Modulation Methods

H.R. Walker
Pegasus Data Systems 05/01/04(reviewed 4/18/10)
Radio Frequency Modulation involves the science of impressing information on a carrier
and then extracting the information in a receiving device.
There are three basic modes of modulation: Amplitude Modulation, Phase Modulation
and Frequency Modulation; which change the carrier amplitude, phase, or frequency,
respectively. The three may be convertible to one another.
Digital modulation utilizes baseband pulses, or modified pulse shapes, as the information
source. The pulse must be related to the data clock in order to restore the data. Often the
pulses are shape modified forms of the data clock.
The starting digital data format for all methods is shown in Figure1.

NRZ Data

Data Clock

Zero DC

Figure 1. Starting Information. Time Domain Representation of the NRZ code.

The NRZ ( Non Return to Zero ) data is shown in the format that is used within the
computer or other data source. A digital one is shown as a high level and a digital zero as
a low level. This method creates a 'DC Creep', or 'wander' [6], which has plagued
designers since the start of digital transmission. As the number of high levels varies, the
average DC voltage also varies. To remove the DC voltage and permit transmission
through transformers, the original positive swing from zero volts to a higher voltage is
replaced with positive and negative voltage swings. The DC creep is still there. Various
changes have been made in the data pulse shape to reduce the DC creep.
One such change is shown in Figure 2. The pulse level returns to a zero level after 1/2
clock cycle for ones only. There is no pulse for a digital zero. The DC Creep is still
there, but reduced in level. The DC offset can be used to transmit the pattern with no long
term average DC level, but there will still be short term variations.

NRZ Data

Data Clock

Return to Zero

Figure 2. Time Domain Representation of the Return to Zero Code.( RZ ).

Data In
1
3

RZ Out

Clock In

Figure 3. The RZ Encoder

NRZ Data

Data Clock

Manchester
( Ethernet )

Figure 4. The Manchester Code Used with Ethernet.

The Manchester code used with Ethernet is another code used to reduce the DC creep.
This is a widely used method for wireless LANs and in some short range wireless
transmission methods. The difference between a one and zero is in the polarity of the
change with regard to the clock.
The method utilizes the data clock and NRZ data in combination. The NRZ data reverses
the clock polarity. The encoding device is a simple XOR gate.

Data In
1
3

Manchester Out

Clock In

Figure 5. Manchester Encoder.

Other Codes narrow or broaden the pulses as will be discussed later in connection with
modulation methods. Dr. Feher [ 2][5] has devised a narrow band modulation scheme
based on the shape or amplitude of the pulses.
BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING:
( The old tried and true method, used as a reference standard).
Binary Phase Shift Keying utilizes the NRZ code without modification ( Fig. 1 ). The
XOR gate used as modulator reverses the phase ( 180 degree or +-90 degree change ). It
also removes the carrier. This is an amplitude modulation process that changes to phase
modulation. It creates a Double Sideband phase modulation spectrum with suppressed
carrier.
DSB - Carrier- AM = PSK ( Feher [2] Eq. 4.3.12 )
NRZ Data
1
3
2

Bandpass Filter

RF Carrier

Figure 6. BPSK Modulator.

The modulation process creates a number of Fourier ( amplitude ) sidebands that must be
removed to meet regulatory standards. The RF bandpass filter performs this function.
VERY MAXIMUM SIDEBAND KEYING ( VMSK ):
Assume an NRZ data pattern consisting of alternating ones and zeros. It bears no useful
information. However, by introducing a zero crossing time delay for the zeros, it can be
made to carry useful information, which is extracted by measuring the time delay.

1
T1 = 6

0
T2 = 7

One Bit Width

Figure 7. VMSK/1 Code.

