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1. AEROPLANE DYNAMICS
&
STRUCTURE
2. AEROPLANE SYSTEM
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Contents
1 MODULE 11 (AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND
SYSTEMS) .......................................................................................... 1-2
1.1
1.2
Page 1-1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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1
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
The fixed aerofoils are the wings or mainplanes, the horizontal stabiliser or
tailplane and vertical stabiliser or fin. The function of the wings is to provide
enough lift to support the complete aircraft. The tail section of a conventional
aircraft, including the stabilisers, elevators and rudder, is occasionally known as
the empennage.
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1.1.1.1
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Horizontal Stabiliser
Horizontal Stabiliser
Figure 2
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1.1.1.2
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Theory of Flight
T-Tail Arrangement
TTail Arrangement
Figure 3
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1.1.1.3
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Theory of Flight
Vertical Stabiliser
The vertical stabiliser for an aircraft is the aerofoils forward of the rudder and is
used to provide directional stability.
A problem encountered on single-engined propeller driven aircraft is that the
propeller causes the airflow to rotate as it travels rearward. This strikes one side
of the vertical stabiliser more than the other, resulting in a yawing moment. These
aircraft may have the leading edge of the stabiliser offset slightly, thereby causing
the airflow to pass around it in such a manner to counter the yaw.
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Moveable control surfaces are normally divided into Primary and Secondary
controls.
The primary control surfaces include the elevators, rudder, ailerons and roll
spoilers. The secondary control surfaces consist of trim controls (tabs), high lift
devices (flaps and slats), speed brakes and lift dumpers (additional spoilers).
Note: Traditionally, spoilers have not been included as primary controls, but those
which operate in conjunction with the ailerons during roll, are considered to be
primary in the JAR 66 syllabus, so this is how these notes will define them.
The primary control surfaces are used to make the aircraft follow the correct flight
path and to execute certain manoeuvres.
The secondary controls are used to change the lift and drag characteristics of the
aircraft or to provide assistance to the primary controls.
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1.1.2.1
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
These primary controls provide lateral (roll) control of the aircraft, that is,
movement about the longitudinal axis. They are normally attached to hinges at
the trailing edge of the wing, near the wing tip. They move in opposite directions,
so that the up-going aileron reduces lift on that side, causing the wing to go down,
whilst the down-going surface increases the lift on the opposite side, raising the
wing.
Large aircraft often use two sets of aileron surfaces on each wing, one in the
conventional position near the wing tip and the other set at mid-span or outboard
of the flaps. The inboard set is referred to as high speed ailerons. The outboard
surfaces, or sometimes both sets, work at low speeds to give maximum control
during take off and landing, for example when large movements may be required.
At high cruising speed the outer ailerons are isolated and only the inboard set
operate. If the outer ailerons were permitted to operate at high speed, the stress
produced at the wing tips may twist the wing and produce aileron reversal. This
is particularly likely with modern highly flexible thin wings, where the possibility of
structural damage may result if the outboard surfaces were too powerful.
The ailerons are operated by a control wheel, a control column or a side-stick.
Movement of any of these inputs away from neutral towards one side, will result
in the aircraft rolling to that side. Returning the control to neutral at this stage will
leave the aircraft in a banked condition and a similar but opposite movement will
be required to bring the aircraft level once more.
Aileron Controls
Figure 6
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
The ailerons are usually operated in conjunction with the rudder and/or elevator
during a turn and are rarely used on their own. A co-ordinated turn is one that
occurs without slip or skid. Too little bank will cause the aircraft to skid outwards,
too much bank will cause the aircraft to slip downwards.
1.1.2.2
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1.1.2.3
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
The elevators are the control surfaces which govern the movement of the aircraft
in pitch about its lateral axis. They are normally attached to the hinges on the rear
spar of the horizontal stabiliser.
When the control column of the aircraft is pushed forward, the elevators move
down..
The resultant force of the airflow generated lift', acting upwards, raises
the tail and lowers the nose of the aircraft. The reverse action takes place when
the control is pulled back.
1.1.2.4
A special type of pitch control surface that combines the functions of the elevator
and the horizontal stabiliser is the stabilator, often referred to as a slab or allflying tailplane . The stabilator is a complete all-moving horizontal stabiliser which
can change its angle of attack when the control column is moved and thereby
alter the total amount of lift generated by the tail.
Elevator Controls
Figure 8
Stabilator Controls
Figure 9
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1.1.2.5
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Canards
Some earliest powered aircraft, such as the Wright Flyer, had horizontal surfaces
located ahead of the wings. This configuration, with the forward surface usually
referred to as a canard or foreplane, has been used on occasions, up to the
present day.
Conventional aircraft have the tailplane located at the rear of the fuselage which
provides a small, stabilising down force. This means that the wing has to produce
slightly more lift to balance this down force. As we have seen, in order for a wing
to produce lift it must also generate drag.
With the tailplane located at the front of the aircraft, the stabilising force is
directed upwards. This contributes to the total lift of the aircraft, thereby reducing
drag from the lift producing wing.
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
The rudder is a vertical control surface that is hinged at the rear of the fin and is
designed to apply yawing moments. The rudder rotates the aircraft about its
vertical axis and is controlled by rudder pedals that are operated by the pilots
feet. Pushing on one pedal, the right for example, causes the rudder to move to
the right also. This causes the rudder to generate a 'lifting' force sideways to the
left which turns the nose of the aircraft to the right.
Because of the power of some rudder systems, particularly assisted systems,
they may have their range reduced at high speed by means of a speed-sensitive
range limiting system.(later).
The rudder is normally a single structural unit but on large transport aircraft it may
comprise two or more operational segments, moved by different operating
systems to provide a level of redundancy.
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Rudder controls
Figure 12
1.1.2.8
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Another example are ruddervators normally used on aircraft fitted with a 'V' or
Butterfly tail. These surfaces serve the purposes of both rudder and elevator.
Ruddervator Controls
Figure 13
1.1.3 HIGH LIFT DEVICES
Aerodynamic lift is determined by the shape and size of the main lifting surfaces
of the aircraft. In order to produce the outstanding performance achieved by a
large modern, swept wing, passenger jet such as the Boeing 777, the wing is
designed to give optimum lift to support the aircraft whilst in cruise (typically
Mach 0.87).
This has meant, that to be able to control and land the aircraft weighing around
200-tonne on runways of reasonable length, the landing speed needs to be
slower than the clean stalling speed of the aircraft. In order to achieve this, more
lift is required and this is obtained from so-called high lift devices.
These are divided generally into leading edge devices, namely slots, slats and
Krueger flaps and trailing edge devices including plain, slotted and fowler flaps.
They will increase lift and as a result, reduce the stalling speed. Consequently the
landing speed, (about 1.3 times the stalling speed), will also be reduced, since
drag is also increased with large angles of trailing edge flap deployment.
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Droop Aileron
Figure 15
1.1.4 DRAG INDUCING DEVICES
There are several situations where the aircraft must slow down fairly quickly. With
slower, high drag, light aircraft, simply closing the throttle allows the high drag of
the airframe and the idling propeller to slow the aircraft down, to gliding speed
prior to landing approach, for example.
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
1.1.4.1
Spoilers and Lift Dumpers are usually hinged panels located about mid-chord
position on the upper surface of the wing. Hydraulically operated, they produce a
large amount of turbulence and drag when deployed, resulting in a reduction of
lift.
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Lift dumpers are, as their name describes, are spoiler panels incorporated solely
to dump lift. They are normally deployed after landing, destroying the lift of the
wing and producing high drag, to assist in stopping the aircraft efficiently and
thereby allowing the wheel brakes to be operated more effectively.
1.1.4.2
Speed Brakes
Whilst it is true that the in-flight use of spoilers may be referred to as selecting the
'speed brakes', the term more accurately describes devices which are solely for
the production of drag without any change of trim. The rear fuselage mounted
'clamshell-type doors which open up on the BAe 146 and Fokker 70/100 aircraft
are true speed brakes (or air brakes) and have the following major advantage
over the use of spoilers for producing drag.
When the wing mounted spoilers are deployed, vibration or rumble is often felt in
the passenger cabin, which some people may find disturbing. The aft mounted
speed brakes not only produce high drag at any airspeed, but their selection is
virtually vibration free. Also, lift will be completely unaffected, thus permitting their
deployment on approach and making a go-around much safer. (This will be
covered later in powerplants).
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
These devices are usually fitted to aircraft with swept wings. Total airflow over a
swept wing, splits into two components, one moving across the wing chord
parallel to the airflow and the other flowing spanwise towards the wing tip.
The fences are fitted about mid-span, on the leading edge of the wing and
extending rearwards. They are designed to control the spanwise flow of the
boundary layer air over the top of the wing. Also they will straighten the airflow
over the ailerons, improving their effectiveness and straighten the air nearer the
wing tip, resulting in less 'spillage' of air from beneath the wing to the top, thereby
producing less drag. (See Winglets later).
Wing Fences
Figure 18
1.1.5.1
This form of airflow control is more common on military aircraft than modern
commercial airliners. The saw tooth or notch is simply a small increase in wing
chord on the outer portion of the wing. The step where the change occurs, tends
to form an invisible 'wall' of high velocity air, which flows over the wing and
straightens the spanwise flow. It functions in much the same way as the wing
fence but removes the extra drag and weight penalty.
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1.1.5.2
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
These can be seen on a variety of the later generation airliners and business jets.
The outboard part of the wing are upswept to an extreme dihedral angle. These
winglets work best at higher speeds and, by clever aerodynamic design, will give
better airflow control and reduce the drag produced by the wing. It does this by
using the up-flow from below the wing to produce a forward thrust from the
winglet, rather like a yacht sail. The winglets add weight to the aircraft as well as
increasing parasitic drag, but the large reduction in induced drag at the wingtip,
results in a significant fuel saving.
Winglets
Figure 20
1.1.6 BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL
The boundary layer is that layer of air adjacent to the aerofoil surface (the
boundary between metal and air). If measured, the air velocity in the layer will
vary from zero directly on the surface, to the relevant velocity of the free stream
at the outer extremity of the boundary layer.
Normally, at the leading edge of the wing the boundary layer will be laminar, (in
smooth thin sheets close to the surface), but as the air moves over the wing
towards the trailing edge, the boundary layer becomes thicker and turbulent. The
region where the flow changes from laminar to turbulent is called the transition
point. .As airspeed increases, the transition point tends to move forward, so the
designer tries to prevent this thus maintaining laminar flow, over the top of the
wing for as far back as possible. Methods of boundary layer control are as
follows:
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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1.1.6.1
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
One way of stimulating the boundary layer and stopping the airflow becoming
increasingly sluggish towards the trailing edge is the use of vortex generators.
Vortex generators are small plates or wedges projecting up from the surface of an
aerofoil about 25mm.(about 3 times the typical boundary layer thickness), into the
free stream air. Their purpose is to shed small but lively vortices from their tip,
which act as scavengers to direct and mix the high energy free stream air into the
sluggish boundary layer air and invigorate it. This action pushes the transition
point backwards towards the trailing edge .
In this way,the small amount of drag created by the vortices is far more than
compensated by the considerable boundary layer drag which they save. They
also weaken the shock wave at high speed and reduce shock drag also. (later).
Vortex Generators
Figure 21
1.1.6.2
We have seen previously that washout on a wing permits the root of the wing to
stall first, allowing the pilot to retain roll control during the stall. Even with a
degree of washout, the aircraft will drop a wing on occasions due to adverse
boundary layer air causing the outer part of the wing to stall first. This can be
overcome with the use of stall wedges, or stall strips, as they are sometimes
known.
