ENDOCRINOLOGY

-OVERVIEW
OVERVIEW-Dr. HESHAM ANWAR

TYPES OF GLANDS
1- Endocrine
Endocrine-- ductless,
ductless, secrete directly
into the blood
blood,, e.g. Thyroid, adrenal,
adrenal, etc...
2- Exocrine
Exocrine-- duct, secrete their products
through a duct onto the epithelial surface,
surface,
e.g. sweat glands, salivary glands,
mammary glands, stomach, liver,
liver, etc...
3- Mixed
Mixed-- contain both endocrine and
exocrine functions in one gland,
gland, e.g.
Pancreas (trypsin
trypsin--exocrine
exocrine,, insulin
insulin-endocrine))
endocrine
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DEFINITION OF HORMONE
1- Hormones are organic chemical messengers
produced and secreted by endocrine cells into
the bloodstream to a specific site of action
(target organ)
organ)
2- Hormones regulate and control a wide range
of physiologic functions
3- They present in traces (microgram or less)
4- They are not used as a source of energy but
acts to regulate reactions to produce an
appropriate response of the organism
positive, if negative the
(responses are usually positive,
Chalone))
hormone can be referred to as a Chalone
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TARGET CELLS
# They are cells that contain specific receptors
(binding sites)
sites) for a particular hormone
# Once a hormone binds to receptors on a
target cell
cell,, a series of cellular events starts
concerning gene expression & protein
synthesis

HORMONE RECEPTORS
# They are the binding sites on the target cell
(either on the surface or in the cytoplasm or
nucleus of the target cell)
cell) that are activated
only when specific hormones bind to them
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CLASSES OF HORMONES
1- STEROID HORMONES
2- PEPTIDE HORMONES
3- LOCAL HORMONES
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1- STEROID HORMONES
# Steroid hormones are produced by the
adrenal cortex and gonads
# Steroid hormones are made from
cholesterol in the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum & mitochondria of endocrine cells
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# Steroid hormones cannot be stored in

vesicles in the endocrine cells that produce
them
# As soon as steroid hormones are
produced, they diffuse out of the endocrine
cell and enter the bloodstream
# Steroid hormones are lipid soluble and
their receptors are located inside their
target cell
# Example of steroid hormones:
hormones:
A- Adreno
Adreno--cortical hormones and
B- Sex hormones
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2- PEPTIDE HORMONES
# They consist of chains on Am Acs
# Like most proteins
proteins,, peptide hormones are
synthesized on ribosomes of the rough ER
of endocrine cells
# They can be stored in vesicles in
endocrine cells until they are needed at
some later point
# Peptide hormones do not readily pass
bilayers) and
through cell membranes (lipid bilayers)
they are referred as water soluble
# Receptors for peptide hormones are found
on the cell surface of their target cells
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Example of Polypeptides and protein

hormones
A- Hypothalamic hormones (or factors)
B- Anterior pituitary hormones
C- Posterior pituitary hormones
D- Pancreatic hormones
E- Gastrointestinal hormones e.g. secretin
and cholecystokinin
Example of AminoAmino-acid derivatives
A- Thyroid hormones B- Catecholamines
C- -aminobutyric acid
D- Melatonin
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3- LOCAL HORMONES
# These are physiologically active
substances that are released from general
or specific sites in tissues and they act
at or near their point of origin & normally
destroyed before they have a chance to
disperse further
E.g.: Acetyl choline,
choline, Histamine
Histamine,, Serotonin
Serotonin,,
Prostaglandins and Thromboxanes

The major endocrine glands include:

II
II-- Pituitary gland

I- Pineal gland

III
III-- Thyroid gland
IV
IV-- Thymus

V- Adrenal gland

VI
VI-- Pancreas
VIIa-- Ovary
VIIa

VIIb-- Testis
VIIb
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I- THE PINEAL GLAND

# It is a small endocrine gland in the
brain.. It produces the serotonin
vertebrate brain
derivative melatonin,
melatonin, a hormone that
affects the modulation of wake/sleep
patterns and seasonal functions
# Melatonin exerts a powerful antioxidant
activity
# Melatonin enhances the immune system
# Individuals with autism spectrum
ASD)) may have lower than
disorders (ASD
normal levels of melatonin
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II
II-- PITUITARY GLAND
# The human pituitary gland is a reddish
gray oval gland and is located at the base
of the brain
# It is composed of 3 parts which are:
A- Glandular part,
part, the adenohypophysis or
anterior lobe
B- Neural part
part,, the neurohypophysis or
posterior lobe
C- The middle lobe
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Higher centers in the brain