TheVMSK/1 code is similar to the Manchester code transmitting all ones. A timing
change is made in the zero crossing on one edge. The decoding device examines this
changing edge. If the crossing is early, it is detected as a one. If it is late, it detected as a
zero. The modulator of Fig. 6 is used to cause a 180 degree phase shift. For cleaner edge
detection, the phase change timing is synchronized with the IF cycles.
1 bit width

3.5

4.5

3.5

4.5

1 bit width

Aav
7
8
8
9

3.5/4.5/(8) code becomes 7,8,9 Code

when divided by 2

Figure 8. VMSK/2 Code.

Dividing the VMSK/1 code by 2 results in the VMSK/2 code, which offers better
performance. It is no longer a Manchester variation, but an NRZ 1010101 pattern with
the edges shifted for a one or zero. The restored clock leading edge is seen as a dotted
line, If the zero crossing occurs early. It is a digital one. If late, a digital zero.
The BPSK method creates a very broad spectrum. When the VMaxSK codes are used
with a small time delay ( 8-10 % ), the spectrum narrows into two islands of a single
frequency each. This is seen in Figure 9 below.

Figure 9. VMaxSK Spectrum.

The modulator used is a balanced modulator, such as the Gilbert Cell mixer, the diode
ring, or the XOR gate as shown in Fig. 6. The carrier ( center ) is suppressed. The Fourier
sidebands are seen at the right and left of center. A double sideband Nyquist filter
removes the sidebands other than the fundamentals. The fundamental sidebands now
contain 180 degree phase modulation ( PhaseReversalKeying ). This is the approximate
spectrum for a single frequency rectangular waveform using a balanced modulator. Phase
modulation in the sideband has been created.
DSB - minus Carrier minus AM = PSK ( Feher [2] Eq. 4.3.12 )
It is not necessary to transmit both sidebands. Single sideband transmission is well known
in the art. Filtering to remove the upper sideband and reduce the harmonics leaves the
spectrum seen in Fig. 10. The predominant frequency spike is a single frequency bearing
PM/PRK. The low level hump is DC Creep. The lower level spikes are the Fourier
spikes, which are amplitude spikes that do not affect the PM angle. Both the DC Creep
and the lower level spikes can be reduced by 40 or more dB with special very narrow
band filters having near zero group delay.

Figure 10. VMaxSK Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier Spectrum.

When a very narrow band zero group delay filter is used and the single frequency of the
sideband itself is used as a phase reference, there are interesting observed details.
Observed Patterns
(A)

Clock

(B)

+90 deg.
-90 deg.

Encoded Data
7 = 1

9 = 0

(C)

0 degrees

360 degrees

0 degrees

0 degrees

360 degrees

(D)

Phase Detector Output

Figure 11. The Observed Patterns for VMSK/2.

Examining the SSB waveform on the oscilloscope, it is seen there is a phase change only
at the transition edges of the modulating pattern. This transition lasts 1-2 cycles of the RF
frequency. Before and after the transition, the frequency and phase are constant. The
phase detector has an output that consists of a very brief spike at the transition edges.
This makes it easy to use a decoder that looks for early/late pulses to decode the ones and
zeros. See appended oscilloscope photos.

Summary: The 180 degree 'Coded BPSK' signal, after filtering, has created a single
frequency that is a Phase Reversal Keyed signal and not an amplitude modulation
signal. Only that single sideband, single frequency, needs to be transmitted. BUT,
special zero group delay filters are needed to preserve the abrupt phase shift.
Conventional crystal or Nyquist filters will not do the job. They lose the modulation.
3PRK:
It was reasoned, that if all that is needed is to reverse the phase in the RF carrier, or
sideband, why not do it directly, omitting the SSB-SC step. This saves on the number of
filter stages required and improves performance overall.
Figure 12 sows the baseband signal with 99% on time and 1% off time. Or, the baseband
signal is off for a period equal to 1 RF cycle. This is applied to an XOR gate modulator as
shown in Figs. 5 and 6.
ON
One

OFF

Zero

Data Clock

Figure 12. Baseband Modulation Pattern for MCM and PM.

