Journal of Molecular Structure 1089 (2015) 124128

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Molecular Structure

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/molstruc

Activation energy of water structural transitions

Alexander Kholmanskiy
The All-Union Scientic Research Institute of Electrication of Agriculture, Moscow, Russia

h i g h l i g h t s

g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

 Temperature dependencies of water

properties have different activation

energies.
 Break of hydrogen bonds limits
diffusion and electric relaxation in
water.
 Rotation of water clusters limits the
thermodynamics of its static
properties.

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 6 November 2014
Received in revised form 13 February 2015
Accepted 13 February 2015
Available online 21 February 2015
Keywords:
Water properties
Temperature dependence
Activation energy

a b s t r a c t
In this work, the nature of molecular motions that dominate in the thermodynamics of anomalies of
liquid water properties in the range of 0100 C has been studied. Temperature dependencies of water
properties have been approximated by exponential functions and the activation energies for water structure transitions have been evaluated. The activation energy values were compared with the energy spectra of characteristic vibrations and with those of cooperative molecular motion in the lattice-type
structure of hydrogen bonds. It has been found that it is the reaction of hydrogen bond breaking that
mainly limits the abnormal dynamics of water viscosity, self-diffusion, dielectric relaxation time and
electric conductivity. It has been assumed that the thermodynamics of cooperative motion and resonance
phenomena in water clusters form a basis for the differentiation mechanism of extrema points in temperature dependencies of water density, isobaric heat capacity, sound velocity, surface tension coefcient
and compressibility.
2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Introduction
The anomalies of water properties are dened by its specic
molecular structure, hydrogen bonds (HB) dynamics and disassociation of water molecules resulting in proton and hydroxyl group
formation. The earliest life forms rst appeared in water and they
consist of mainly water. That is why, in the course of phylogenesis,
the anomalies of water have, in one form or another, found their
development in physicalchemical metabolism mechanisms and
the ability of biological systems for adaptation to various
E-mail address: allexhol@ya.ru
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2015.02.049
0022-2860/ 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

environments, and there is every reason to suppose that water participated actively in the genesis of bilateral and chiral biosphere
asymmetry [1,2]. Among the anomalies of water in the liquid phase
are, rst of all its extremal temperature dependences (TD) of density (q), heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp), compressibility (c)
and sound velocity (V). The extrema points of these TDs are 4 C,
35 C, 45 C and 75 C, respectively.
The thermodynamic mechanism of extrema points (Te) differentiation, as well as that of TD shape, are not yet perfectly clear [3].
Generally, Te can be compared with the critical points of secondorder phase transition where only system restructuring takes place
without intrinsic energy change (constant-energy transitions)