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Stall Wedges are small, wedge-shaped strips mounted on the leading edge of the
wings at about one third span. The are designed to disrupt the boundary layer
airflow, at large angles of attack approaching the stall, thus ensuring the airflow
breaks away,(stalls), at the root end of the wing first.
Additionally they produce a similar effect to a wing fence at smaller angles of
attack resulting in a smoother airflow over the ailerons, thus retaining optimum
roll control.
Stall Wedges
Figure 22
1.1.6.3
Other devices to prevent laminar separation at the low speed end of the range
and thus control boundary layer air are leading edge droop flaps and Kreuger
flaps. They can be a droop snoot or permanent droop type, or can be adjusted
during flight.
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
During a flight an aircraft will develop a tendency to deviate from a straight and
level hands-off attitude. This may be due to changes in fuel state, speed, load
position or flap/landing gear selection and could be countered by applying a
continuous correcting force to the primary controls. This would be fatiguing for the
crew and difficult to maintain for long periods, so trim tabs are used for this
purpose instead.
Trim tabs move the primary control surface aerodynamically in the opposite
direction to the movement of the tab. To correct an aircraft nose down out of trim
condition, the elevator tab is moved down, resulting in the elevator moving up, the
tail of the aircraft moving down, so that the nose comes up, correcting the fault.
1.1.7.1
A fixed trim tab may be a simple section of sheet metal attached to the trailing
edge of a control surface. It is adjusted on the ground by simply bending it up or
down, to a position resulting in zero control forces during cruise. Alternatively, the
tab is connected to the primary control by a ground-adjustable connecting rod.
Finding the correct position for both types is by trial and error.
1.1.7.2
A controllable trim tab is adjusted from the flight deck, with its position being
transmitted back to a flight deck indicator showing trim units, left and right of
neutral.
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Theory of Flight
Flight deck controls are trim-wheel, lever, switch, etc., with the actuation of the
tab by mechanical, electrical or hydraulic means. Trim facilities are normally
provided on all three axes.
Servo Tabs
Sometimes referred to as the flight tabs, servo tabs are positioned on the trailing
edge of the primary control surface and connected directly to the flight deck
control inputs. They act as a form of power booster, since pilot effort is only
required to deflect the relatively small area of the servo tab into the air stream.
Movement of the flight deck control input moves the tab up or down and the
aerodynamic force created on the tab, moves the primary control, until the
aerodynamic load on the control surface balances that on the tab. Moving the tab
down will cause the primary control to move up and vice-versa.
Servo Tab
Figure 26
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1.1.7.4
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Balance Tabs
Balance tabs assist the pilot in moving the primary control surface. The flight deck
controls are connected to the primary control surface whereas the balance tab,
hinged to the trailing edge of the primary surface, is connected to the fixed
aerofoil. For example, the elevator balance tab, will be connected by an
adjustable rod to the horizontal stabiliser and is so arranged, that it tends to
maintain the tab at the same relative angle to the stabiliser when the pilot moves
the elevator.
Aerodynamically, therefore, the tab is moving in the opposite direction to the
control surface and assists its movement. Adjusting the length of the connecting
rod will alter the displacement of the effective range of the tab about the mid-point
datum.
Some types of balance tab have more than one point of attachment and it is
possible with these so called geared balance tabs, to alter the range of tab
deflection.
The function of a balance tab can also be combined with that of a trim tab, by
adjusting the length of the balance tab connecting rod from the flight deck. This is
usually achieved by installing a form of linear actuator in the rod and is termed a
trim/balance tab (Geared balance and trim/balance tabs will be covered later in
the notes).
Balance Tab
Figure 27
1.1.7.5
Anti-Balance Tabs
Anti-Balance Tab
Figure 28
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1.1.7.6
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Spring Tabs
At high speed, control surfaces operated directly from the flight deck, become
increasingly difficult to deflect from neutral, due to the force of the aerodynamic
loads caused by the airstream around them.
The spring tab is progressive in its operation and provides increasing
aerodynamic assistance in moving the control surface, with an increase in aircraft
forward speed. The flight deck controls are connected to the spring tab in a
similar manner to the servo tab previously described, except the linkage is routed
via a torque rod assembly (or spring box) attached to the primary control surface.
When the aircraft is stationary or flying at low airspeed the airloads are nonexistent or very small. If the flight deck controls are deflected from neutral, the
rigidity of the torque tube (or spring force) causes the primary control to be
deflected together with the spring tab. The tab will remain in the same relative
position with the primary control and consequently provides no additional
aerodynamic assistance.
As the aircraft flies faster, the increased force produced by the airflow, opposes
the movement of the primary control surface from its neutral position. Deflection
of the
flight deck controls in this case causes the torque tube to twist (or the spring to
compress), resulting in a deflection of the spring tab.
The tab deflection provides an added aerodynamic load which assists the flight
deck effort. The faster the aircraft flies, the greater the airflow force and therefore
the greater the spring tab deflection, resulting in a progressively increasing
assistance in moving the primary control.
Spring Tab
Figure 29
1.1.8 MASS BALANCE
All aircraft structures are distorted when loads are applied. If the structure is
elastic, as all good structures are, it will tend to spring back when the load is
removed, or its point of application is changed.
Since a control surface is hinged near its leading edge, the centre of gravity (C of
G) will be behind the hinge and as a consequence, there will be more weight aft
of the hinge line than in front of it .
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Theory of Flight
In the case of an aileron for example, should the air load distort the wing
upwards, it is likely that the aileron will lag behind and distort downwards. This
effectively produces an extra upward aerodynamic force which pushes the wing
up even further.
Due to its elasticity, the wing will spring back and the aileron will lag again but this
time upwards, aerodynamically forcing the wing down further than it would
normally go due to elastic recoil alone. Now the cycle is repeated and a high
speed oscillation will result. This unwanted phenomenon is referred to as flutter.
Flutter can be prevented if the C of G of the control surface is moved in line with,
or slightly in front of, the hinge line. The normal way of achieving this is to add a
number of high density weights, either within the leading edge of the surface itself
or externally, ahead of the hinge line. The addition of these weights, normally
made from lead or depleted uranium, is closely controlled and calculated to
ensure that the exact balance is obtained.
This procedure of adding weights is referred to as mass balancing of the controls.
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Theory of Flight
When a control surface is set so it is not in the true neutral position it is referred to
as having a bias. There are many reasons for not having the controls in a true
central position, including compensating for design features. As an example, a
single propeller aircraft may have a tendency to roll in the opposite direction to
the engines torque, to counteract this moment the ailerons could be offset with
one slightly up and the other down. Once the aircraft is flying level with the bias
set the trim gauge in the cabin would then be set to read zero.
1.1.10 AERODYNAMIC BALANCE HORN BALANCE
In order to overcome the high stick forces on larger aircraft at higher speeds, the
surfaces themselves are used to lighten the forces.
This is referred to as Aerodynamic Balancing and the three principal ways of
achieving it are: horn balance, inset hinge and pressure balancing.
This method, a small part of the primary control surface ahead of the hinge will
project into the airflow when the control is deflected from neutral. The airflow on
this side assists the movement of the control in the desired direction and will
attempt to move the control further away from the neutral position.
Air loads on the control side, aft of the hinge, try to push the surface back towards
neutral. (This is the force that would normally make the controls heavy).
If the proportion of balance area forward of the hinge and control area aft of the
hinge is correct, the pilot will feel that his control loads are more manageable,
making the aircraft easier to fly.
Horn Balance
Figure 32
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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
This method is similar to and has the same effect as the horn balance. Instead of
having a forward projection at one or both ends of the control surface, the hinges
are set back so that the area forward of the hinge line, which projects into the air
flow when the control surface is moved from neutral, is spread evenly along its
whole length.
A device fitted to a few aircraft is the aerodynamic balance panel. Often used in
the aileron system, the panel is fitted between the leading edge of the aileron,
ahead of the hinge and the rear face of the wing. When the aileron is deflected
upwards (downwards) from neutral, the high velocity, low pressure air passing
over the lower (upper) gap decreases the air pressure under (above) the balance
panel and pulls it down (up). The force on the balance panel is proportional to
airspeed and control surface deflection and assists the pilot in moving the
controls accordingly.
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Additionally, in any one of the fluids, speed will vary with a change in
temperature. As temperature increases, the speed of sound will increase and
vice-versa, so that in Air on a standard day at sea level (15oC approx), the waves
will travel at 761mph (661.7 knots), whereas at 11,000 metres altitude, the speed
will fall to 661mph, since the temperature has dropped to -56oC at this altitude.
Note: At altitudes above 11,000 metres and up to about 27,000 metres, the
temperature and hence the speed of sound, will remain constant.
The propagation of the pressure waves from a stationary object has been
discussed above.
When an aircraft begins to move through the air at subsonic speeds, (a speed
less than pressure wave propagation speed) the waves still travel forward and it
is as if a message is sent ahead of the aircraft to warn of its approach.
On receipt of this message, the air streams begin to divide to make way for the
aircraft but there is very little, if any change in the density of the air as it flows
over the aircraft. This warning message can be detected perhaps 100metres in
front of the aircraft.
Consequently, anyone standing ahead of the aircraft, would hear it coming and
be able to detect the change in the nature of the pressure waves as the aircraft
passed by. It would be similar to the change in the pitch of the siren of a passing
emergency road vehicle.
This is often referred to as Doppler shift or Doppler effect.
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At subsonic speeds, the study of aerodynamics is simplified by the fact that air
passing over a wing experiences only very small changes in pressure and
density. The airflow is termed incompressible as, when it passes through a
venturi, the pressure changes without the density changing
At higher speeds, the change in air pressure and density becomes significant and
is called the compressibility effect. When air enters a venturi at supersonic
speeds, the airflow slows down and must compress in order to pass through its
throat. Once a fluid compresses, its pressure and density will both increase.
Subsonic Airflow
Figure 37
Supersonic Airflow
Figure 38
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The transonic flight range encompasses sound wave velocity and consequently is
the most difficult realm of flight since some of the air flowing over the aircraft,
particularly the wings, is subsonic and some is supersonic. As the aircraft
approaches the speed of sound, the pressure waves ahead of it will be travelling
at the same speed as the aircraft and are therefore relatively stationary. They
accumulate to form a continuous pressure wave and consequently will result in
the removal of any advance warning of the approach of the aircraft.
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Once the aircraft is supersonic, all parts of it are considered to be above the
speed of sound and therefore travelling faster than the rate of propagation of the
pressure waves. An infinite number of pressure waves are produced and form a
cone, the inclination of which will change as the aircraft speed changes.
Mach Cone
Figure 40
1.2.4.1
Mach Number
As previously mentioned, Mach number is the ratio of the true airspeed of the
aircraft and the local speed of sound at that altitude. An aircraft travelling at
exactly the speed of sound is said to be travelling at Mach 1.
It follows therefore that an aircraft travelling at twice the speed of sound would be
travelling at Mach 2 and at half the speed of sound, Mach 0.5, etc,.
The following definitions regarding airflow and mach number apply:
Subsonic Flow Mach Numbers below Mach 0.75
Transonic Flow Mach Numbers between Mach 0.75 and Mach 1.2
Supersonic Flow
Hypersonic Flow
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Mach 5.0
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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engineering
1.2.4.2
MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
At any constant aircraft forward speed, the speed of the airflow will vary over the
curves and cambers on the different areas of the airframe. The behaviour of the
airflow over the wing will be particularly significant, since this is the major lift
provider for the aircraft.