Seen as AM, the modulator is ON approximately 99% of the time and OFF 1% of the time. Or,
as PM it is on phase 2 only 1% of the time. The remainder of the bit period it is on phase 1, the
reference phase. This creates very widespread low level Fourier sinx/x products, but no Bessel
products. The position of the off time determines whether a one or zero is being sent.
7

If -is "Pulse Position Phase Reversal Keying ( 3PRK )". Figure 13 shows the effect on the
waveform. The phase reversal wipes out 1 cycle of the RF waveform edges. (Data one at left, data
zero at right).
Figure 13. RF Waveform for 3PRK.
Figure 13 shows that 3PRK is an amplitude modulation method. It has a Fourier spectrum and
not a Bessel product spectrum. The RF on time pulse is made as wide as possible, as opposed to a
RADAR pulse, or UWB pulse, which is made as narrow as possible. It is not like VMaxSK,
where the AM is converted to PM. The ratio of time on/off ( T/t) for one missing cycle is = cycles
per bit period.

Figure 14. 3PRK Transmitted Spectrum. 3PRK is a MinimumSideBand method (MSB).

The spectrum for 3PRK shows a large central frequency spike representing the steady
carrier, which is on phase 1 for most of the time, plus a series of Fourier sinx/x spikes
representing the time the carrier is off. Interestingly, these lower AM spikes carry little
or no useful phase information and they can be removed with the special zero group

delay filters. The peak level of the sinx/x spikes is -20 Log10 (T/t) and the RMS level is 40 Log10 (T/t). This is the Fourier spectrum for the waveform seen in Fig. 12.
"The power spectral density and the correlation function of a waveform are a Fourier
transform series pair". Result = sinx/x spectrum. ( Taub and Schilling (3)).
There are no Bessel products visible in Fig. 14, only Fourier products. This would
confirm that it is indeed an AM method, but it is detected as a 180 degree phase shift
method.
C5

90 deg. shift

1
3

3
2

Simplified Detector

Figure 15. Phase, or Amplitude, Detector Used with VmaxSK or VminSK ( MSB ).
The XOR gate used in Fig. 15 can detect phase or amplitude. If the phase of the signal
arriving at the inputs is the same, the output is low. If they are different ( 180 degrees ),
the output is high. If the phase is somewhere in between 0 and 180 degrees, the integrated
output voltage is somewhere between the upper rail and the lower rail of the device. This
detector will give a spiked output of varying levels whether the incoming signal is AM or
PM. The crystal isolates the reference frequency from any noise, interference or abrupt
signal changes. See appended photo of detected output.
Note the similarities between Figs.10 and 14. Figure 14 has less DC Creep because the
duty cycle of the changes is very small. The DC creep does not carry any useful
information.
SUMMARY:
VMaxSK and 3PRK are seen to be related methods in which an AM signal, or a
phase reversing signal, is used to create a very narrow band RF signal. In VMaxSK,
the sidebands are Maximized and only one is transmitted. With 3PRK, the carrier
is retained instead, and the sidebands are rejected. Special zero group delay filters
are required for both methods. 3PRK merely creates the carrier change directly, or
alternately, VMaxSK has converted a phase reversing sideband to a carrier.
This is a matter of interpretation, or viewpoint. Conventional theory holds that all
modulation is in the sidebands, therefor 3PRK is creating a sideband. In actuality it
is a carrier with ineffectual sidebands. Placing a coherent carrier at the frequency of

the spike at the right or left of the central spike would detect the central spike as if it
were a sideband. This is true also of VmaxSK as seen in Fig. 10.
3PRK can be used with a rate multiplying circuit. 3PRK and VMaxSK both have much
better multi-path performance than any other modulation method.
FREQUENCY AND PHASE MODULATION METHODS:
Carson's Rules:
Bandwidth = 2 Modulation frequency ( AM )
Bandwidth = 2 Modulation frequency + 2Deviation (FM )
These rules are omitted from most texts for good reason. The FM bandwidth is
not correct. FM is dependent on Bessel products, which cannot be separated into small
fractions to match the deviation. The spread is in integral multiples of the modulating
frequency.
There is a story going around ( unconfirmed ) that Carson published a paper in
the 1920s that proved absolutely, positively, conclusively, without a doubt, that FM was a
real loser and would never be used in practice. Despite this faux pas, Carson was a
brilliant man and excellent theoretician.
Frequency modulation is differentiated phase modulation and vice versa. It
can only be produced with Bessel sidebands.

