v
de

Shear modulus G
G' =

3(1 2 ' )
K'
2(1 + ' )

with

1 < ' < 0 .5

Elasticity vs. Plasticity

In elasticity, there is a one-to-one relationship between stress and
strain. Such a relationship may be linear or non-linear. An essential
feature is that the application and removal of a stress leaves the
material in its original condition

Elasticity vs. Plasticity

for elastic materials, the mechanism of deformation depends on the
stress increment
for plastic materials which are yielding, the mechanism of (plastic)
deformation depends on the stress
reversible = elastic

irreversible = plastic

Next lecture will look at the Basic Concepts of

Plasticity and Mohr Coulomb model