As air flows over the camber on the upper surface of the wing, its speed will
increase as it flows rearwards from the leading edge, reaching a maximum at the
thickest part of the wing chord. This means that although the aircraft itself may be
travelling at an airspeed well below Mach 1, the airflow over the thickest part of
the wing chord, may have already reached Mach 1
As will be discussed later, many unwanted effects occur when the wing
approaches and reaches Mach 1. Therefore, the designers may either
incorporate features that will lessen the unwanted effects, or limit the aircraft to a
predetermined maximum airspeed, that will ensure the wing speed remains below
Mach 1 and thus avoids the unwanted effects altogether.
For each aircraft type therefore, a unique maximum aircraft forward speed will be
calculated, corresponding to a wing speed of Mach 1. This aircraft speed (always
be less than Mach 1) is called the Critical Mach Number or M.crit and nonsupersonic aircraft flying in the transonic flight range, will normally be limited to a
maximum speed set below the Critical Mach number.
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In this design, the total amount of lift lost by the shallower camber of the thin wing
is restored by making the chord longer. This is perfect for transonic cruise
conditions, but at low airspeeds, lift on a clean wing will be insufficient and so
extensive use of high lift devices (slots, slats and flaps) is necessary
Supercritical Wing
Figure 42
1.2.4.3
1.2.4.4
Compressibility Buffet
Previously discussed has been the build up of the pressure wave in front of the
aircraft as it approaches Mach 1, including the fact that other parts of the
airframe, in particular the wing, are likely to reach Mach 1 well before the
complete aircraft does.
When this occurs the smoothness of the airflow over the wing is severely
affected. This region, as well as those on the flying control aerofoils, experience
violent vibration and so-called compressibility buffeting of the airframe. If allowed
to continue, control loss or possible structural damage can occur.
1.2.4.5
Shock Wave
Previously in the notes, the build up of pressure waves and the change from
incompressible to compressible flow as the aircraft or an aerofoil surface
approaches the speed of sound, has been discussed. Transonic flight presents
major design problems for the aerofoil in particular, because only a portion of the
airflow passing over the wing becomes supersonic.
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When an aerofoil moves through the air at a speed below its critical Mach
number, all of the airflow is subsonic and the pressure distribution is
predictable.The first indication of a change in the nature of the flow will be a
breakaway of the airflow from the aerofoil surface as described previously in
boundary layer control. Any turbulence resulting from the separation will cause an
increase in drag and a corresponding reduction in the amount of lift. As speed
begins to increase, the point of separation moves forward, extending the turbulent
wake.
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Note: If the aerofoil is symmetrical and set at zero degrees angle of attack, the
incipient shock wave as it is called, would form equally on the upper and lower
surfaces. However, because the wing is usually set to an angle of incidence of
about 3 degrees, even a symmetrical aerofoil section would produce the incipient
wave on the top surface first.
The wave extends outwards more or less at right angles to the aerofoil surface
and is referred to as a normal (perpendicular) shock wave This normal shock
wave forms a boundary between supersonic and subsonic airflow.
As we have seen the high velocity airflow over the top of a wing creates an area
of low pressure. The shock wave causes it to decelerate to subsonic speed,
resulting in a rapid rise in pressure. The separation point and turbulent wake will
now start from this point, resulting in a sudden and considerable increase in drag
(about 10 times) and therefore a large loss of lift. Severe buffeting is likely, which
could even lead to a shock stall and the centre of pressure will be altered,
affecting the pitching moment.
This extra drag, so called Shock Drag, will be made up of two components,
namely Wave Drag, resistance caused by the wave itself and Boundary Layer
Drag, due to the increased turbulent region over the surface of the wing.
Furthermore, this shock-induced separation is likely to reduce flying control
effectiveness
The velocity of the air leaving the shock wave remains supersonic, so both the
static pressure and the density of the air increase adding to the high drag/ low lift
condition. Additionally, some of the energy in the airstream will be dissipated in
the form of heat.
As the aircraft speed continues to increase, the wave will extend outwards and
begin to move aft towards the trailing edge of the wing. A second wave begins to
form on the lower surface, as the airflow here also speeds up to supersonic
velocity
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As the airspeed reaches the upper end of the transonic range, both shock waves
move aft, become stronger and will eventually attach to the wing's trailing edge.
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As can be seen in figure 49, the transonic region has a great affect on the lift and
drag. Both values rise until Mach 0.81, when shock induced separation drastically
reduces the coefficient of lift. As speed approaches Mach 0.99, a bow wave is
forming and airflow over the wing is slowed to subsonic speeds, resulting in an
increase in lift coefficient and a reduction of drag.
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Area Rule
Figure 51
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Engine intakes on aircraft that operate in the subsonic flight range only can be of
almost any form.
The main criteria are that the airflow reaching the compressor stage of the engine
during cruise ideally does not exceed Mach 0.5. This is normally achieved by the
careful design of the intake ducts.
Obviously, if the aircraft never exceeds Mach 0.5, a parallel intake duct could be
employed, but if the aircraft is to cruise at airspeeds in excess of this, yet below
Mach 1, a divergent duct must be utilised to slow the airflow at the compressor
down to Mach 0.5.
If the aircraft is designed to cruise above Mach 1, the air entering the intakes will
be supersonic and will behave in accordance with the rules of supersonic flow. In
this case a convergent duct would be necessary to slow down the airflow to the
compressor.
However the aircraft must fly through the transonic range in order to reach
supersonic speed so both types of duct will be necessary.
One way to overcome the problem is to have moveable doors that change the
intake duct shape from divergent to convergent cross-section as the aircraft
passes through Mach 1. See figure 52. This technique can be found on the
intakes of Concorde.
Other methods to control airflow reaching the compressor is to make use of the
fact that air passing through a shock wave slows down to a lower speed. This
type of intake design is usually characterised by the bullet fairing, which on
some aircraft can translate in and out of the intake to reposition the shock wave
during low or high supersonic flight speeds. See Figure 53
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In order to fly at high speed in the transonic range without encountering the
problems caused by the production of shock waves, the Critical Mach number
needs to be as high as possible. As has already been shown, one way is to have
as thin a wing as possible. This of course is an acceptable solution in theory, but
in practice there will be structural integrity problems, such as wing loading,
strength and flexibility.
Another way of raising the Critical Mach number without the structural limitations
is by the use of swept wings. Sweepback not only delays the production of the
shock wave, but reduces the severity of the shock stall should it occur. The
theory behind this is that it is only the component of velocity over the wing chord
that is responsible for the pressure distribution and so for causing the shock wave
to develop. The other velocity component that travels spanwise causes only
frictional drag and has no effect on shock wave production.
This theory is borne out by the fact that when it does appear, the shock wave lies
parallel to the span of the wing. Therefore only that part of the velocity
perpendicular to the shock wave, i.e. across the chord, is reduced by the shock
wave to subsonic speeds.
The greater the sweepback, the smaller will be the component of velocity
affected, resulting in a higher Critical Mach number and a reduction in drag at all
transonic speeds. Additionally sweepback results in a thinner mean aerodynamic
chord, which raises the Critical Mach number even more.
Effects of Sweepback
Figure 54
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CONTENTS
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2.1
AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL
STRENGTH
Airworthiness requirements are necessary with respect to aircraft structures,
because established standards of strength, control, maintainability, etc. will
ensure that all aircraft will be constructed to the safest possible standard.
Requirements for aircraft above 5700kg MTWA (maximum total weight
authorised) are listed in Joint Airworthiness Requirement 25 (EASA-25) and for
aircraft below 5700kg MTWA, in EASA-23. These publications cover not only the
basic requirements, like maximum and minimum 'g' loading, but a vast range of
other requirements with respect to the structure such as:
Control Loads
Door Operation
Effect of Tabs
Factor of Safety
Fatigue
Ventilation
Weights
The list is all-embracing and provides a useful means of searching for specific
structural details.
For the purpose of assessing damage and the type of repairs to be carried out,
the structure of all aircraft is divided into three significant categories:
Primary structure
Secondary structure
Tertiary structure
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In the manuals of older aircraft the use of colour may be found to identify the
three categories. Primary Structure is shown in Red, Secondary in Yellow and
Tertiary in Green.
Note: This system has been discontinued for many years, but with some aircraft
having a life of 30 or more years and still being operated, it may still be possible
to find the old system in use.
This structure includes all portions of aircraft, the failure of which in flight or on the
ground, would be likely to cause:
Injury to occupants
Loss of control
Engine Mountings
Fuselage Frames
Main Spars
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This structure includes all portions of the aircraft which would normally be
regarded as primary structure, but which unavoidably have such a reserve of
strength over design requirements that appreciable weakening may be permitted,
without risk of failure. It also includes structure which, if damaged, would not
impair the safety of the aircraft as described earlier. Examples of secondary
structure include:
This type of structure includes all portions of the structure in which the stresses
are low, but which, for various reasons, cannot be omitted from the aircraft.
Typical examples include fairings, fillets and brackets which support items in the
fuselage and adjacent areas.
A fail safe structure is one which retains, after initiation of a fracture or crack,
sufficient strength for the operation of the aircraft with an acceptable standard of
safety, until such failure is detected on a normal scheduled inspection.
This is achieved by part and full scale airframe testing and fatigue analysis by
usually by the aircraft manufacturer and by subsequent in-service experience.
Safe life structure and components are granted a period of time during which it is
considered, that failure is extremely unlikely. When deciding its duration, the
effects of wear, fatigue and corrosion must be considered. For example, if tests
show that fatigue will cause a failure in 12,000 flying hours, then one sixth of this
might be quoted as the safe life.(2000 hours then scrapped) If wear or corrosion
prove to be the likely cause of failure before 12,000 hours, then one of these will
be the deciding factor.
The safe life time period may be expressed in flying hours, elapsed time, number
of flights or number of applications of load, ie; pressurisation cycles.
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The fail safe method has proven to be somewhat unreliable following some
accidents that proved that the concept was not 100% guaranteed. It was also a
severe limitation that the addition of extra structural members to protect the
integrity of the structure considerably increased the weight of the aircraft..
The damage tolerant concept, has eliminated much of the extra weight, by
distributing the loads on a particular structure over a larger area. This requires an
evaluation of the structure, to provide multiple load paths to carry the loading. The
main advantage is that even with a crack present, the structure will retain its
integrity and that during scheduled maintenance programmes, the crack will be
found before it can become critical.
For example, a wing attachment to the fuselage, which in the past would have
been designed with one or two large pintle bolts, will now have a larger number of
smaller bolts in the fitting. The single or dual bolt attachment had to be heavily
reinforced to take the wing loading, adding more weight, whereas the multiple
load path can be constructed in a lighter manner, whilst still maintaining its
strength.
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Zonal Identification
Figure 5
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Most manufacturers use a system of station marking where, for example, the
aircraft nose is designated Station 0 and other station designations are located at
measured distances aft of this point. Component and other locations within the
wings, tailplane, fin and nacelles are established from separate dedicated
stations zero.
Fuselage Locations
A particular fuselage station (or frame) would be identified, for example, as
Station 5050. This means that if the metric system of measurement is employed,
the frame is located at 5.05 metres (5050mm) aft of station zero.
Frame Stations
Figure 6
Lateral Locations
To locate structures to the right or left of the aircraft, many manufacturers
consider the fuselage centre line as a station zero. With such a system, the wing
or tailplane ribs could be identified as being a particular number of millimetres (or
inches) to the right or the left of the centre line.
Vertical Locations
These are usually measured above or below a water line, which is a
predetermined reference line passing along the side of the fuselage, usually,
somewhere between the floor level and the window line.