125

A. Kholmanskiy / Journal of Molecular Structure 1089 (2015) 124128

[25]. Water restructuring mechanisms of this type in Te points are

realizable because water is a kind of cooperative quantum system
composed of molecules linked by means of HBs into a threedimensional lattice [6]. The data related to the water polymorphic
properties proves the existence of such systems [7]. The tetrahedral structure of the lattice is dened by sp3-hybridization of oxygen atom orbitals and the ability of water molecule to form two
donor-type and two acceptor-type HBs. The thermodynamics of
the lattice structure depends on the energy and lifetime of HBs,
as well as on the lattice integrity degree i.e. on the number of
defects interfering with its tetrahedral structure and consistency.
Defects may appear due to rotationtranslation reorientation of
molecule or due to the change of its HBs number.
The quantum origin of intermolecular interactions in latticetype water structures can be detected, for example, in the dependence of HB formation reaction on the nuclear mechanical moment
of water molecule [8,9]. In the course of HB formation, rotationally
exited para-molecule returns into its ground state where its rotation energy equals to zero. The value of the quantum number for
an ortho-molecule in its ground state is unity. Firstly, it prevents
the HB formation, secondly, it increases the probability of lattice
structure deformation or breakage during the transition of paramolecule into ortho-molecule. In accordance with the spin theory
[9], the rate of thermally-induced transitions between para- and
ortho- states increases drastically when quanta of rotational transitions of ortho- and para-water isomers come into resonance with
thermal energy quanta (kTe) at Te. The growth of ortho-isomer concentration leads to the restructuring of HB lattice resulting in the
change of water propertys TD with its extrema at Te.
The uctuation-type HB concept [10,11] also correlates with the
critical phenomena mechanism at Te. Calculations in the frames of
this concept have shown that due to the donor-type HB asymmetry
within one water molecule, the difference of OH group oscillation
energy for the majority of molecules varies in the range of
0.6 kJ/mol to 1.8 kJ/mol and attains its maximum at 33 C, i.e.
close to Te for heat capacity at constant pressure [10]. At the same
time, a shoulder appears on the TD curve for radial distribution
function for the nearest neighboring atoms, at temperatures above
45 C. It is associated with the growth of the share of very week
HBs and deformation of tetrahedral cell due to the displacement
of central water molecule towards a neighboring one resulting in
formation of single HB with optimal geometry instead of four
HBs [11].
The results of computer simulation of water molecular dynamics at 24 C show that 98% of molecules in their distribution have
more than one HB while only 1% of them have one HB, and there
is no molecule without, at least one HB [12]. The investigations
of water molecular dynamics in the condensed phase have proved
the existence of two fractions in it: one with low (A) and the other
with high (B) density [13,14]. Clusters with tetrahedral, ice-like,
structure form A-fraction while clusters with denser packing of
water molecules and greater number of strained HBs belong to
B-fraction [9,15]. In a number of works [14,16] transitions between
A and B fractions are involved to explain abnormal water properties behavior, rst of all, that of volumetric density.
In work [17], the A-type ickering cluster model [19] was
applied to approximate the experimental TD of Cp [18].
Flickering refers to the reversible dissociation of cluster as a
result of cooperative process that starts with the exit of one water
molecule from the HB lattice. In accordance with this model, the
authors of [17] made a polynominal approximation of TD for Cp
comprising three power functions of temperature. They evaluated
the enthalpy of reversible transformation of A-type ickering
cluster.
In paper [20], a theoretical substantiation of cluster formation
in the tetrahedral HD lattice has been made. Clusters are associated

with each other into spiral chains consisting of tetrahedrons. This

theory says that the coherent oscillation frequency for n protons
in a chain can be calculated using the following formula:

mn 22n1 n  11=2 THz:

For example, mn amounts to 6.6 THz for n = 10 while the oscillation energy is 2.6 kJ/mol [20]. It is clear that an external electromagnetic radiation acting in resonance with the proton oscillation
frequency mn would stimulate spiral clusters formation. Water
spiral clusters may probably be involved in the metabolism processes in life forms and, therefore, could have contributed to the
chiral biosphere genesis.
In this work, the difference in thermodynamics of TDs for
abnormal water properties has been studied and the average
values of temperature gradients, as well as those of activation
energy for structural reforming that determines both the TD
behavior and Te for each water property, have been estimated.
For this purpose, the liner approximation method was applied
[21] to the published data related to the TDs of water properties.
Methods and results
The experimental TDs of q [24], Cp [16,22], c [25], v [26], as well
as those of dynamic viscosity (g) [27], surface tension coefcient
(r) [23], specic conductivity (k) [28], self-diffusion coefcient
(D) [29] and dielectric relaxation time (s) [12] were taken form reference books and other information sources. The numeric values of
parameters along with the corresponding references are given in
Annex. Normally, the TDs of water properties are approximated
by complex power polynomials. For example, for the q and Cp
TDs the following expressions are often used:

q a0 a1 t a2 t2    a5 t5 1 bt1 19;

C pt C C p15 C 0:99618 0:00028741 t=1005:26
0:011160100:036t

22;

Calculations of r are usually done using formula [23]: r = 235.5

(T/T0)1.256[1  0.625(T/T0)].
Approximations like these are rather helpful for technical and
technological applications but their complexity may completely
obscure the abnormal TD behavior and Te position. In [21], to
approximate TDs of q, v, Cp, c and r functions of the following form
were used:

A Ae  B1=T  1=T e 2 ;

where A are experimental values of water properties, Ae are their

extremal values for Te and B is a constant. Approximations (1) were
linear for the corresponding anamorphosises and temperature
ranges, being subject to kinking at Te. Values 0, Te and 100 C were
the limits of temperature ranges.
Generally, two types of water cluster cell restructuring mechanisms are possible. The rst type (I-type) includes structure transitions associated with HB breaking and those of water molecule
withdrawal from the cell. Effective activation energy (Eef) of this
type structure transition will be of the same order of magnitude
as that of HB (EH) which equals, in average, to 19 kJ/mol [19].
The second type of structure modication (II-type) belongs to the
transformation of HB lattice structure conguration [19]. Values
of Eef for II-type structure transitions will be of the same order of
magnitude as EH of week HBs, as well as the energy of rotation
translation motion of single molecules and cooperative molecular
systems. Since, in accordance with Arrhenius equation, the water
molecular restructuring kinetics is proportional to e[p(Eef/RT) it