Nerve impulses
The hypothalamus

Anterior pituitary

Nerve impulses
Posterior pituitary

Trophic hormones
Target endocrine glands hormones

Action

RF

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Hypothalamus
RH
Anterior lobe of pituitary gland
Inhibitory
effect

Trophic hormones to
other endocrine glands
Target endocrine glands
Hormones secreted into blood
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The major pituitary gland hormones

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A- Anterior pituitary (Adenohypophysis)

Anterior pituitary hormones are released under
the influence of the hypothalamus
1- Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH
ACTH),
), release
under influence of hypothalamic Corticotropin
CRH))
Releasing Hormone (CRH
2- Thyroid
Thyroid--stimulating hormone (TSH
TSH),
), release
under influence of hypothalamic Thyrotropin
TRH))
Releasing Hormone (TRH
3- Growth hormone (GH
GH),
), release under
influence of hypothalamic Growth Hormone
GHRH);
); inhibited by
Releasing Hormone (GHRH
hypothalamic Somatostatin
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4- Prolactin (PRL
PRL),
), also known as 'Luteotropic
'Luteotropic''
), release under influence of
hormone (LTH
(LTH),
multiple hypothalamic Prolactin Releasing
PRH))
Factors (PRH

5- The two major 'Gonadotropins :

A- Lutenizing hormone ('Lutropin
'Lutropin'' or 'LH
'LH))
B- Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH
FSH),
),
# Both LH & FSH released under influence of
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone, (GnRH
GnRH))
As well as: C- Endorphin called 'beta endorphin'
endorphin'
D- Melanocyte
Melanocyte
stimulating hormones (MSH
MSH)) or
intermedins""
"intermedins
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B- Posterior pituitary (Neurohypophysis)

1- Oxytocin
Oxytocin,, is best known for roles in female
reproduction as it is released in large amounts
after expansion of the cervix and uterus during
labor, facilitating birth and later in breastfeeding
2- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH
ADH)) also known as
vasopressin

C- Intermediate lobe
# It produces melanocyte
melanocyte--stimulating hormone
(MSH
MSH),
), which stimulate the production & release
of melanin in skin and hair
# MSH signals to the brain have effects on
appetite and sexual stimulation
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HORMONE OF
THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY

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1- Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
# It is a polypeptide formed of 39 amino acids
with a molecular weight of 45,
45,000
# ACTH synthesize & secretes Glucocorticoids
Glucocorticoids,,
mineralocorticoids and androgenic steroids
(from the adrenal gland)
gland)
# ACTH stimulates lipoprotein uptake into
cortical cells.
cells. This increases the bio
bio--availability
of cholesterol in the cells of the adrenal cortex
# ACTH increases the transport of cholesterol
into the mitochondria & activates its hydrolysis
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2- Thyrotropic Hormone
# It is a glycoprotein with a molecular
weight of about 30,
30,000
# It acts on the thyroid gland to increase
the synthesis and release of thyroid
hormone (T3
(T3 and T4
T4)

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3- Growth hormone
# It is a single polypeptide formed of 191
amino acids, It has the following actions:
1. Protein metabolism: it has an anabolic
effect, increasing amino acid uptake by
cells, increases protein synthesis and
produces a positive nitrogen balance and
gain of weight
2. Fat metabolism: It produces lipolysis
and ketogenesis
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3. Carbohydrate metabolism: It
possesses an insulin antagonistic effect
with a tendency to increase blood
glucose level (diabetogenic effect)
4. Mineral metabolism: It increases
intestinal absorption of calcium and
produces retention of Na+, K+, Mg2+ as
well as of chlorides and phosphate

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4- Lactogenic hormone
# It is a polypeptide hormone with a
molecular weight of about 23,
23,000
# It causes milk secretion from the breast in
lactating females
# Abnormally high prolactin can delay
puberty,, interfere with ovulation in women
puberty
women,,
decrease libido in men & decrease fertility
# In animals and not in human it has a
lutetropic effect i.e. activates the corpus
luteum & stimulates progesterone
production by the developed corpus luteum
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5- Luteinizing hormone
# It is a glycoprotein
# In females it is responsible for
ovulation and development of corpus
luteum with stimulation of estrogen and
progesterone secretion
# In males it stimulates testosterone
production by the testis which in turn
maintain spermatogenesis
# Its action involves an increase in cAMP
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6- Follicle Stimulating hormone