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Strain = Distortion
Original Length
There are five major stresses and all will be found somewhere within an aircraft
structure. In the design stage, the stresses will have been assessed by the
designer and the structure made strong enough to carry them adequately.
Furthermore, a reserve of strength will also have been included for safety. The
five types of stress are:
1. Compression
2. Tension
3. Bending (a combination of compression and tension)
4. Twisting/Torsion
5. Shear
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2.4.1 COMPRESSION
Compression
Figure 7
2.4.2 TENSION
Tension is the primary stress that tends to pull an object apart. A flexible steel
cable used in flying control systems is an excellent example of a component
designed to withstand tension loads only. It is easily bent, has little opposition to
compression, torsion or shear loads, but has an exceptional strength/weight ratio
when subjected to a purely tension load.
Tension
Figure 8
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2.4.3 BENDING
Bending, when applied to a beam, tends to try to pull one side apart while at the
same time squeezing the other side together. When a person stands on a diving
board, the top of the board is under tension while the bottom is under
compression.
Wing spars of cantilever wings are subject to bending stresses. In flight, the top of
the spar is being compressed and the bottom is under tension while on the
ground, the reverse occurs, the top is in tension and the bottom is under
compression. If the wing is supported, the strut will be in tension in flight and in
compression on the ground.
Bending
Figure 9
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2.4.4 TORSION
A torsional stress is one that is put into a material when it is twisted. When we
twist a structural member, a tensile stress acts diagonally across the member and
a compressive stress acts at right angles to the tension. A good example is a
crankshaft of an aircraft piston engine which is under a torsional load when the
engine is driving the propeller.
Torsion
Figure 10
2.4.5 SHEAR
A shear stress is one that resists the tendency to slice a body apart. For example
a clevis bolt in a flying control system is designed to take shear loads only. It is
normally a high strength steel bolt with a thin head and a fat shank. These bolts
secure the flexible steel cables to the control surfaces and allow the cable to
move with the control surface without bending. The airload on the control surface
attempts to slice the bolt apart or shear it.
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An aircraft which has its fuselage pressurised inside to allow the carriage of
passengers at altitude, will have other stresses acting on the fuselage skin. The
circumferential load about the fuselage is known as hoop stress and resisted by
the fuselage frames and tension in the so called stressed skin. The longitudinal
(axial) load along the fuselage is also resisted by tension in the skin and by the
longerons and stringers.
Hoop stress
Figure 12
2.4.7 METAL FATIGUE
The phenomenon of metal fatigue has long been known, but has become of
greater concern in recent years with aircraft which remain in service long after
their original expected fatigue life has expired.
It is relatively easy to design a structure to withstand a steady load, but aircraft
are subjected to widely varying loads in flight and many components experience
load reversals, an example being the wings, where the aerodynamic forces
during flight manoeuvres cause tension and compression loads to alternate
continually. Unfortunately, any metal part subjected to a wide variation or reversal
of even a relatively small load is gradually and progressively weakened.
The subject was vividly highlighted in 1954, with another type of load reversal,
that of pressurisation cycles of the passenger cabin. which resulted in a number
of disastrous accidents with the De-Havilland Comet airliner. Small fatigue cracks
in the fuselage skin accumulated around the corners of the square shaped
windows and hatches and led to a fatal explosive decompression of the cabin.
Following the incidents the most extensive research to this hitherto unwarranted
menace was undertaken, and led to fatigue loading being included into future
design considerations.
Metal fatigue refers to the loss of strength, or resistance to load, experienced by a
component or structure as the number of load cycles or load reversals increases.
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Load reversals refer to a material being continually loaded and unloaded and as
long as the elastic limit is not exceeded, the material should be unaffected and
return to its original state.
In reality, however, the load application may result in minute, seemingly
inconsequential cracks, which, as the cycles continue, get larger and join up with
other, newer cracks. Eventually, after many cycles, the cumulative effect will be
such that the strength of the metal will be compromised and could result in
catastrophic failure.
The fatigue strength of a metal can be found by experimentation on full scale
fatigue rigs, which can be subjected to a programme of load reversals, 24 hours a
day, 365 days a year, to accumulate information and a fatigue life, years ahead of
the oldest aircraft of the particular type in the fleet.
How the in-service aircraft subsequently consumes this fatigue index, depends on
its operating theatre. For example, the number of times the pressurisation cycles
are applied to aircraft on long or short haul flights, steep or conventional take off
and landing etc., are taken into account to calculate fatigue life consumed.
Stress amplitude can be plotted against endurance for one particular value of
mean stress, the so-called S/N Curve. Using a chart such as this, it can be
determined at what point, in cycles, the metal has reached its minimum
acceptable strength. This will be the ultimate fatigue life and is normally allotted a
fatigue index of 100.
Fatigue Graph
Figure 13
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Even when the fatigue index of 100 is eventually reached on each individual
aircraft, the designers can extend it beyond 100, by examining, as previously
mentioned, how the fatigue was consumed and recommending specific structural
inspection and possibly strengthening or replacement of fittings and components.
Fatigue is a natural phenomenon and cannot be prevented. The ability to
correctly predict its effects and take the necessary action is the problem faced by
the aircraft design and maintenance personnel. Different metals have different
fatigue characteristics and the way parts are designed, also affects their fatigue
life. Fastener holes, sharp changes in thickness and small seemingly insignificant
cracks for example, can directly affect the fatigue life of a part.
Fatigue cracking can also accelerate the onset of corrosion, by exposing
unprotected metal to the elements. The crack growth and the consequential
increase in corrosion, can cause serious structural problems over a relatively
short period. With the ageing of the airliner fleet, a number of extra inspections,
including non-destructive testing and structural sampling techniques have been
introduced. The maintenance technician must carefully monitor the aircraft
structure, paying particular attention to the integrity of surface finish and general
corrosion.
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Drainage
The aircraft structure requires many different types of drain holes and paths to
prevent water and other fluids such as fuel, hydraulic oil etc., from collecting
within the structure. These could become both a corrosion and fire hazard.
The forms of drainage can be divided into two areas.
1. External drains
2. Internal drains
These ports are located on exterior surfaces of the fuselage, wing and
empennage to ensure fluids are dumped overboard. In small unpressurised
aircraft and unpressurised areas of larger airliners, these drains may be
permanently open. However, in pressurised aircraft, the cabin air would leak
uncontrollably through the drains and so it is necessary to use drain valves to
prevent loss of cabin pressure.
There are a number basic types of drain valve used for this purpose.
Two similar types rely upon pressurised air in the cabin to keep the valve closed.
One valve has a rubber flapper seal and the other a spring loaded valve seal.
Normally located on the keel of the fuselage, both are open when the aircraft is
unpressurised on the ground, allowing the fluids to drain overboard. During flight,
the increased air pressure in the cabin closes the valves, thus preventing any
pressurisation losses. These valves are shown below, where it can also be seen
that a levelling compound has been used in areas which might become fluid
traps. This compound is usually a rubberised sealant which fills the cavity,
bringing the level up to the lip of the drain hole.
Fuselage Drains
Figure 14
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Another similar type of drain valve also uses the cabin air pressure to close off
the drain path, this time by moving the plunger down to seal the drain. This valve
will also be open when cabin pressure is removed.
Fuselage Drains
Figure 15
Fluids from some places, such as galleys and wash basins, require more than
simple drain holes. The temperature at cruising altitude can fall to -60C and
water draining overboard could freeze and cause blockage problems.
The method used in these cases are drain masts, which are like small aerofoils
projecting from the bottom of the aircraft skin, on the centre line, through which
the water is discharged. The drain masts are heated to prevent icing and also
discharge the liquids well away from the aircraft's skin.
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2.5.3 VENTILATION
It is essential that the internal cavities within the structure are properly vented to
prevent the build up of flammable vapour from the drain lines and to allow any
other moisture residue to properly evaporate.
Consequently sumps, tanks and cavities will all be provided with vent pipes and
in some cases, such as engine cowlings, ram air inlets and outlets are utilised to
ensure all zones where fluids are contained are adequately ventilated.
System Installation Provisions
The installation of various systems within the airframe, require adaptations from
the perfect drawing-board design. When systems like the air conditioning and
pressurisation, hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, avionics and others are designed,
there must be facilities incorporated in the plans, to provide a location for all the
system components, their associated lines and cables.
It must also be borne in mind that many components have to be either serviced
in-situ, or will be a line replaceable unit (LRU), both of which requires easy
access for the maintenance engineers.
To this end, on modern aircraft, there are normally compartments allocated to
each of the major systems where the majority of components will be installed.
Thus, it can be possible to find dedicated Avionics bays, Hydraulic bays, Air
conditioning bays, etc., all of which allow access for the easier replacement of
'black boxes' (LRUs) and mechanical components like control units, valves, filters
etc,.
Older aircraft will still have components scattered throughout the airframe, with
difficult access in some places through small panels, all of which will obviously
make maintenance on these systems much more difficult.
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Electrical Bonding
Figure 17
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CONSTRUCTION METHODS
Monocoque Construction
Figure 18
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In a stressed skin fuselage construction, about half the loads are carried by the
skin and half by the supporting structure. This type of construction is called semi
monocoque and its advantage is that the space within the structure is
unobstructed and is used for passengers and freight.
Semi-Monocoque Construction
Figure 19
2.6.1 FRAMES AND FORMERS
Frames and formers provide the basic fuselage shape, with the frames, being of
more robust construction, providing strong points for attachment of other fittings
such as the wings and tailplane.
2.6.2 BULKHEADS
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Where the skin requires extra strengthening, at the junction of plates or around
small apertures, a second layer of skin is attached over the original to reinforce it.
This extra plate is known as a doubler or a doubler plate.
Where loads are concentrated within the structure, it can be strengthened at
these places by either making the material thicker, or by the addition of a number
of layers of similar material. The actual amount of reinforcement being dictated by
the amount of stress carried in each area.
Doubler Plate
Figure 21
2.6.5 STRUTS AND TIES
Any structural item that is designed solely to take a compressive load is called a
strut. Whereas an item that only takes a tensile load is called a tie. They can be
found throughout a modern aircraft structure, although an ideal example would be
a high performance biplane. In this type of aircraft often used for aerobatics, the
struts which separate the pairs of wings, in compression and the interconnecting
flying wires, in tension, take all the loads produced by the wing.
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Beams are often used laterally and longitudinally along the fuselage to support
the flight deck and passenger cabin floors. Additionally they provide strong point
attachments for the crew and passenger seats and as such, constitute primary
structure. Modern cabin flooring is usually made up from a number of removable
composite honeycomb core panels, examples of which are shown below,
whereas the flight deck is often made from metal panels supported on beams.
Floor Structures
Figure 23
2.6.7 METHODS OF SKINNING
Skins for light aircraft are usually simple, thin sheets of aluminium alloy, wrapped
around and riveted to the internal structure.
Larger aircraft, developed since the 1950s have their skins manufactured from
heavier material with the additional use of even thicker sections in certain places
where more strength is required.
As the aircraft designs became more complex, the excess weight of thicker skins
in places where they are not necessarily required, became too big a penalty. To
overcome this problem, the skins were rolled individually to produce a variety of
differing thickness across each sheet, to cater for variations in stress.
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The latest methods are to machine or mill each skin panel individually from a
solid billet, to include all stringers and risers and to provide a varying thickness all
over the sheet. In this way, the skin panel is exactly the right thickness at each
location, with no excess material and hence no extra weight. This method results
in what is termed milled skin or machined skin. Milled wing skins give maximum
strength and rigidity with minimum weight.