Vectors and Bessel Products:

USB

LSB
V4
fc

Phase Modulation V

Figure 16.
Armstrong demonstrated the first practical phase modulation method in 1936. The
method used a balanced modulator to produce two sidebands without a carrier.( Fig. 9 ).
He then added a carrier 90 degrees out of phase with the sidebands. The vector sum, seen
in Fig.16 resulted in the phase deviation of the carrier as seen by the vector V4.
Differentiating this change leads to frequency modulation of the carrier.

10

Frequency modulation and phase modulation have a signal to noise ratio determined by
the formula:
SNR = (3/2) 2 Eb/n Where is the deviation or modulation index.
( This ignores filter bandwidth.). To include it, SNR = (3/2) 2 C/N.
= F/f for FM and / for PM. Thus a sine wave at 10 kHz deviated 10 kHz has
a modulation index of 1.0. A phase shift of /2 radians is a modulation index of 0.5.
When = .8, FM and AM are equal in SNR.
For BPSK, SNR = C/N
For below .8, the 3/2 is omitted. ( is the sine of the modulation angle up to 90 dgrees.)

FM Using Digital Inputs:

Because digital inputs have rectangular waveforms as inputs, some changes must
be made, or the spectrum will be too wide. Filtering is used either at the RF level, as in
Fig. 6, or it can be done to round off the input waveform to transmit a waveform without
abrupt edges. Both methods are in common use.
The ideal filter, or the Nyquist filter, introduces group delay:

Tg = [/ (2 f)]
For LC or Gaussian filters, this is:
Tg = [ 1/(4f)] and Tg = [Q/4(IF)]
IF = Intermediate Freq.
Obviously, a very narrow bandwidth filter [f] has a very large group delay.
There is an associated equation for the rise time of the conventional filter:
Tr = 0.7/B, where B is the 3 dB bandwidth [f] of the filter. This is the time from
10% to 90% on the RC curve. Bandwidth, rise time and sampling rate are
mathematically linked. In general practice, Tr = 1/B is used. The rise time of the
filter is made equal to one bit period. The Nyquist bandwidth is then = 1/T.
This group delay effect is like an RC integrator that cannot pass abrupt rectangular edges.
The correlator, which is considered to be an optimum filter, is a pure integrator.
For purposes of limiting the bandwidth occupied, the modulation index is kept relatively
low. BPSK could be considered to be +- 90 degree Phase Modulation with an index of
1.5. Using a conventional FM or PM modulator, this would create too much sideband
energy. For that reason, the balanced AM modulator with suppressed carrier is used.
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying:
It has been determined that a modulation index of 0.5 results in the least sideband
energy with an acceptable SNR. This method is used in the Global System for Mobile
Communications ( GSM ). There are several ways to create this signal. One of the most
common is to use Frequency Shift Keying ( FSK ). The phase change is either direct at
1.5 radians, or from the frequency change f/F, where F is the data rate. (The modulating
11

frequency is half that ). A shift of 1/2 the data rate in frequency meets the 0.5 modulation
index requirement.
If the phase is shifted abruptly, it creates unwanted sidebands. For this reason the
phase is shifted without an abrupt change, then the frequency is changed gradually,
resulting in what is referred to as Continuous Phase Frequency Shift Keying
(CPFSK ).
Breaking the Rules:
Carson's Rule and Nyquists bandwidth theorem are not ironclad rules. Nyquist's
Bandwidth Theorem applies only when using his integrating filters. The bandwidth
occupied using an index of 0.5 is equal to F, not (F x 1.5) as Carson dictates.
Prof. Howe [9] published a paper in 1939 that shows how there can be no Bessel
sidebands for most of the data bit period if rectangular data inputs are used. This is just
the opposite of the Nyquist and GMSK thinking. -Old Theorem:" You cannot use
rectangular inputs because they will not pass the filter. The filter will integrate the
waveform causing FM with sidebands". That theorem can be thrown out, if there is a
filter that will pass the rectangular waveform. There are such filters.