# It is a glycoprotein
# In females it is responsible for
maturation of ovarian follicle and release
of estrogen
# In males it plays important role in the
early stages of spermatogenesis
# Its action is mediated through cyclic
AMP
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Summary for anterior pituitary hormones

Hormone

Sit of Action

Effects

1- ACTH

# Adrenal
cortex

# Release of Glucocorticoids,
mineralocorticoids and
androgenic steroids

2- TSH

# Thyroid
follicles

# Stimulation of synthesis and

release of thyroid hormones

3- GH

# Bone, muscle
& soft tissue

# Growth promotion:
Directly & through
somatomedins

4- Prolactin

# Lactating
mammary gland

# Milk synthesis

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Hormone

Sit of Action

Effects

5- LH

# Mature follicle
in female
# Leydig cells in
male

# Ovulation, corpus luteum

formation and release of
estrogen and progesterone
# Testosterone release which
complete spermatogenesis

6- FSH

# Ovarian
follicles in
females
#Testes in male

# Maturation of follicles
# Estrogen release. (Stimulation
of seminal & testicular growth)
# Initiation of spermatogenesis

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HORMONE OF
THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY

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# The posterior pituitary secretes two

hormones:
1- Oxytocin
2- Antidiuretic hormone = (Vasopressin)
# These two hormones are synthesized in
the cell bodies of neurones in the
hypothalamus & transported to the
posterior pituitary where they are stored
# Each of them is cyclic polypeptide
containing 9 amino acids (nonapeptide
(nonapeptide))
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1- Oxytocin
1. Contraction of the myo
myo--epithelial cells
breast. This
that line the ducts of the breast.
results in squeezing the milk out of the
breast = (milk
(milk ejection)
ejection) in lactating breast
2. Contraction of the smooth muscles of
uterus at labour
3. In a non
non--pregnant uterus it facilitates
sperm transport up the female genital
tract to the uterine tubes where
fertilization normally takes place
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2- ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH)

# It is essential for water rere-absorption in the
distal tubules of kidney
# It increases the permeability of the renal
tubules with a resultant water reabsorption
into the renal pyramids leading to
concentration of urine
# It increases peripheral vascular resistance,
resistance,
which in turn increases arterial blood pressure
# It plays a key role in homeostasis
homeostasis,, and the
regulation of glucose and salts in the blood
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Summary for posterior pituitary hormones

Hormone

Sit of Action

Effects

1- Oxytocin

# Uterus
# Lactating
mammary gland

# Stimulates uterus at labour

# Milk ejection by stimulation of
myoepithelial cells of mammary
ducts
# Facilitates transport of sperms
up to the fallopian tubes

2- ADH

# Distal &
collecting
tubules

# Anti
Anti--diuretic effect
# Increases arterial blood
pressure

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III
III-- THYROID GLAND
# The thyroid gland is found in the neck
neck,,
inferior to the thyroid cartilage
(also known as the Adam's Apple)
Apple)
# The thyroid gland produce thyroid hormones,
hormones,
the principal ones being triiodothyronine (T3)
and thyroxine (T4)
# These hormones regulate the rate of
metabolism and affect the growth and rate of
function of many other body systems
# The thyroid gland also produces the
hypercalcemia hormone, calcitonin
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IV
IV-- THYMUS GLAND
# The functions of the thymus are the
schooling"" of T-lymphocytes (T cells),
cells), of the
"schooling
immune system,
system, and the production and
secretion of thymosins hormones which
control T-lymphocyte activities and various
other aspects of the immune system
# The thymus is composed of two identical
lobes and is located in front of the heart and
behind the sternum
# The thymus is largest and most active
pre--adolescent periods
during the neonatal & pre
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V- ADRENAL GLAND
# Adrenal glands (suprarenal glands)
glands) are
triangular--shaped endocrine glands that
triangular
sit on top of the kidneys
# They are chiefly responsible for
releasing and synthesis of the hormones
corticosteroids,, mineralocorticoids
corticosteroids
mineralocorticoids,,
androgens and catecholamines
# Adrenal glands play no direct role in the
functioning of, or health of the kidneys
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# Each adrenal gland is separated into two