126

A. Kholmanskiy / Journal of Molecular Structure 1089 (2015) 124128

can be assumed that this exponential behavior will become apparent in TD anomalies of water properties.
With regard to all this, the following well-known function can
be applied for approximation of TDs for g, s, k and D [19]:

A Ao expa=T;

where Ao is the value of A at the border or in the middle of the temperature interval where sign + applies to g and s while sign  is
valid for k and D. The linear TD approximations for q, v, CP and c
were obtained with the use of functions of the following form:

A Ae expa2 =T 2 :

3
1/2

Liner type TD anamorphosises in ln(A/Ao) 1/T and |ln(A/Ae)|

1/T coordinates had the form of Y = a/T + b (see Figs. 1 and 2) which
made it possible to calculate Eef values from their inclination angles
(a). Eef = aR for g, s, k and D while for q, v, CP and c the value of Eef
was estimated from formula:

Eef a2 R=T av ;
where Tav is the middle point of the temperature range. Parameters
of approximation functions (a, b, Eef, r2), Te and approximation intervals are given in Table 1. The extent of approximation of value r2 to
1 was considered as the measure of expressions (2), (3) applicability. Calculation error for a was dened with an accuracy equal
to that of A values (1%). Calculation error for Eef evaluations did
not exceed 10%. Microsoft Ofce Excel software was used for calculating and graph plotting.
Additional information on mechanisms of structure transitions
can be obtained from the analysis of average temperature gradient
(d) of TDs estimations. The values of d for TDs of q, c, r, CP and v
were determined from the following expression:

d 1=Ae At  Ae =T  T e 100;

while those for g, D, k and s were calculated using formula:

d 1=Aav At  A0 =T  T 0 100:

In (4) and (5) At, A0, T, T0 are the values of corresponding water
properties and temperatures on the borders of the respective intervals, Aav is the value of A at Tav. Calculated values of d are given in
Tables 2 and 3.
Anamorphosises of approximations (3) for TDs of q, v, CP and c
have their extremal values at t = 4 C (for q), 35 C (for CP), 45 C
(for c) and 75 C (for v), a similar behavior have their approximations (1) [21]. Besides, kinks were found on the TD of Cp
approximation in points 25 C, 45 C and 75 C. Point 25 C is also
apparent in function (3) approximation of r TD (see Fig. 2).
Approximations (2) for TDs of D, k, s and g deviated signicantly
from linear functions and were parallel to each other for D and k, as
well as for s and g in the range of 0100 C (see Fig. 1). Values of Eef

Fig. 1. Anamorphosises of temperature dependences of water properties (A): selfdiffusion coefcient (D) 1, dielectric relaxation time (s) 2, dynamic viscosity (g)
3, electric conductivity (k) 4.

Fig. 2. Anamorphosises of temperature dependences of water properties (A):

surface tension coefcient (r) 1a, density (q) 2a, sound velocity (v) 3a,
compressibility (c) 1b, heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp) 2b. Ao is the value
of A at Tav or Te.

for these properties have fallen close to each other in corresponding temperature ranges. It has to be noted that our evaluations of
Eef for different intervals are in good correlation with activation
energies reported in [19] (kJ/mol): for g 23 (0 C), 20 (5 C), 18
(20 C), 14 (50 C) and 12 (100 C), for D 19 (1.155 C). The average Eef value that we obtained for Cp (1.85 kJ/mol), with a high
degree of accuracy coincides with the enthalpy value for reversible
dissociation reaction for ickering clusters (1.84 kJ/mol) [17].
The minimal Eef value for Cp (0.60.8 kJ/mol) is well-comparable
with the activation energy for the association reaction of glucose
in water that equals to 0.5 kJ/mol in the range of 20 C to 25 C
and 0.1 kJ/mol in the range of 2535 C [30].
Discussion
The assumption that point 25 C belongs to Te category can be
supported by the following reasons. It has been shown in [31] that
TD of electric conductivity for mineralized water has an explicit
maximum at 25 C. Point 25 C also appears in TD curves of radial
water molecules distribution obtained with the use of roentgen
analysis [32]. The abnormal dependence of shear viscosity on pressure in the vicinity of 1 bar attains its minimum at temperatures
below 30 C [19]. The TD for optical activity of glucose in water
solutions has a kink near 25 C [30]. These data along with the
presence of 25 C point in all anamorphosises gives the reason to
classify it as universal Te, at which a structural transition of spiral
water clusters takes place [20], via II-type mechanism. Taking the
asymmetry of HB tetrahedral chains into account, it would be reasonable to assume that there is a phase transition at 25 C between
the two water states differing in the spirality degree of tetrahedral
HB lattice.
The parallel alignment of TD approximations for D, k, s and g
provides the evidence that the water structure transition mechanism responsible for the shape of TDs for these properties is the
same and can be classied as I-type. Variations of d and Eef values
in the range of water properties correlate with each other. Besides,
|d| for the parallel approximations of I-type TDs in Table 2 have
nearly the same values and exceed the values of |d| given in
Table 3 by more than one order of magnitude. These results
are in good agreement with the assumption that the thermodynamic mechanisms of water anomalies of I-type and II-type differ
essentially.