fc +)M

fc 0

fc -)M
fc

fc

Phase Modulation With Rectangular Input

Figure 17. Professor Howe's Ilustration.

12

Frequency Change:
Abrupt phase change digital modulation utilizes a time varying coded baseband with
abrupt edges, that is, the rise/fall times are as abrupt, or near zero, as possible. Some RC
rise time is inevitable, due to slew rates in the ICs and other parts of the circuitry.
The frequency resulting from a rectangular input is: F = Fcarrier + f.
f can be calculated from the basic relationship t = = 2ft.
This can be rewritten in derivative form as f = /2t.
The rise and fall time t is fixed by the the circuit parameters. During the rise and fall
times ( edges ), there is a large , which causes a large f of very short duration.
( about 1 RF cycle ). At all other times, is zero and the frequency F = Fcarrier. A
phase detector, using Fcarrier as a phase reference, will detect the phase changes as
positive and negative voltages.. ( Howe [9] )
It is absolutely essential that any bandpass filter used at the transmitter have zero group
delay to pass the instantaneous change in phase. This filter, being only 2-3 kHz wide, will
not be broad enough to pass the instantaneous frequency changes. To all intents and
purposes, there is no measurable frequency change during the bit period, but there is a
phase change in the carrier that is maintained constant between the rise and fall times. If
the filter has group delay, for example that of a conventional, or Nyquist filter, as in
GMSK, (Tg = [/ (2 f)]), the condition seen in Figure 18 results. FM is created and
the 'no sideband' characteristic is lost.

+)F
FM= )()M)/)t

-)F
+)M
0

-)M

-)M

Phase and Equivalent Frequency Variation

Figure 18. Converting PM to FM.
Once the phase change is integrated by the Nyquist or conventional filter, the
differentiated result is a change in frequency, with sidebands. With a sine wave input, the
differentiated output is sine wave FM.
13

USB
V2

V3

LSB
V4

V1

V4

fc

Phase Modulation Vectors

Figure 19. The Phase Vectors

According to accepted practice using PM to generate FM ( Armstrong Method ), a carrier
and two sidebands, an upper and a lower, are required, as seen in Fig. 19, The vectors for
the upper and lower sidebands counter rotate, reaching a maximum in either direction
when they are of the same phase. The upper sideband is a signal higher in frequency than
the carrier by an amount equal to the modulation frequency. The lower sideband is lower
in frequency by the same amount. This gives rise to Bessel products which are necessary
to cause the vector V4 to shift in phase. There are three or more different Bessel
frequencies involved to produce the phase shift .[8].
When using abrupt phase change modulation, the equivalents of the USB and LSB are
seen as V2 and V3. They must maintain the phase shift at a constant angle as seen in
Fig. 17, hence they cannot rotate, but can only reverse. If they do not rotate, they are not
at different frequencies, but are at the same frequency as the carrier V1. They are not
J1 Bessel frequencies, which are different from the carrier.
Working With No Sidebands:
The carrier in Fig. 17 is a near constant single frequency, with a fixed phase
change for most of the bit period. ( = 0, but has a fixed value ). Ordinary
filters cannot be used, or the effect will be lost. There is a group of filters that will pass a
single frequency with no group delay, or integrating effect.

220
4-40

220K

51

Par.