Panels containing areas of different thickness can also be produced from a
chemical etching process where areas which have been treated, will be removed
to about half their thickness by the chemical etch. The nature of the etching
process ensures that no stress raisers are introduced into the material. So called
waffle plates can be produced in this way and are shown in Fig 24.
Skinning Methods
Figure 24
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Materials used in aircraft construction are selected primarily for their strength and
tenacity. Unfortunately, many may readily suffer serious damage from corrosion
unless effectively protected and the rate of corrosion attack can be extremely
rapid in certain environments. One of the main considerations in the design of
aircraft structure therefore, are measures for the control and prevention of
corrosion.
During manufacture and assembly, a range of surface treatments are applied.
Materials are heat treated to refine grain structure, sacrificial coatings in the form
of plating and cladding are employed, to retard the onset of corrosion. Epoxy
primers, special paint finishes, wet-assembly techniques and the use of barrier
sealants to prevent the ingress of dirt and moisture between component parts, all
help to reduce the risk of corrosion. Additionally, drain holes, drainage paths and
attention to good corrosion resistant design techniques for each component part,
ensure that aircraft newly off the production line are protected as much as
possible, before entering airline service.
Aircraft are required to operate in widely varying, often highly corrosive
environments throughout the world and despite the high standard of protective
treatments applied during manufacture, corrosion will still occur.
Corrosive attack may extend over an entire metal surface, may penetrate locally
to form deep pits or may follow the grain boundaries within the metal. The
weakening effect of corrosive attack may be aggravated by stresses in the metal
and result in premature failure of the component. These stresses may be due to
externally applied loads or may be internal stresses locked into the metal
structure during manufacturing processes, despite the care taken to keep the risk
to a minimum.
Whatever the cause and type of corrosive attack, unless preventative
maintenance is carried out, damage may become so severe, it could present a
serious hazard to the airworthiness of the aircraft. Rectification of advanced
corrosion damage is time consuming and much of the corrosion during service
can be prevented or contained by simple corrosion prevention measures
Corrosion seldom occurs on a clean dry aircraft especially if the protective
coatings are completely in tact. Since aircraft have to operate outside throughout
their lives, they are difficult to keep dry, but keeping the protective coatings free
from scratches, dents and scores, ensuring drains which might allow water to
accumulate are kept clear and keeping the aircraft clean and free of dirt are all
within the scope of a good maintenance engineer.
In addition, the engineer should clear up spills from the galleys and toilets and
remove deposits from engine exhausts as these are also very corrosive if left on
the skin for too long.
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The basic requirement for wing construction, particularly with cantilever types is
for a spanwise member of great strength, usually in the form of a spar.
Conventionally, there are three general designs, monospar, two-spar or
multispar.
Most modern commercial airliners, have a wing comprising top and bottom skins
complete with spanwise stringers, front and rear spars and a set of wing ribs
running chordwise across the wing between the spars. This forms a box-like
shape which is very robust and the addition of nose ribs and trailing edge fittings
produce the characteristic aerofoil shape.
Wing structures carry some of the heaviest loads found in aircraft structure.
Fittings and joints must be carefully proportioned so they can pick up loads in a
gradual and progressive manner and redistribute them to other parts of the
structure in a similar manner. Special attention must be paid to minimising stress
concentrations, by avoiding too rapid a change in cross section and to provide
ample material to handle any concentration in stress or shock loading that cannot
be avoided, such as landing loads.
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The vertical and horizontal stabilisers, elevators and rudder are constructed in a
manner similar to the wings but on a smaller scale. The main structural members
are the spars, with the stringers, ribs and stressed skin completing the basic
design.
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Engine mountings consist of the structure that transmits the thrust provided by
either the propeller or turbojet, to the airframe. The mounts can be constructed
from welded alloy steel tubing, formed sheet metal, forged alloy fittings or a
combination of all three. Some typical examples are shown in Figures 27 to 29.
All engine mounts are required to absorb not only the forward thrust during
normal flight, but the reduced force of reverse thrust and the vibrations produced
by the particular engine/propeller combination..
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The integrity of an aircraft joint depends on the way the parts are attached
together. The most common method of attachment is by the use of rivets or more
sophisticated types of rivets, known as fasteners. However, where high strength
is required, nuts and bolts are used whilst other structural assembly is achieved
by the use of adhesive bonding techniques.
Although aluminium alloy is the most common material for aircraft construction,
more and more structural components and in some cases, complete aircraft, are
being manufactured from composite materials like glass or carbon fibre.
Riveting is generally divided into two types: (1) solid shank rivets and (2) special
fasteners. The special fastener category being sub-divided further into special
and blind fasteners.
2.6.13 SOLID SHANK RIVETS
The vast majority of aircraft structure is held together with solid rivets. As will be
explained later, many of the more modern designs use special fasteners and
some bonded construction, but the majority are still solid rivets.
Head Shapes
In the past there have been a large number of rivet head shapes used in aircraft,
but in recent years these have been reduced and standardised to four main
types:
The Universal Head, sometimes known as AN70 or MS20470, is most popular
and may be used to replace any protruding-head rivet. It is streamlined on top but
thick enough to provide strength without protruding too much into the airflow.
A Round Head rivet, AN430, is used on internal structure where the thicker head
is more suitable for automatic riveting equipment.
In internal locations where a flat head rivet can be driven more easily than either
a round or universal head rivet, the AN442 Flat Head rivet may be used.
Where a smooth skin is important, flush rivets such as AN426 or MS20426, with a
100 countersink head are used. Additionally, rivets with a different countersink
angle, such as 90 and 120 degrees can be found.
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When riveting magnesium alloy sheets, there must be no copper in the rivet alloy,
or dissimilar metal corrosion will set in. Therefore, a 'B' rivet, manufactured from
5056 alloy is used. This contains a large amount of magnesium with a little
manganese and chromium but no copper.
Dimensions
Aircraft rivet dimensions are categorised by the diameter of the shank, D, and
the length, L, measured from the end of the shank to the portion of the head that
will be flush with the surface of the metal. This means that a countersink rivet is
measured from the top of its head, whilst the remainder are measured from under
the head.
Rivet Dimensioning
Figure 32
Identification
The complete identification of a rivet includes its head style, its material, its
diameter and its length. The identification code shows the diameter as a number
of 1/32ths of an inch and the length as a number of 1/16ths of an inch.
For example, An MS20470AD4-4 has a universal head (MS20470), is made from
alloy 2117 (AD), is 1/8" diameter (4 x 1/32) and 1/4" long (4 x 1/16).
When solid shank rivets become impractical to use, then special fasteners are
used. These, you will remember, are of two types; special and blind fasteners.
The term Special Fasteners refers first to their job requirement and second to
the tooling needed for the installation. In certain locations, aircraft require strength
that cannot be produced by a solid shank rivet, so a special high strength
fastener is used. For example, if high shear strength is required, then special
High Shear rivets are used. These are usually installed with special tools and will
be discussed later in this chapter.
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Blind Fasteners
There are several different types of blind fasteners which can be hollow or selfsealing. They include the following types, all of which can be installed from one
side of the work.
Chobert
Avdel
Tucker/Pop
Cherry
Note: It is most important that the correct tools are always used with the types of
rivets mentioned above.
Chobert Rivets
These are available with a snap (round) head or a countersink head and are
closed by forcibly pulling a mandrel through the bore of the rivet. This closes the
'tail' and expands the rivet tightly into the hole. To seal Chobert rivets, a separate
sealing pin is driven into the hollow bore of the rivet.
Chobert Rivet
Figure 33
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Avdel Rivets
These are similar to Chobert rivets, but each is fitted with its own stem (mandrel).
The stem is pulled through the rivet body to close the rivet and at a
predetermined load, breaks off proud of the manufactured head. This leaves part
of the stem inside the body which seals the rivet. The excess stem is then
removed by nipping it off and carefully milling it until flush with the surface of the
aircraft skin.
The shear strength of an Avdel rivet is greater than a Chobert rivet of equivalent
material and size and similar to a solid rivet.
Avdel Rivet
Figure 37
Special Fasteners
These can include Hi-Shear, Avdelock, Jo-Bolts, and Rivnuts. The first three are
all formed by means of a collar which is swaged into the grooves in fastener
shank or expanded over the shank to form a blind head. Rivnuts are formed using
a similar method to cherry locks, but with a threaded mandrel screwed into the
Rivnut. The advantage of Rivnuts, (see Fig 38), is that after closing, a fixed nut is
left behind which may be used for the attachment of de-icing boots, floor
coverings and other non-structural parts.
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Bolts
A bolt is designed to hold two or more parts together. It may be loaded in shear,
in tension, or both. Bolts are designed to be used with nuts and have a portion of
the shank that is not threaded, called the grip, whereas Machine screws and Cap
screws have the entire length of the shank threaded.
The dimensions required to identify a bolt are expressed in terms of the diameter
of the shank and the length from the bottom of the head to the end of the bolt.
The grip length should be the same as the thickness of the material being held
together. This measurement can be found by reference to the applicable charts.
Bolt heads are made in a variety of shapes, with hexagonal being the most
common.
Bolt Terminology
Figure 39
General Purpose Bolts
All-purpose structural bolts used for both tension and shear loading is made
under 'AN' standards from 3 to 20, the bolt diameter is specified by the AN
number in 1/16"; for example:
AN3 = 3/16" diameter
AN11 = 11/16" diameter
The range is from AN3 to AN20 which have hexagon heads, are made from alloy
steel and have UNF (fine) threads.
The length of the bolt is expressed as a dash number. Bolts increase in length by
1/8" and the dash number(s) will show the length.
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For example:
AN3-7 = 7/8" long
AN3-15 = 1 5/8" long
Other markings will identify whether the bolt has a drilled shank, a drilled head for
locking and indicate what material the bolt is made from.
Clevis Bolts
These bolts (AN21 to 36) are designed for pure shear load applications such as
control cables. The slotted, domed head results in this bolt often being mistaken
for a machine screw.
A clevis bolt has only a short portion of the shank threaded with a small notch
between the threads and the plain portion of the shank, which allows the bolt to
rotate more freely in its hole.
Because the length of this bolt is more critical than normal bolts, its length is
given in 1/16" increments.
Nuts
All nuts used on aircraft must have some sort of locking device to prevent them
from loosening and falling off. Many nuts are held in place on a bolt, by passing a
split pin through a hole in the bolt shank and through slots, or castellations, in the
nut. Others have some form of locking insert that grips the bolt's thread, whilst
others rely on the tension of a spring-type lock-washer to hold the nut tight
enough against the threads to prevent them from vibrating loose.
Sometimes, nuts that are plain with no locking devices are used and prevented
from coming undone, once they have been tightened, by the use of locking wire
attached to an adjacent nut or to the aircraft structure.
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There are two basic types of nuts, self-locking and non self-locking. As the name
implies, a self-locking nut locks onto a bolt with no external help, whilst a non selflocking nut relies on either a split pin, lock-nut, locking washer or locking wire, to
stop it from undoing.
Standard Nuts
Figure 41
Another type of nut in general use is the Anchor nut. These are permanently
mounted on nut plates that enable inspection panels and access doors to be
easily removed and installed, without access being required on the reverse side
of the work. To make fitment of the panel easier when there is a large number of
screws, the nuts are often mounted 'floating' on their mounts, which allows for
small differences in the position of the attaching screws.