127

A. Kholmanskiy / Journal of Molecular Structure 1089 (2015) 124128

Table 1
Extrema points and parameters of linear approximations (Y = a T1 + b).
Property

Y
3

1/2

Te (C)

Trend range Dt (C)

r2

Eef (kJ/mole)

4100
04
425
2535
3574
76100
045
45100
074
75100
525
25100
04
425
2545
4573
78100
0100
025
2645
4675
76100
225
2587
025
2593

0.999
0.999
0.995
0.995
0.999
0.999
0.999
0.999
0.999
0.999
0.996
0.999
1
0.999
1
0.999
1
0.993
0.999
0.999
0.999
0.999
0.997
0.998
0.997
0.976

221
323
236
170
152
186
698
684
408
433
480
400
2535
2203
1893
1677
1513
1889
5048
4453
3944
3119
2536
2000
2565
1831

1.3
3.1
1.6
0.8
0.6
0.8
13.6
11.1
4.4
4.3
6.6
4.0
21.1
18.3
15.7
13.9
12.6
<15.7>
42
37
33
28
21
17
21
15

0.8
1.1
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.6
2.2
2.2
1.2
1.2
1.8
1.6
8.7
7.5
6.7
5.8
5.3
6.4
14.0
12
10
9
12
10
6.5
4.0

Density (q, g sm )
Isobaric heat capacity (Cp, J/(g K))

(ln q/qo)
|ln (C/Co)|1/2

4
4, 25, 35,75

Compressibility (c, bar1)

|ln (c/co)|1/2

45

Sound speed (V, m/s)

|ln (v/vo)|1/2

75

1/2

Surface tension (r, N/m)

|ln (r/ro)|

Dynamic viscosity (g, sPs)

ln g

4; 25; 35; 45; 75

Specic conductivity (k, lS/sm)

ln k

25; 45;75

Coefcient of self-diffusion (D, sm2/s)

ln D

25

Dielectric relaxation time (sD, s)

ln s

25

25

Table 2
Normalized temperature gradients of I-type TDs.
A

T0  T (C)

Aav

d (C1)

g
s

0100
094
287
0100

1.0
15
42
0.4

1.5
1.6
1.7
2.0

D
k

Table 3
Normalized temperature gradients of II-type TDs.
A

Te (C)

d (C1)
0  Te

Te  100

q
r

4 (max)
25 (kink)
35 (min)
45 (min)
75 (max)

0.003
0.22
0.026
0.32
0.13

0.042
0.24
0.014
0.18
0.032

Cp

The diversity of Te and Eef values for different water properties is

evidently determined by the specics of molecular motion origin
and energy parameters that dene the limits for structure transition mechanisms. To study their origin we have to compare Eef values with the known energies of rotationoscillation motion in
molecular and supramolecular water structure. Structural transitions of I-type include HB breaking, and this process is associated
with the excitation of OH group oscillation state of water molecule [10]. In fact, values of Eef for D, k, s and g appear to have the
same order of magnitude as EH and are well comparable with
quanta oscillation energy (hm). Their values are (kJ/mol): 8 (libration), 18 (deformation) and 44 (stretching vibrations) [32].
The probability of lling of osculation levels for the water thermodynamic equilibrium is determined by Boltzmann exponent
e[p(hm/RT). This exponent will dene both the probability of formation and the density of virtually free water molecules responsible for its uidity through the limiting the HB breaking rate [21].
Therefore, an exponential component appears in TD of D, k, s and g.
Reduction of Eef values for D, k, s and g with Te may be associated with combined contribution of II-type transition mechanisms
into I-type mechanism. There is some evidence that this is true
because, for example, Eef values for c in the range of 045 C are
close to those of g in the range of 4575 C. This correlation originates from the fact that compressibility, or elastic modulus, of
water is proportional to the length of HB and depends on OH
group dynamics. By a similar way, the sensibility of water surface
tension to the I-type transition mechanism explains the growth of
Eef for r. The increase of Eef and d in case of k can be attributed to
the specics of I-type structure transition mechanism that, along
with the HB breaking, includes water dissociation reaction that