distinct structures,
structures, the adrenal cortex and
medulla,, both of which produce hormones
medulla
# The cortex mainly produces cortisol
cortisol,,
aldosterone,, and androgens
aldosterone
androgens,, while the
medulla chiefly produces epinephrine and
norepinephrine
# Glucocorticoids (cortisol
cortisol)) increasing
gluconeogenesis,,
blood sugar through gluconeogenesis
suppressing the immune system,
system, aiding in
fat,
fat, protein & carbohydrates metabolism
# Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone
aldosterone)) influence
on salt and water balances
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# Aldosterone acts on the kidneys to provide

active reabsorption of sodium
sodium,, passive
reabsorption of water & active secretion of
potassium
# This in turn results in an increase of blood
pressure and blood volume
# Epinephrine increases heart rate,
rate, contracts
blood vessels,
vessels, dilates air passages and
participates in the fight response of the CNS
# Epinephrine inhibits insulin secretion
stimulates glycogenolysis,
glycogenolysis, stimulates
glycolysis in muscle, triggers glucagon
secretion & increases lipolysis by adipose
tissue
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# These effects lead to increased blood

acids, providing substrates
glucose & fatty acids,
for energy production within all body cells
# Norepinephrine is a stress hormone,
hormone,
affects parts of the brain where attention
and responding actions are controlled
# Along with epinephrine
epinephrine,, norepinephrine
also underlies the fight response,
response, directly
increasing heart rate,
rate, triggering the release
of glucose from energy stores,
stores, and
increasing blood flow to skeletal muscle
# It increases the brain's oxygen supply
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VI
VI-- PANCREAS
# The pancreas is a gland organ in the
digestive and endocrine system of
vertebrates
# It is both an endocrine gland producing
hormones,, including
several important hormones
insulin,, glucagon
insulin
glucagon,, and somatostatin
somatostatin,, as well
as an exocrine gland,
gland, secreting pancreatic
juice containing digestive enzymes that
pass to the small intestine
# These enzymes help to further break down
the carbohydrates
carbohydrates,, proteins and fats
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# The part of the pancreas with endocrine

function is made up of approximately a million
cell clusters called islets of Langerhans
# Four main cell types exist in the islets
1- cells secrete glucagon (increase glucose in
blood)) 2- cells secrete insulin (decrease
blood
glucose in blood)
blood) 3- cells secrete
somatostatin (regulates/stops and cells
cells))
4- PP cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide
(self regulate the pancreas secretion activities,
endocrine and exocrine & also has effects on
hepatic glycogen levels and gastrointestinal
secretions))
secretions
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VIIa - OVARIES
# The ovary is an ovum
ovum--producing
reproductive organ found in pairs as part of
the vertebrate female reproductive system
# Ovaries in females are homologous to
testes in males
males,, in that they are both gonads
and endocrine glands
# In the human the paired ovaries lie within
cavity, on either side of the
the pelvic cavity,
uterus,, to which they are attached via a
uterus
fibrous cord called the ovarian ligament
# Ovaries secrete estrogen & progesterone
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# Estrogen is responsible for the

appearance of secondary sex
characteristics of females at puberty and
for the maturation & maintenance of the
reproductive organs in their mature
functional state
# Progesterone functions with estrogen
by promoting cyclic changes in the
endometrium (it prepares the
endometrium for pregnancy
pregnancy),
), as well as
by helping maintain the endometrium in a
healthy state during pregnancy
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VIIb TESTICLES
# In mammals, the testes are often
contained within an extension of the
abdomen called the scrotum
# Testes are components of both the
reproductive system (being gonads)
gonads) and the
endocrine system (being endocrine glands)
glands)
in male
# The functions of the testes are:
1- Producing sperm (spermatozoa
spermatozoa))
2- Producing male sex hormones of which
testosterone
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# Both functions of the testicle,

testicle, sperm
sperm-endocrine,, are under control of
forming and endocrine
gonadotropic hormones LH & FSH

# Testosterone is a steroid hormone from

the androgens and it is primarily secreted
in the testes of males and the ovaries of
females (precursor of estrogens), although
small androgen amounts are also
secreted by the adrenal glands
# It is the principal male sex hormone and
an anabolic steroid
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# In men
men,, testosterone plays a key role in the
development of male reproductive tissues such
as the testis and prostate as well as promoting
secondary sexual characteristics such as
increased muscle,
muscle, bone mass and hair growth
# In addition, testosterone is essential for
health and well
well--being as well as the prevention
of osteoporosis
# The primary and most wellwell-known androgen
is testosterone as well as
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA),
Dihydrotestosterone & Androsterone
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THANKS FOR
ATTENTION

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