Although rarely used on large commercial airliners, Tinnerman nuts are
manufactured from sheet steel and are used mainly on light aircraft, for the fitting
of instruments into the flight deck panels, the attachment of inspection panels,
etc. Some light aircraft engine cowlings have U-type tinnerman nuts fitted over
the inner edge of the cowling frame. When the retaining screws are tightened,
spring action holds them tightly and safely in place.
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Examples of self-locking nuts, anchor nuts and U-type tinnerman nuts are shown
in figures 42 and 43 below.
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Surface Cleaning
Most aircraft will be cleaned before starting on large inspections, but it is common
sense to keep an aircraft clean all of the time. Dirt can cover up cracked or
damaged components as well as trap moisture and solvents which can lead to
corrosion.
Note: Materials mentioned in this chapter are only used as an example, each
aircraft type will have a list of suitable and prohibited materials in its maintenance
manuals (AMM).
Exterior Cleaning
Exterior cleaning is an important facet of corrosion control, but there are a
number of points which must first be protected from cleaning materials and high
pressure water sprays. The pitot tubes and static vents must be properly blanked
off to prevent water ingress and the wheels, tyres and brake assemblies need to
be covered to keep them free of aggressive cleaning agents.
Only cleaning agents and chemicals recommended by the manufacturer are to
used. for the job in hand or the risk of serious contamination may result. One of
the unseen effects of using non-approved cleaning agents is hydrogen
embrittlement. This is caused by hydrogen from the agent being absorbed into
the metal, causing minute cracks and will lead to stress corrosion failure.
Aircraft should ideally be washed on a proper platform with suitable drains. It is
better if the outside air temperature is not too high, so the cleaning agent does
not evaporate. Typically, a mix of water and an emulsion-type cleaner, to a ratio
of between 3:1 and 5:1 is applied, allowed to soak for a few minutes and then
rinsed off with a high pressure stream of water.
Engine cowlings and wheel well areas usually have grease, oil or brake dust
deposits that require special treatment. These require stronger mixtures ratios
and scrubbing with a soft bristle brush to loosen the dirt before rinsing off with a
high pressure water jet. It must be borne in mind however, that oil and grease
could be accidentally removed from places where they are meant to be, for
example in wheel bearings etc. These will often require re-lubrication after
washing has been completed.
Exhaust residue from both piston and jet engines is very corrosive and must be
removed on a regular basis. These deposits usually require a special proprietary
solvent to mix with the water. Sometimes a simple emulsified mix of kerosene
and water may be approved. Dry-cleaning solvent or naptha is sometimes used
for oil and grease removal. Some naptha compounds are harmless to rubber or
acrylic items, whilst others will attack these same materials, so only approved
specifications are to be used.
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On light aircraft, these measurements are usually taken using a surveyors tape
measure. (It is a check of comparison, not of outright measurement). As the
aircraft get larger, optical theodolite style methods are used. These can be a
microscopic level with the use of sighting rods or even a laser ranging alignment
device.
Deeper checks that are carried out after any of the above mentioned situations,
as well as on a routine basis, include checks on the wing, tail and control
surfaces to ensure that they are set at the correct angles. These checks are
usually known as 'rigging checks' and are carried out using purpose built levelling
boards and an accurate measuring device known as a Clinometer.
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Contents
3
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
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3.1 FUSELAGE
The fuselage of a light aircraft is the body of the aircraft, to which the wings, tail,
landing gear and engines may be attached. Larger aircraft can have their main
landing gear attached to the wings and, on multiple engined aircraft, a number of
the power-plants can be wing mounted also.
The loads produced either on the ground or in flight, will at some time, have to
pass through the fuselage. In order to absorb these tremendous loads imposed
upon the structure, the fuselage must have maximum strength, but this must be
combined with the other constraint, that of minimum weight.
There are two types of construction found in the majority of modern aircraft
fuselage design, the truss and the stressed skin type.
When fuselages were subsequently made from welded tubes, the Warren Truss
became popular. In this arrangement, shown overleaf, the longerons are
separated by diagonal members which carry both compressive and tensile loads.
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Warren Truss
Figure 2
3.1.3 STRESSED SKIN STRUCTURE
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High altitude flight places the occupants in a hostile environment in which life
cannot be sustained without oxygen. To avoid the need to wear oxygen masks,
the pressure in the cabin is raised higher than it is outside, which provides
sufficient oxygen in the air for the passengers to breathe normally.
In the 1950s, piston-engined aircraft, had a pressure differential across the cabin
wall about two pounds per square inch (psi) maximum. Modern aircraft cabins
can sustain a pressure differential between 8 and 10 psi, so there must not be
any part of the structure containing 'stress raisers' which would concentrate
stress to an unacceptable level. Much of the structure of modern aircraft has
been built to the 'fail safe' philosophy, in which the structure is built with multiple
load paths for the major stresses to pass through, to cater for the unlikely failure
of a single structural item.
Pressurisation Sealing
All joints in the structure, as well as openings such as doors, panels, emergency
exits, etc. must be completely airtight during flight, to prevent the cabin pressure
leaking below its required level. Joints are constructed with an interface of sealing
compound, whereas windows and doors employ pre-formed rubber seals around
their edges. The points where control tubes and cables pass in and out of the
pressure hull, utilise some form of flexible bellows which are leak proof but move
with the controls.
Pressurisation Sealing
Figure 3
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3.1.5 ATTACHMENTS
The fuselage can, as mentioned earlier, carry most of the major loads, both on
the ground and in flight. To this end, most of the other airframe components such
as the wing, stabilisers, pylon and undercarriage, can be fitted to the fuselage.
The wings can be mounted above or below the passenger compartment. As
already mentioned, wings are usually attached to the fuselage with multiple
attachments, although light aircraft may still have wings attached with as few as
two bolts.
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The horizontal and vertical stabilisers can be fitted to the fuselage in numerous
different ways. When the horizontal stabiliser is fitted part-way up or on the top of
the vertical stabiliser, there will be only one strong attachment point. Otherwise,
there will be separate attachments for the fin and for the left and right tailplane
sections.
Where a moving horizontal stabiliser is employed, the attachment will consist of
left and right rear pivot fittings and a single forward attachment to a trim actuator.
On rare occasions, the rear fuselage is manufactured, together with the
stabilisers, as one integral unit. Because the loads generated by the empennage,
it is usual to find that the rear fuselage structure has stronger frames around the
stabiliser attachment points. These frames transmit the loads along the fuselage
and away from the tail.
The same technique is used when the engines are attached to wing or to rear
fuselage mounted pylons The Fokker 70/100, for example, has oblique frames to
connect the vertical stabiliser to the top mounted tailplane and to the fuselage,
plus two heavy frames to transmit all the engine thrust loads into the fuselage.
Strengthened Frames
Figure 6
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As previously mentioned, the landing gear can be attached either to the fuselage,
the wings, or within wing mounted engine nacelles. Because of the need for cabin
space, fuselage mounted landing gear on passenger and freight-carrying aircraft,
often have the main landing gears mounted in fairings or nacelles beneath the
fuselage as in the ATR-72, detailed below.
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Aircraft that carry passengers as well as crew, all have to have seats that comply
with crashworthiness regulations. These regulations dictate that the seats with a
person correctly strapped in place, must be able to survive a sudden stop of over
20 times the force of gravity, (20g), without the floor mountings (to which the seat
is attached) failing, or the seat itself collapsing.
Although aircraft seats appear to resemble normal domestic seats, the tubular
framework and floor attachment 'feet' are very strong, yet are light in weight and
can be disconnected from the floor if necessary, by releasing a few quick-release
fasteners.
Passenger compartment floors of modern aircraft are often panels of the
composite material Fibrelam, which are strong enough to carry most of the
general loads created by passengers and galley equipment. The panels are
themselves supported by lateral and longitudinal beams, which are primary
structure, into which the panels fit. Lateral beams are attached to the lower
portion of the (usually) circular fuselage frames and longitudinal beams supported
by the lateral beams, are those upon which the seats are fitted.
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3.1.7 DOORS
This topic covers most methods of entry and exit from the fuselage, including
those for passengers, crew, refreshments and meals, baggage and major
maintenance access. In addition, some doors are dedicated to emergencies only
and will therefore remain unused during normal operations.
If the aircraft has a cabin pressurisation system, the doors have to be more
substantial than for a non-pressurised type and be fitted with safety devices to
prevent accidental opening. One method to prevent this happening is allow the
door to open inwards so that the door 'plugs' the aperture when closed and is
held in place by the cabin pressure in addition to the door frame locating bolts.
Any door on pressurised aircraft that does open outwards, must have additional
devices and protection mechanisms fitted to prevent accidental opening and a
flight deck warning system to inform the crew if it is not properly closed and
secured.
Non-pressurised aircraft doors still have to be safe, with a system of handles and
latches that operate in a specific order or after the application of a certain force.
Doors on most aircraft are constructed in a similar way to the fuselage with an
inner and an outer skin and vertical and horizontal members. The sometimes
complex locking and latching mechanisms, plus the indicating and warning
electrical wiring systems are all contained within this structure.
Most fuselage doors are operated manually, but much larger freight/cargo doors
are either electrically or hydraulically operated. Another requirement on all cabin
doors, (normal exit/entry and emergency type) is the need for efficient emergency
egress in the event of a mishap on the ground. They must be operable by a
single handle whose operation shall be rapid and obvious. Most doors have
decals and large red arrows, to clearly indicate the way in which the handles are
to be rotated or moved to open the door.
Dedicated emergency exits are almost always 'plug' type and, therefore, cannot
be opened in flight due to the cabin pressure acting on door opening mechanism
(usually an over-centre type a cam arrangement) thus preventing handle rotation.
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Door Mechanism
Figure 10
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To prevent leakage of the cabin pressure, all doors have to have a substantial
seal around their edges to keep the aperture between door and surrounding
fuselage frame airtight. Some seals just compress and fill the space when the
door is closed, others use cabin air to inflate and therefore expand the seal to
achieve the same result. Fig 11 shows a typical door seal arrangement.
3.1.8 WINDOWS AND WINDSCREENS
All the transparencies on non-pressurised aircraft are normally made from acrylic
or some other clear plastic material. On pressurised aircraft, flight deck
windscreens have to comply with very strict bird-strike regulations and are made
from a toughened sandwich of glass/plastic/glass The passenger cabin windows
are manufactured from acrylic, mylar or other plastics.
It must be considered that an aircraft travelling at 400 knots which collides with a
bird weighing 3kg, could suffer severe structural damage, engine failure and more
importantly, if the bird struck a windscreen and broke through, it could cause
serious injury. Furthermore, rapid decompression of the pressure cabin would
result. The regulations state that during testing, when a dead bird is fired at it
from a large air gun, the screen must be able to survive the impact.
Consequently, the glass/plastic/glass sandwich is fitted with a heating element
between the interface of the front glass panel and the plastic core. Not only does
the heater provide anti-icing protection, but helps absorb impact since it makes
the plastic core more pliable and shock absorbent. The section through a typical
windscreen below shows how the lamination of glass and plastic layers is
arranged.
Windscreen Construction
Figure 12
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Passenger cabin windows are almost always made from acrylic plastic. This
saves quite a lot of weight as well as cost. For added safety, the acrylic cabin
windows are actually two layers with a space in between, so that if one fails the
other will carry the pressurisation loads, a typical case of fail safe. In addition,
some cabin window assemblies have a third, pane of acrylic fitted to help reduce
the engine noise in the cabin from the power-plants outside.
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3.2 WINGS
3.2.1 CONSTRUCTION
The methods by which the wings produce lift were covered in Module 8, so this
module will concentrate on wing construction and their attachments.