47

4-40

Figure 20 shows one variation of the zero group delay filter. A crystal is tuned to resonate
at its parallel frequency, causing the various circuit reactances to cancel, leaving the
crystal functioning as a shunt, which presents an extremely high resistance at the single
14

resonant frequency. At all other frequencies it is a complex shunt load. At resonance, it is

an RC differentiator, as seen at the right. It passes the phase changes without loss. The
secret of this zero group delay filtering is not to allow the signal to pass through the filter
crystal, but to use the crystal as a shunting reference only.
Inflection Point

Fig. 21.

Phase change = zero

Inductive

Capacitive

Figure 21 shows the principle behind the zero group delay filter. The crystal shows
an inflection point at the inductive peak. At the single frequency, = 0 and Tg =

0 as well.

Fig. 22. Swept bandpass of 3 stages of zero group delay IF filtering. The 3dB
bandwidth is less than 2 kHz.

15

The narrow bandpass characteristic of this filter does not allow it to pass the wide
frequency excursions at the rise and fall edges of the rectangular wave input. ( Fig. 17 ).
Either 180 phase reversal, or a 90 degree shift, have been found to be the optimum phase
changes for this type of modulation. ( +- 45 degrees, = .78, which is near the AM/FM
SNR cross over). Even after the multiple stages of cascaded filtering, the phase detector
( Fig. 15 ) shows a phase change near the original phase shift. ( very low phase change
loss ).

VERY MINIMUM SIDEBAND KEYING, OR MSB:

The combination of abrupt phase change modulation and zero group delay filter has been
given the titles VMinSK, or MSB. The sub classes depend on the phase shift periods and
the amount of phase shift.
NRZ is the most efficient in terms of the number of RF cycles needed to represent a one
or zero. Data rates as high as 1/3 the IF frequency have been demonstrated. 1/4 is reliable
and 1/6 very reliable, even with poor quality zero group delay filtering.
NOTE: GMSK also transmits the NRZ data pattern, but requires a Nyquist bandwidth
eqaul to the data rate. MSB has a filter noise bandwidth of 2-3 kHz, regardless of data
rate. A very significant difference.

Figure 23. Spectrum of NRZ Coded Modulation using MSB. This is with 2 stages of
filtering. The hump can be reduced further to meet FCC regs. with an additional stage.

16

Figure 24. The spectrum using an RZ input instead of the NRZ input. This is referred to
as WPRK or UWPRK

+M

NRZ Data

Data Clock

Phase Change

Phase Change

-M
+M
-M
Recovered Clock

Recovered Data

Figure 25. The Timing for UWP. A phase change has been used for ones only.

17

Figure 26. The Spectrum Using a Phase Change Time Difference Less Than 1/2 Clock
Period. Time difference is 25/1.
RZ baseband coding uses 1/2 clock period as the phase shift period. This is referred to
here as WPSK. If the phase shift period is reduced even further, the spectrum changes.
Refer to Fig. 14 and 3PRK. There are numerous lower Fourier amplitude spikes, which
can be reduced by additional filtering. The "grass", or DC creep, seen with VmaxSK is
reduced or removed.
In Fig. 26, no filter is used at the transmitter.The peak level of these spikes is -27 dB. The
RMS level is -54 dB. This is adequate for 10 Watts RF power under FCC regs. part 22.
One stage of zero group delay filtering will reduce these spikes below the -60 absolute
minimum level required by the FCC. Certain combination IF strip/limiter/phase detector
chips, such as the SA636 cannot resolve the missing cycle of Figs. 13,14. For this reason,
a slightly broader pulse is used.
NYQUIST'S Theorem:
Theorem: If synchronous impulses, having a symbol rate of fs symbols per second,
are applied to an ideal, linear phase brick wall filter, having a bandwidth fs, the
response to these impulses can be observed independently, that is without
intersymbol interference.