c
V

leads to H+ and OH formation and has a large activation energy

value 54 kJ/mol [19].
Values of Eef, q, V and CP are comparable with the energy of heat
quantum kT, That is why there is a reason to assume that the cooperative dynamics of supramolecular water structures dominates in
II-type transition mechanism. Cooperative motion of water molecules in ickering clusters denes, for instance, the conguration
component of water specic heat capacity [19]. The thermodynamics of this type transitions will be determined by the rotation
translation motion kinetics and by reorientation of spin isomers
of water [4,9]. Let us denote the energy quanta of these motions
by hX and clarify their origin and evaluate the range of its values.
Rocking vibrations of water molecules with an amplitude
of 2030 are characterized by an energy of 0.181.0 kJ/mol
[12]. The asymmetry of HB determines the dispersion of OH
groups oscillation energy in the range of 0.61.8 kJ/mol [10].
Activation energy for glucose association in water ranges between
0.1 kJ/mol and 0.5 kJ/mol [30] while the enthalpy of ickering cluster equals to 1.84 kJ/mol [17]. Coherent electromagnetic oscillation
energy spectrum in clusters, as well as that of rotational and thermal quanta, that initiate water structure transitions, covers the
range of 2.32.7 kJ/mol [8,20]. The probability of excitation of these motions will be proportional to Boltzmann exponent e[p(hX/
RT). Accordingly, variations of Te may be attributed to the different
origins of X in the water physical properties range. Each Te is associated with its resonance X value that limits the II-type transition
mechanism.

128

A. Kholmanskiy / Journal of Molecular Structure 1089 (2015) 124128

Therefore, we have obtained the values of Eef for Cp (0.6

3.1 kJ/mol) and q (1.3 kJ/mol) which makes it possible to associate
the II-type translation mechanism responsible for anomalies of
these water properties with cooperative rotationtranslation and
orientation movements of molecules in water lattice structure.
An increase of Eef in case of V (4.4 kJ/mol) can be explained in a
similar way as in the case of c, i.e. with regard to the contribution
of I-type mechanism to that of II-type. A similar anomalies nature
of mechanisms for c and V proves the correlation of their d values.
If we take the logarithm of both sides of well-known equation
v2 = c/q and then differentiate it with respect to temperature we
obtain the following relationship for modules of d:

jdc j  2jdv j jdq j;

which is correct with an accuracy of 7% in the range of 045 C.
Conclusions
Mathematical and thermodynamic analysis of temperature
dependences of water properties in the range of 0100 C made
it possible to evaluate the average temperature gradient and activation energy of molecular motion dominating in water structure
transitions for each property. Based on the comparison of activation energies with those of hydrogen bonds and of characteristic
and cooperative molecular motion, the thermodynamics of anomalies were attributed to two reference types. Reaction of hydrogen
bond breaking limits mainly the rst type thermodynamics
responsible for anomalies of dynamic viscosity, self-diffusion,
dielectric relaxation time and electric conductivity of water.
Cooperative rotational motion and resonance effects in water clusters, evidently, determine the origin of second type thermodynamics that conditions the extrema differentiation mechanism of
temperature dependencies of density, isobaric heat capacity, compressibility, surface tension and sound velocity. The thermodynamics of spiral tetrahedral clusters was classied as the second
type mechanism. With regard to the known data an assumption
has been made that the temperature dependence of hydrogen
bonds lattice spirality degree attains its extrema at 25 C.
Acknowledgment
The author would like to thank Academician of RAS V.N.
Parmon and Professor A.V. Pukhovskiy for their interest to the
work and useful remarks.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2015.02.
049.