To classify the many types of wing it is best to break them down into different
groups. The first sub-division is either those that are externally braced or those
that are of cantilever construction. (no external bracing). In the early days the
majority of aircraft were constructed with the whole aircraft, including the wings,
being braced by wires and struts. These produced very high drag, although the
overall structural weight could be kept down.
As materials and the wing construction became stronger, the number of wires
were progressively reduced, until in the mid-1930's the first genuine fully
cantilever wings with no external bracing, were put into production. This does not
mean the bracing has been eliminated, it just means that all bracing is included
within the wing structure and made much stronger. Fig 14 below, shows how the
external bracing of a biplane has been replaced with more efficient internal
bracing on a cantilever wing.
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The heart of a wing is the spar (or spars), to which are attached the ribs stringers
and other structural items. The number of spars is decided by the designer or
design team, but modern airliners normally have two. It is usual to attach landing
gears, primary flying controls, leading and trailing edge devices, to one or other of
the spars within the wing on larger aircraft.
Simpler wings on, for example, a light aircraft, will have only one main spar but
some aircraft can have up to five, which has a measure of 'fail safe' philosophy. If
military aircraft are considered, some modern fighters can have more than 15
spars as part of the damage tolerant design application.
Wing planforms can show an infinite number of different shapes, that are purpose
built and satisfactory for providing lift. These could be generally grouped into
straight, swept, delta and combination wings. Straight wings include those with a
slightly swept leading edge, trailing edge or both.
Swept wings are usually categorised as those with both leading and trailing
edges swept back, at a variety of different angles, whilst the delta-winged shape
(from the Greek for triangle) is self-explanatory.
Under the cover-all title of 'Combination', the selection of silhouettes below should
give an idea of the wide range of wings that can be found on modern day aircraft,
in addition to the more conventional planforms mentioned above.
Wing Planforms
Figure16
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Rigid Tanks
Because of their shape, wings are often designed to be used for fuel storage.
They can either contain separate fuel tanks within the wing structure, or use the
wing structure itself, suitably sealed, to make integral tanks.
Separate internal tanks are usually manufactured from either light alloy or from
flexible, rubberised fabric. Rigid light alloy tanks are first riveted, then welded to
make them fuel tight and are securely clamped into the wing structure by straps
or tie bars. They will often have baffles inside, to prevent fuel surge from one end
of the tank to the other.
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Flexible Tanks
Flexible tanks, (Fig 18), also referred to as 'bladder' tanks, have to be located
snugly into the tank bay within the wing, because the sides of the bay provide
support to the relatively weak tank skin. Older types of flexible tanks were made
from rubber- covered fabric. These days the fabric is replaced by man-made
fibres, impregnated with neoprene or some similar fuel tight material.
Integral Tanks
Integral fuel tanks are found on most, if not all, modern commercial aircraft.
During manufacture, practically the entire wing structure becomes a box,
comprising front and rear spars, top and bottom wing skins, inboard and outboard
sealed ribs, into which are installed pumps, drains, filler caps and vents.
The main advantage of the integral tank, is that it provides maximum fuel capacity
for the minimum amount of weight and the only sealing required, is that applied to
the seams after construction is completed.
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STRUCTURES
As mentioned earlier, the attachments for major components can often be strong
points on the wing spars, or even a separate spar built specifically for that
purpose.. One such component that falls into this category is the main landing
gear, otherwise known as the undercarriage. On some very large aircraft, like the
Boeing 747 or Airbus A340, additional body gears, as well as conventional wing
gears are to be found. These have to have reinforcements built into the lower
fuselage structure to absorb the extreme loads at touch down.
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3.2.4 PYLONS
Many aircraft have engines mounted on pylons attached to the wing. With this so
called podded engine configuration, the pylons have to take very large thrust
forces from the engines and transfer it to the airframe. This is normally achieved
by attaching the engine to strong points on the pylon and attaching the pylon to
the wing spars. Thrust links are then fixed to the engine frame and the wing spars
to transfer the engine thrust efficiently. Pylons must be positioned low enough so
that the engine exhaust doesnt strike the wing structure, but not too close to the
ground to risk a runway scrape. The Boeing 737-600 is a fine example of this
compromise.
Turbo-Propeller Mounting
Figure 22
Issue 1 04 Sept 2001
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STRUCTURES
SR
99
All of the flying controls on the wing will be attached to strong points on either the
front or rear spars. This includes high and low speed ailerons, leading and trailing
edge flaps, slats, roll spoilers, speed brakes and lift dumpers. The wing structure
must therefore be made strong enough not only to carry the lift forces in flight but
the additional loads of pilot control inputs, additional drag devices, etc.
Consequently, the spars, are always the strongest part of the wing structure.
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3.3 STABILISERS
The vertical stabiliser (fin) produces directional or lateral stability, whilst the
horizontal stabiliser (tailplane) produces longitudinal stability. As was mentioned
in the aerodynamics section, these surfaces are of similar construction to the
wings with spars, ribs, stringers etc,. They have to resist the twisting forces from
the control surfaces mounted on the trailing edges. In many cases, the fin is
similar to one half of the tailplane and on a number of light aircraft, it is actually
constructed in this way, thereby simplifying production and component parts.
Light aircraft have stabilisers manufactured from welded tube or fabricated from
thin aluminium sheet of simple construction. As the aircraft size and weight
increases, the surfaces will be made from stronger milled or machined skins and
forged spars. Below can be seen examples of the empennage of light aircraft,
Piper Cub and Cherokee and Cessna 150, showing their simple construction.
Empennage Construction
Figure 25
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Elevator Structure
Figure 26
To prevent the risk of flutter, as previously described, the ailerons, elevator and
rudder, are all constructed so that the part of the surface behind the hinge line, is
as light as possible and a number of calibrated weights are added to the leading
edge of the surface. These weights are known as mass balance weights, (see
cutaway above) and the procedure is known as mass balancing.
In addition to mass balancing, surfaces that do not have the benefit of hydraulic
power assistance, (see later) and are difficult to move when the aircraft is at high
speed, have the benefit of aerodynamic balancing. To achieve this simply and as
previously discussed, the hinge of the control is inset, so that part of the surface
in front of the hinge line projects into the airstream, when the control is deflected
from neutral.
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STRUCTURES
All engines are subject to vibration that can be sensed inside the aircraft. To
reduce this, the engine mounts are designed not only to hold the engine securely
and to transmit the thrust, but the mounts themselves are fabricated with a shock
absorbing material. This is usually an elastomeric or metallic woven block and will
absorb a large proportion of the vibration providing the passengers and crew with
a smooth flight.
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CONTENTS
4
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
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INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
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ECU
TEMPERATURE CONTROL VALVE
NRV
SECONDARY HEAT
EXCHANGER
RAM AIR
TO
CABIN
MIXER UNIT
PRIMARY HEAT
EXCHANGER
NRV
WATER SEPARATOR
COUPLED COMPRESSOR TURBINE
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4.2.4 Ram Air
This method is normally found as the primary ventilation system on unpressurised aircraft. A ram air scoop placed directly into the airflow, will provide
the means of air supply as the aircraft moves forward.
Since the air at altitude will be cold, the temperature control system through
which it passes before entering the cabin, will normally be a form of heater.
A self-contained combustion type heater will be employed, or the some form of
exhaust gas heater. The air conditioning ducting will be routed around the
combustion heater casing or around engine exhaust duct to obtain convection
heating.
On pressurised aircraft, a ram air system can be used as a means of emergency
ventilation, following a complete loss of the main system.
RAM AIR
DEMISTER
EXHAUST
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
FLOW CONTROL VALVE
FUEL SOLENOID VALVE
FUEL SUPPLY
OFF
ON
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4.3 COOLING
When bleed air is used as the air supply, the air tapped off the engine
compressor can reach a temperature in excess of 300 degrees Celsius.
This is obviously far too hot to be fed directly into the air-conditioned areas, so it
must first be cooled down to around 20 degrees Celsius.
There are two main methods of cooling;
Air Cycle and Vapour Cycle cooling systems.
4.3.1 Air Cycle Cooling
Air cycle cooling relies on three basic principles; surface heat exchange,
expansion and energy conversion.
Surface heat exchange, provides cooling by passing the air tapped from the
engine compressor (charge air) across some form of heat exchanger. The charge
air is subjected to the effect of a colder cross flow, normally ambient air, scooped
by an intake and passed across the heat exchanger as the aircraft moves forward
(ram air). Although 90% of heat is given up in this way, the charge air
temperature can never be reduced below the ram air temperature by this method
alone.
Expansion, provides cooling when the pressure of the charge air is reduced by
increasing its velocity and expanding it across the turbine of a so-called Air Cycle
Machine (ACM) or Cold Air Unit (CAU). In this way, the temperature of the charge
air can be rapidly lowered to zero degrees Celsius, irrespective of the ram air
temperature
Energy Conversion, cools by making the hot air do work. This is achieved by
using the charge air to drive a turbine, which is connected by a shaft to the
compressor or fan within the cold air unit, thus converting heat energy into kinetic
energy. This method will also help to reduce the charge air to zero degrees
Celsius.
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HOT AIR INLET
PRIMARY
HEAT
EXCHANGER
RAM AIR
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL VALVE
WATER SEPARATOR
TO
CABIN
MIXER UNIT
COMPRESSOR
TURBINE
Turbo Compressor
Figure 3
4.3.1.1
HEAT EXCHANGERS
These are components within the air conditioning system that transfer heat from
one gas stream to another. Ram air is used as the cooling medium to cool the
very hot charge air ducted from the engine compressor or the gearbox mounted
air compressor or blower.
Depending on where they are placed within the air conditioning system, heat
exchangers are often described as;
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4.3.1.2
DIFFUSER
FROM
INTERCOOLER
NOZZLE BLADES
BLEED AIR
COMPRESSOR
TO INTERCOOLER
TURBO COMPRESSOR
Turbo Compressor Cold Air Unit
Figure 4
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The turbine wheel revolves within a nozzle ring and the compressor wheel rotates
within a diffuser ring. The very hot charge air from the engine compressor bleed
and routed via the pre-cooler, enters the eye of the ACM/CAU compressor. It
becomes compressed on passing through the diffuser ring, increasing its
temperature and energy.
From the compressor, the hot air is directed across the inter-cooler matrix over
which ram air passes and is then directed into the turbine volute nozzle ring,
where it drives the turbine. The resultant expansion and energy conversion,
rapidly lowers the air pressure and temperature.
It is then directed towards the passenger cabin. (See Fig 3)
The ACM/CAU compressor and turbine wheels rotate at extremely high speeds,
often in excess of 80,000 rpm, so efficient bearing lubrication is essential to
ensure smooth and trouble-free running.
Two lubrication methods are used; Integral wet sump arrangements, or
pressurised air bearings that need no oil lubrication.
The wet sump type normally has a sump containing oil and a means of metering
it to the bearings usually by the use of integral wicks or with an oil slinger that
pumps an optimum oil/air mix to the bearings. This ensures the correct amount of
oil at the bearings at all times. Oil replenishment is critical however, as too much
oil will lead to the charge air being oil contaminated and too little oil, may result in
a premature seizure of the rotating shaft.
The air bearing type uses a pressurised air supply to support the shaft in a similar
manner to the hovercraft principal. As the rotor floats on a thin layer of air, it is
essential that this type is kept clean and dry and completely free from oil and
grease.
