MODULE 3 - Speaking and Writing

THIS MODULE seeks to teach you how to use the structures of Caribbean Standard
English correctly and appropriately, as well as with a degree of elegance. You will
also be required to produce different types of communication relevant and
appropriate to your social, academic, professional and vocational needs.
Reading, writing, speaking and listening are the four ways in which we use
communication and you should be able to express your self in speaking and writing
with precision, accuracy, clarity and fluency. Essentially, for communication to take
place, both writing and reading skills must be employed. Similarly, speech
communication does not end with speaking. For communication to effectively take
place, the receiver/audience must employ listening skills.
It is important, then, for you to be able to not only write and speak effectively, but
also to read and listen effectively. Without effective communication skills, we are at
a disadvantage in situations that involve other people.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication has been defined as the process of people interacting through the
use of messages [Zeuschner: 1997]. Also it has been referred to as the process of
human beings responding to the symbolic behaviour of other persons.
A close observation of them reveals that communication is a process [not an
event], it involves people, it involves interaction among people and it involves the
use of messages.
As a process, communication is dynamic, continuous, irreversible and contextual.
It is inevitable, that is, it is sure to happen and cannot be altered or revoked.
All communicative events involve content and relationship. Content refers to the
substance of the message while relationship tells of the receiver and sender and
how they perceive their interaction.
Finally, communication happens in a setting or context and it is from such that
much meaning is derived. Context may be defined as a culture, location or a
relationship.
Elements in the Communication Process
Within the process of communication there are five primary elements, because
communication is a process, there are certain elements of this process that are
present in every communication act. These elements must be involved in order for
communication to take place:

*Senders/Sources/Encoders
* Receivers/ Decoders
* Messages
* Channels and Mediums
* Feedback
DESCRIPTION OF THE ELEMENTS OF THE PROCESS
1. Sender (also called source or encoder)
As the word suggests, the sender is the person/group with whom the message
originates. The sender conceptualizes the message. That is, she determines what
the content of the message will be, the best form for the message to take and the
best way of getting the message across.
2.

Message

This is the content of the communication process. Before the communication

process begins, there must be an idea or body of knowledge that needs to be
communicated
3. A. Medium
This is the method that someone chooses to convey her message. Will you use email? Speech? Gestures? A poster?
B. Channel
Channel is closely associated with medium. This is the means by which your
message is conveyed. For example, an e-mail is a medium, whereas the internet is a
channel; speech is a medium, but radios and loudspeakers are channels; gestures
are a medium, your hands act as their channel; finally, a poster may be your
medium, but the poster-board and ink are your channels.
4. Receiver (also called decoder)
Eventually your message arrives at the receiver. This is the person responsible for
interpreting your message and taking some sort of meaning form it. The receiver is
the main goal of any communication act.
5. Feedback
After the receiver interprets the senders message; she then provides feedback to
the sender. This is the receivers response to the message and is essential in that it
alerts the sender to whether or not the message has been accurately/effectively
received and interpreted.
DESCRIBING THE PROCESS
Communication is described as a process because there are certain stages that it
must follow in order for effective communication to take place. If any of the steps
are neglected communication will not take place. The process is both cyclical (going

in a circle/cycle) and transactional (has to be performed).

The event begins with the conceptualization/thinking of the message and this is
the sender's role as the originator of the message. In addition, after the sender has
thought of the message, it is the sender's task to encode the contents of the
message (putting it in a form that the receiver can understand). After which the
sender selects the medium (what form it will take) and channel (what device will
be used) through which the message will be sent so that the receiver will be able to
receive it. The receiver's role is chiefly to receive the message and to decode it
which shows that the message was received. After which the receiver will try
to interpret/understand the message sent to him/her. The receiver will then
provide afeedback/answer to the sender. Without this feedback communication has
not taken place.
It is very important for you to understand that both the sender and the receiver
conceptualize, encode, select medium and channel, decode, interpret and provide
feedback in all communicative events.
Facilitators and Barriers to Communication
Barriers: Often during communicative events there is some sort of interference or
blockage to interaction. These are commonly referred to as barriers to
communication and may be internal or external in nature.
Internal barriers include: daydreaming, anxiety and hunger, headache,
depression.
External barriers include: noise from a lawn mower, gestures, attire, posture,
chatting, spilled beverage on a page and choice of words.
Some common barriers to communication are:
i. A language barrier
ii. A channel that is inaccessible to the receiver
iii. The message is ineffectively encoded or the meaning is ambiguous
iv. The medium is inappropriate to the message
Facilitator: These are factors that may influence the effective conveyance of
messages positively or negatively. Anything that helps to ensure an effective
transfer of messages is called a facilitator to communication. Anything that hinders
this effectiveness is a barrier to communication
Some common facilitators to communication are:
i. choosing a familiar language
ii. Using an accessible channel
iii. Ensuring that the medium is appropriate to the message
iv. Using audio/visual aids to enhance the encoding of the message

FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
In general, human beings communicate using two main forms: verbal
communication and non-verbal communication. There are two main ways in
which human beings communicate verbally, that is, through speech and writing.
Verbal communication, simply put, is any form of communication that uses words
in order to convey meaning or transmit messages. Essentially, verbal
communication is either speech or writing. There are four main skills that human
beings put into practice when engaging in verbal communication: reading, writing,
speaking and listening. Any verbal communication involves at least two of these
skills.
Language is the one thing that all four verbal communication skills have in
common; it is a specifically human form of communication that uses symbols to
represent ideas and concepts.
Non-Verbal Communication is the form of communication that does not involve
the use of speech or writing. In effect, non-verbal communication is the use of voice,
space, objects, movement, time and the five senses to convey meanings that
without using words. Because the types of non-verbal communication focus on
physical actions and manipulations to convey meaning, they are often referred to as
communicative behaviours.
Non-Verbal/Communicative behaviours comprise the following:
Vocalics: refers to the use of voice in communicating messages. This does not
include actual words, but modulations in tone of voice, rate of speech, pitch and
non-verbal utterances. Because vocalics is often used in conjunction with speech
communication (i.e. verbal), it is often referred to as paralanguage.
Proxemics: is the use of space to communicate. Standing close to someone may
indicate that you like her; likewise, changing seat during an exam may indicate that
you suspect your neighbour of cheating or some sort of discomfort.
Artifacts: are objects that convey some sort of message about you. These include
clothes, jewellery, home decorations, book bags etc.
Movement: incorporates several movements of the body eye contact, facial
expressions, posture and gestures all communicate information. Failing to meet eye
contact when speaking to a parent may indicate nervousness, shame or the
possibility of untruthfulness; sitting straight in a chair could indicate attentiveness.
Chronemics: refers to the use of time. By being early for class you show respect
for the teacher and fellow classmates; similarly, a teacher who arrives consistently
late for class is exhibiting a lack of respect for her students and profession.

The five senses: (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell) are also used in nonverbal communication. For example, a normally good cook who over-salts a dish for
her cheating spouse may be using taste to indicate her unhappiness or displeasure.
There are also six functions of non-verbal communication. That is, we use
non-verbal communication for six main reasons.
i. Substitute: is where we use non-verbal communication instead of, or to replace
verbal communication. Waving goodbye instead of saying it out loud is one example
of this.
ii. Reinforce: We also use non-verbal communication to reinforce or complement
our verbal communication. Pounding your hand onto a table when arguing may
reinforce whatever point youre making.
iii. Regulate: is used mostly in conversation to control the flow of messages.
Raising your hand to answer or ask a question in class helps to regulate the
communication going on in the room.
iv. Contradict: Sometimes we use non-verbal communication to contradict our
verbal communication. The most common example of this is using vocalic sarcasm
when you say one thing, but your tone of voice says the opposite.
v. Manage impressions: We often manage impressions through the use of nonverbal communication. The way we dress, for example, often coincides with the
impression we want others to have of us.
vi. Establish relationships: Finally, we use non-verbal communication to
establish relationships. The wearing of a wedding band is a non-verbal indication
that the person is married.
CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication takes place in a variety of settings or contexts. The context is the
setting/environment, place where communication takes place. The following are
various contexts where communication may take place.
Intra-personal: Communicating within ones self. E.g. Thinking, daydreaming,
solving problems, imagining. Also includes all physical feedback mechanisms, such
as sensations of hunger, pain, pleasure.
Interpersonal: The interaction of two or more people. The one-on-one setting,
direct contact of one person with another person. E.g. interviews, conversations,
intimate communication.
Academic: This communication takes place in an educational setting where
persons communicate mainly to disseminate educational information. E.g. Lecturer

speaking to a class, essays, research paper, internal assessment.

Small-group: Interaction between 4-6 people. It is one of the most important
communication settings and exists everywhere. It requires the following conditions:
Leadership, Equal sharing of ideas, Peer pressure, Roles & norms, Focus on a
common goal.
Public communication: When one person talks to several others and is the
dominant focus of the communication. E.g. speaker and an audience speech,
debate, general devotion. Defining characteristics: One person is identified as the
primary sender of messages and others function primarily as receivers of those
messages.
Mass communication: This communication begins to function when a message
needs help to get from its source to its destination. Some form of medium is needed
to connect the sender to receiver. Media may be print (newspaper/magazine),
electrical (radio, television, video), or electronic (computer modem)
Inter-cultural communication: Sometimes called cross-cultural communication
This context describes what happens when the sender of a message is from a
different cultural background than the intended receiver. E.g. a person can
communicate with someone who does not share the same culture; communicating
across social sub-groups.
Organizational communication: Focuses on inter-personal, small-group, public
and mass communication as they interact in a complex, multi-group setting. E.g.
business, government, and educational institutions.
TYPES OF SPEAKING AND WRITING
There are two main ways in which human beings communicate verbally, that is,
through speaking and writing.
SPEAKING: is the vocalized form of human communication through the use of
uttered sounds for auditory communication. It is based upon the syntactic
combination of lexicons and names that are drawn from very large vocabularies.
WRITING: is the representation of language in a textual medium through the use
of a set of signs or symbols such as letters that express some meaning.
SPEAKING: Oral Communication
TYPES: Expository speeches, Conversations, Face to face, Interview,
Meeting, Oral Briefing, Public address, Oral Presentation, Telephone Call,
Conference, Training Session etc.

Advantages
Direct medium of communication

advantages of physical proximity and usually, both sight and sound of sender
and receiver; allows instant interchange of opinion, views, attitudes
instantaneous feedback

easier to convince or persuade

Allows for contribution and participation from all present.

Disadvantages
More difficult to hold ground in face of opposition

more difficult to control when a number of people take part

lack of time to think things out quality of decision making may be inferior

often no written record of what has been said

Sometimes disputes results over what was agreed.

WRITING: Written Communication

TYPES: Essay, Journal, Diaries, Letter, Memorandum, Report, Abstract,
minutes, Article, Press Release
Advantages:

Provides written record and evidence of dispatch and receipt

capable of relaying complex ideas

provides analysis, evaluation and summary

disseminates information to dispersed receivers

can confirm, interpret and clarify oral communications

Forms basis of contract or agreement.

Disadvantages

Can take time to produce

can be expensive

communication tends to be formal and distant

can cause problems of interpretation

instant feedback is not possible

once dispatched, difficult to modify message

Does not allow for exchange of opinion, views or attitudes except over a
period of time.