18

This has always been interpreted to mean that the filter in Fig. 6 must have a bandwidth
equal to the symbol rate. Or, in the case of BPSK, the data rate.
Nyquist further describes a filter meeting this criteria. However, other filters such as the
common LC filter, or the Gaussian filter can be used. These filters are often used with a
3dB bandwidth less than the Nyquist bandwidth. They remove all sidebands other than
the fundamental, or first pair.
Improvements in SNR:
When sidebands are removed as in all UNB methods, the noise bandwidth used by the
receiver is greatly reduced. ( See Figs. 21 and 22 ). Normal sideband spread according to
Nyquist requires a bandwidth equal to the bit or symbol rate. A 1 MHz rate requires a
bandwidth of 1 MHz. Similarly, according to BT = 1, a pulse 1 microsecond wide
requires a 1 MHz BW at baseband. Using double sideband RF, this is doubled so that a 2
MHz bandspread is required. Using UNB filters which have a 500 Hz to 1 kHz 3 dB
noise bandwidths, any and all UNB methods improve the SNR by the ratio of the normal
Nyquist BW to the UNB filter noise BW. Assume a 10 Mb/s data rate, then
10,000,000/500 is a bandwidth - and consequently a noise power reduction of 20,000/1,
or 43 dB. Needless to say this should greatly increase range.

Shannon's Limit:
R = W Log 2 ( 1+C/N ) or as: R = (1/) Log 2 ( 1+C/N )
B

It is necessary to understand the meaning of W. It is not the filter noise bandwidth used, but
the Nyquist bandwidth, which is and must be equal to the sampling rate. One cannot violate the Nyquist
sampling theorem. The general practice is to use 1/(filter rise time) as the Nyquist bandwidth = (1/).
Quoting Schwartz:
"The system channel capacity 'R' is obtained by multiplying the number of samples per second by
the information per sample". ( Schwartz, [1] pp324 and equation 6-134). The sampling rate is the
intermediate frequency, or SuperBit rate. Thus W is = to the Intermediate Frequency using MSB.
It is also obvious from the hardware ( and Figs. 13 and 27 ) that a data rate equal to the Intermediate
Frequency can be received and decoded. The actual data rate used is lower, since multiple SuperBits ( IF
cycles ) are used for one data bit. Assume a 48 MHz IF, then
48MHz = 48MHz Log 2 ( 1+C/N )
The equation will balance when C/N = 1 = 0dB. ( Shannon's Limit )
Using a lower R, it appears C/N could be below 0dB as in OFSK.
B

Error Probability:
The error probability for any two phase ( 2 level ) method can be calculated from:
Pe = erfc [SNR]
( Sq. root of SNR is used to get voltage ratio )
Pe = erfc [( Es/ )] ( energy ratio)
Pe = erfc [( Eb/ )]
Pe = erfc [z] where z = Vp/1.4EN (Vp = peak signal level and EN = noise RMS)
B

19

Note the second of these equations.[ Esignal / ], so Esignal = Eb. = signal power ON for one
B

SubBit period ( IF cycle ) using 3 PRK (

being detected.

=1 ). This is true energy per SubBit. One SubBit is

Utilizing a correlative detector and integrating filter in a post detection circuit, or in the detection
circuit, the Eb can be increased by in creasing ( the number of IF cycles integrated).
B

Properly employed, NRZMSB and WPSK/WPRK use a large number of IF cycles per bit
period.

A
A
Cvolts 1
A
Pe = Q
Q
Q
erfc
=
=
=

Nvolts 2

Nt
From Feher [2], where A is the peak signal value at the sampling instant and is the RMS
voltage of the noise power at the threshold detector input. When using a cycle to cycle
comparison, noise peak voltage must be compared to signal peak voltage.

1
1
V
z 1
Es
erfc
=
erfc
==
Q( z ) = erfc

2
2

2 2
2N

1
2

Bellamy, Eq C.19, Rappaport D.11

This equation assumes a peak signal voltage V and an RMS noise voltage, which would have
peaks at 1.4 times the RMS level. Using a true RMS meter, the relative peak and RMS volts are
the same as measured, so the 1.4 correction is not used.
1
2
s

E
Q=

determines the BER for MSB. = 1 to 3 for 3PRK and MCM.