References
[1] V.A. Tsarev, Phys. Part. Nucl. 40 (7) (2009) 103161.
[2] A.S. Kholmanskiy, Electron. Math. Med.-Biol. J. 9 (2010). <http://www.
smolensk.ru/user/sgma/MMORPH/N-28-html/cont.htm>.
[3] S.D. Zakharov, I.V. Mosyagina, The Cluster Structure of Water (review), FIAN.
2011.
<http://preprints.lebedev.ru/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/35_11_pr.
pdf>.
[4] F. Dyson, E. Montroll, M. Kac, M. Fisher, Stability and Phase Transitions, Mir
Publishers, Moscow, 1973.
[5] M.A. Anisimov, Critical Phenomena in Liquids and Liquid Crystals, Moscow,
1987.
[6] M.N. Rodnikova, N.A. Chumaecsky, J. Struct. Chem. Appl. 47 (2006) S154S161.
[7] Osamu Mishima, H. Eugene Stanley, Nature 396 (1998) 329335.
[8] S.M. Pershin, Phys. Wave Phenom. 16 (2008) 1525.
[9] S.D. Zakharov, Ortho/Para Spin-Isometry Isomerism of H2O Molecules as the
Leading Formation Factor of Two Structural Types in Water. <http://www.
biophys.ru/archive/h2o-00025.pdf>.
[10] Yu Ya Emov, J. Struct. Chem. 42 (2001) 11221126.
[11] Yu Ya Emov, Yu I. Naberukhin, J. Struct. Chem. 41 (2000) 532536.
[12] G.G. Malenkov, J. Struct. Chem. Appl. 47 (2006) 535.
[13] C. Huang, K.T. Wikfeld, T. Tokushima, D. Nordlund, Y. Harada, U. Bergmann, M.
Niebuhr, T.M. Weiss, Y. Horikawa, M. Leetmaa, M.P. Ljungberg, O. Takahashi, A.
Lenz, L. Ojamae, A.P. Lyubartsev, S. Shin, L.G.M. Pettersson, A. Nilsson, PNAS
106 (2009) 1521415218.
[14] L. Pettersson, Water Structure and Origin of Its Anomalous Properties, 2014,
<http://agenda.albanova.se/conferenceDisplay.py?confId=4403>.
[15] A. Nilsson, L. Pettersson, Chem. Phys. 389 (2011) 134.
[16] F. Mallamace, C. Branca, M. Broccio, PNAS 104 (2007) 1838718391.
[17] A. Braibanti, E. Fisicaro, A. Ghiozzi, C. Compari, Thermochim. Acta 286 (1996)
5166.
[18] R.C. Weast, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, vol. 565, CRC, Cleveland,
1976.
[19] D. Eisenberg, W. Kauzmann, The Structure and Properties of Water, Oxford
University Press, New York, 1969.
[20] A. Shimkevich, I. Shimkevich, Adv. Condens. Matter Phys. (2011) 5, http://
dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/871231 (Article ID 871231).
[21] A.S. Kholmanskiy, Int. J. Alternat. Energy Ecol. 6 (2014) 6674.
[22] G.W. Kaye, T.H. Laby, Tables of Physical and Chemical Constants, Longmans,
1970.
[23] IAPWS Release on Surface Tension of Ordinary Water Substance, 1994. <http://
www.iapws.org/relguide/surf.pdf>.
[24] B.P. Nikolskiy, Handbook of Chemical/Ed., vol. 1, 1982, p. 547.
[25] R.A. Fine, F.J. Millero, J. Chem. Phys. 59 (1973) 55295536.
[26] Physical Values. Handbook, Moscow, 1991.
[27] K.F. Pavlov, P.G. Romankov, A.A. Noskov, Examples and challenges at the rate
of processes and devices of chemical technology: Textbook for Universities,
Leningrad, 1987.
[28] Conductivity Measurement in High Purity Water Samples Below 10
microsiems. <http://www.iccontrols.com/les/4-2.pdf>.
[29] N. Agmon, J. Phys. Chem. 100 (1996) 10721080. <http://www.fh.huji.ac.il/
~agmon/Fullpaper/jp9516295.pdf>.
[30] A.S. Kholmanskiy, D.S. Strebkov, Dokladi RAAS 5 (2007) 5760.
[31] Ye V. Sycheva, N. A. Manakov, Water Electric Conductivity Dependence on
Temperature
Mad
Atmospheric
Pressure.
<http://conference.osu.ru/
assets/les/conf_reports/conf10/493.doc>.
[32] G.V. Yukhnevich, Infrared Spectroscopy of Water, Moscow, 1973.