When is a large number of cycles, NRZ and RZ codes yield C/N ratios better than for
OFSK.

The theoretical and measured BER follows the Q(z) curve.

==================
Summary:
MSB is a direct PM method with different baseband codes having long periods on a
single phase, then a short abrupt phase change to indicate a digital one. Typical are
the phase reversing ( missing cycle ) AM methods, VMaxSideband and 3PRK,
which are dependent on the change in 1-2 cycles. The spectrums are obviously
different. It is not practical to use the NRZ or WPSK versions of MSB with the rate
multiplier circuits used with 3PRK. Broad pulse MSB methods do not have the
U

20

excellent multi-path characteristics of 3PRK, which uses the narrowest pulse

change. They do however have very low Eb/n ratios.
B

The SNR for MSB is much better than for GMSK or BPSK.

None of the methods described violate Shannon's Limit.

References:
[1] Mischa Schwartz, " Information Transmission, Modulation and Noise" McGraw Hill.
[2] K. Feher, Wireless Digital Communications, Prentice Hall.
[3] Taub and Schilling, Principles of Communications Systems McGraw Hill.
[4] T. Rappaport, " Wireless Communications", Prentice Hall.
[5] K. Feher, "Telecommunications Measurements, Analysis and Instrumentation", Noble
Press.
[6] J.C. Bellamy, " Digital Telephony", John Wiley.
[7] A. Bruce Carson, "Communications Systems", McGraw Hill, 1986.
[8] Hund, August, "Frequency Modulation", McGraw Hill 1942.
[9] Howe, Prof., As published in -- K.R. Sturley, Frequency Modulation, Chemical
Publishing Co., Brooklyn, N.Y. Figure 1 was published by Prof. Howe in "Wireless
Engineer", Nov. 1939. pp 547.
[10] Best, R.E., "Phase Locked Loops", McGraw Hill.
Additional phase noise improvement (SNR) is possible. See sect. 3.
[11] H.R. Walker, U.S. Pat 6,445,737 " Digital Modulation Device In A System And
Method Of Using The Same". Covers 3PRK and MCM, which are MSB methods.
Note: Information on the circuits used, including the zero group delay filters, can be
found at www.VMSK.org.
HTU

UTH

APPENDIX:

21

Figure 27. The waveform from the XOR modulator used with VMaxSK and 3PRK.
There is a missing cycle at the phase reversal transition ( crossover ) with VmaxSK,
while 3PRK creates the missing cycles deliberately . The filter and detector must pass
this change.

Figure 28. After passing the zero group delay, narrow band, filter, the missing cycle is
preserved. Using VMaxSK, this is one sideband. With 3PRK it is the carrier.

Figure 29. The detected output for VMaxSK and 3PRK using both ones and zeros in the
input code. The single cycle phase change, or missing cycle, is detected. With 3PRK,
using ones only, there is only the one spikes. The display is additive, in that for a bit with
a one, the early spike is present. For a zero, the late spike is present. The decoder uses
only the ones. This makes it possible using 3PRK to multiply the data rate by using two
22

channels. Channel one is the early spikes and channel two is the late spikes. Up to 4
channels have been multiplexed this way, multiplying the data rate by 4.
It is not necessary using 3PRK to mark a zero. The absence of a one is detected as a zero.
This lowers the RMS level of the Fourier sideband products by 6 dB.

Figure 30. Recovered signal from the phase detector using WPSK ( RZ ) coding. (Fig.
23) with fixed data pattern. Two stages of transmitter and two stages of receiver filtering
are used in cascade.
Oscillator
Int. Freq.

1
3

4
Q

CLK

6
3

CLK
6

Data Clock

PR

3
2

CL

2
1

PR

14

NRZ Data

CL

Fig. 31. Modulator for RZ inputs and 180 phase reversal. The time of the phase change is
synchronized with the data and clock change.

23