AMBIENT AIR OUTLET
TURBINE
COMPRESSOR
TO
CABIN
HEAT EXCHANGER
MIXER
UNIT
BLEED
AIR
CONTROL VALVE
RAM AIR
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The brake-turbine type of ACM/CAU, has its charge air routed directly from the
pre-cooler to drive the turbine. The air expands across the turbine as before,
resulting in a large temperature and pressure drop. Since this layout dispenses
with the need for an inter-cooler, it results in a greater efficiency due to weight
saving. To safeguard against the turbine rotating too fast, it is coupled with a
compressor, which rotates in ambient air and consequently acts as a braking
medium. Additionally, the slower rotation of the shaft further improves turbine
output efficiency. (See Fig 5)
BLEED AIR
TURBINE
RAM
AIR
TO CABIN
MIXER UNIT
LARGE FAN
HEAT
EXCHANGER
CONTROL VALVE
UNIT
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CONDENSER
RAM AIR
RECIEVER DRYER
THERMOSTATIC
EXPANSION VALVE
AIR SUPPLY
CAPILLARY TUBE
TURBO COMPRESSOR
EVAPORATOR
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL VALVES
AIR DISTRIBUTION
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4.4 HEATING
Un-pressurised aircraft use a ram-air system for ventilation. At altitude, the ramair passing through the cabin would be very cold, so a heating system is required.
Heating systems can be generally divided into two types:
Exhaust heating systems
Combustion heating systems
4.4.1 Exhaust Heating Systems
In its simplest form, this type of heating system employs a heater muff that
surrounds the exhaust pipes coming from a piston engine, or the jet pipe of a
turbo-jet. A ram air scoop at the forward end of the heater muff allows some of
the cold air to go to directly to a mixing valve.
The remainder, enters the muff and surrounds the exhaust/jet pipes. Heat from
the pipes is transferred into the ram air and carried to the mixing valve. The
heated air joins the cold air at the mixing valve and the combined flow is directed
into the passenger cabin.
Some form of control lever, operated from within the aircraft and connected to the
mixing valve, allows the proportion of hot and cold air to be modulated in order to
suit the cabin heating requirements.
To cater for the possibility of the ventilation air becoming contaminated from the
exhaust pipes, some aircraft will be fitted with carbon monoxide detectors within
the cabin area. These are indicators filled with brightly coloured crystals, which
turn black if exposed to dangerous levels of carbon monoxide.
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Temperature Control
Figure 11
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COALESCER/DIFFUSER TYPE
This type consists of a coalescer constructed from layers of monel metal gauze
and glass fibre cloth sandwiched between layers of stainless steel gauze. It is
supported by the diffuser cone and held in place by a relief valve housing. As the
air leaves the diffuser and passes over the coalescer, moisture in the air is
converted into water droplets. The droplets enter the collector shell and are
deposited into collector tubes where they drain down to a collector box from
where the water is ejected overboard.
COALESCER
COLLECTOR SHELL
DIFFUSER
PRESSURE RELIEF
VALVE
CONDENSER
TUBES
DRAIN
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4.6.1.2
COALESCER/BAG TYPE
BLOCKAGE INDICATOR
OUTLET SHELL
BAG
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4.6.1.3
This type uses centrifugal force to spin the moisture-laden air outwards against
the exit shell. The swirl vane, either fixed or rotating imparts the swirl by rotating
the airflow at high speed. The action, separates the heavier water droplets in the
moisture and collects them in a sump, to be drained away.
SEPARATOR SHELL
SWIRL VANE
WATER SUMP
DRAIN
Swirl Vane Type Water Separator
Figure 14
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4.6.2 Water Infiltration
Humidity control can also include the addition of water into the air conditioning
system. As an aircraft climbs to high altitude, the moisture level in the air reduces
to a much lower amount than at lower levels of altitude. The reduction in moisture
may cause discomfort to the aircraft occupants. To counteract this, moisture is
added into the conditioned air, by pumping water from a tank to a spray nozzle
positioned at the cabin air inlet. Humidity sensors will detect low humidity
conditions and automatically turn on the controller water pump to restore the
humidity to acceptable levels.
WATER SEPARATOR
DRAIN
COLLECTOR TANK
CABIN HUMIDITY SENSOR
SPRAY NOZZLE
OVERFILL DRAIN
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4.8 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
The air distribution system on most aircraft takes cold air from the air conditioning
packs and hot air bleed from the engines and mixes the 2 in a mixer unit to the
required temperature. The air is then distributed to side wall and overhead cabin
vents. On some aircraft the cabin air is then drawn back into the mixing unit by recirculating fans where it is mixed with new air and then re-distributed.
All major components are usually located together in a designated bay for ease of
maintenance. ( Figure 14).
A gasper fan provides cold air to the individual overhead air outlets for the aircrew
and passengers. This air can be drawn direct from outside or from the cooling
packs. Each passenger or crew can control the amount of air received by
controlling the position of the air outlet. This outlet could be a rotary nozzle or a
louvre.
TO SIDEWALL DUCTS
TO GASPER
OUTLETS
GASPER FAN
MIXER VALVES
MANIFOLD RELIEF VALVE
TO COCKPIT
TO SIDEWALL
DUCTS
CONTROL VALVES
WATER SEPARATOR
TO OVERHEAD
DUCTS
CONTROL VALVE
SELECTOR LINKAGE
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DUCTING
GASPER FAN
Overhead Panel
Figure 19
Duct sections throughout both the cabin and cockpit are joined together with
clamps or clips. Means of equalising the duct pressures and balancing the air
flows are designed into each system. The systems are protected from excess
pressures by use of a spring loaded pressure relief valve usually located in the
main distribution manifold. The main manifold is located immediately downstream
from the mixing units in the air conditioning bay.
On large aircraft a cockpit controlled dual selector valves divides the air between
cockpit and cabin areas. These butterfly valves are interlinked. When one is fully
open the other is fully closed and vice versa.
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Air is exhausted from the passenger cabin through grills and outflow valves in the
sidewalls above the floor. This air can then be directed around the cargo
compartment walls where it assists in compartment temperature control. Some air
then flows to the cargo heat distribution duct under the compartment floor and is
then discharged overboard through the outflow valves.
DISTRIBUTION BOXES
WINDOW DEMISTER
DISTRIBUTION DUCT
Sidewall Ducting
Figure 20
Below each floor air exhaust outlet is a flotation check valve. This valve is a
plastic ball held in a cage. If the cargo compartments become flooded the balls
float up the cage and seals off the floor to help prevent water from entering the
cabin.
CABIN TEMPERATURE SENSOR
AIR VENT
FLIGHT DECK
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
SILENCER
FAN ASSY
COOLING FANS
FAN ASSY PRESSURE SWITCH
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Aircraft may be separated into zones each with its own air conditioning system
and controls for that zone located in a distribution bay. Some areas may have a
remote heat exchanger and fan assembly in the vapour cycle system, to allow
cooling to specific areas such as avionics bays, fed from one of the zone packs.
4.8.1 Re-circulation Air System
To improve cabin ventilation and supplement airflow the cabin air is recirculated
back to the main distribution manifold where it is mixed with conditioned air form
the cooling packs. The use of re-circulated air improves airflow and offloads the
air supply system. This off loading of the air conditioning packs is converted into a
fuel saving.
The re-circulation fan will draw air from the cabin area, through a check valve and
filter assembly to remove any smoke and noxious odours before passing it to the
mixer unit for re-distribution. The check valve prevents any reverse flow through
the fan and ducting when the fan is not in use.
4.9 PRESSURISATION SYSTEMS
As aircraft became capable of obtaining altitudes above that at which flight crews
could operate efficiently, a need developed for complete environmental systems
to allow these aircraft to carry passengers. Air conditioning could provide the
proper temperature and supplemental oxygen could provide sufficient breathable
air.
The problem was that not enough atmospheric pressure exists at high altitude to
aid breathing in and even at lower altitudes the body must work harder to absorb
sufficient oxygen, through the lungs, to operate at the same level of efficiency as
at sea level. This problem is overcome by pressurising the cockpit/ cabin area.
Cabin pressurisation is a means of adding pressure to the cabin of an aircraft to
create an artificial atmosphere that when flying at high altitudes it provides gives
an environment equivalent to that below 10000 feet. The minimum quantity of
fresh air supplied to each person on board must be at least 0.5lb/ minute.
Aircraft are pressurised by sealing off a strengthened portion of the fuselage. This
is usually called the pressure vessel and will normally include cabin, cockpit and
possibly cargo areas. Air is pumped into this pressure vessel and is controlled by
an outflow valve located at the rear of the vessel.
Sealing of the pressure vessel is accomplished by the use of seals around tubing,
ducting, bolts, rivets, and other hardware that pass through or pierce the pressure
tight area. All panels and large structural components are assembled with sealing
compounds. Access and removable doors and hatches have integral seals. Some
have inflatable seals.
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Pressurisation systems do not have to move large volume of air. Their function is
to raise the pressure inside the vessel. Small reciprocating engine powered
aircraft receive their pressurisation air from the compressor of a coupled
turbocharger. Larger reciprocating engine powered aircraft receive air from
engine driven compressors and turbine powered aircraft use compressor bleed
air
Small Reciprocating Engine Powered Aircraft
Turbochargers are driven by the engine exhaust gases flowing through a turbine.
A centrifugal compressor is coupled to the turbine. The compressors output is fed
to the engine inlet manifold to increase manifold pressure which allows the
engine to develop its power at altitude. Part of this compressed air is tapped off
after the compressor and is used to pressurise the cabin. The air passes through
a flow limiter (or sonic venturi) and then through an inter-cooler before being fed
into the cabin. A typical system is shown at Figure 22.
Sonic Venturi
A sonic venturi is fitted in line between the engine and the pressurisation system.
When the air flowing across the venturi reaches the speed of sound a shock
wave is formed which limits the flow of air to the pressurisation system
RAM AIR
HEATING AIR
PRESSURISED AIR
EXHAUST GASES
COUPLED TURBO
COMPRESSOR
COMBUSTION HEATER
SONIC VENTURI
INTERCOOLER
OUTFLOW VALVE
SAFETY VALVE
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TURBO COMPRESSOR
PRESSURE VESSEL
(CABIN/COCKPIT)
BLEED AIR
OUTFLOW VALVE
ENGINE
Turbo Compressor
Figure 23
Some aircraft use a jet pump to increase the amount of air taken into the cabin
(Figure 24). The jet pump is a venturi nozzle located in the flush air intake
ducting. High velocity air from the engine flows through this nozzle. This produces
a low pressure area around the venturi which sucks in outside air. This outside air
is mixed with the high velocity air and is then passed into the cabin
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PRESSURE VESSEL
(CABIN/COCKPIT)
JET PUMP
BLEED AIR
OUTFLOW VALVE
ENGINE
Jet Pump
Figure 24
4.9.1 Control And Indication
There are 3 modes of pressurisation, un-pressurised, the isobaric mode and the
constantdifferential pressure mode. In the un-pressurised mode the cabin
altitude remains the same as the flight altitude. In the isobaric mode the cabin
altitude remains constant as the flight altitude changes and in the constantdifferential pressure mode, the cabin pressure is maintained at a constant amount
above the outside ambient air pressure.
The amount of differential pressure is determined by the structural strength of the
aircraft. The stronger the aircraft structure the higher the differential pressure and
the higher is the aircrafts operating ceiling.
4.9.2 The Un-Pressurised Mode
In this mode the outflow valve remains open and the cabin pressure is the same
as the outside ambient air pressure. This mode is usually from sea level up to
5000` but does vary from aircraft to aircraft.
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4.9.3 The Isobaric Mode
In this mode the cabin pressure is maintained at a specific cabin altitude as flight
altitude changes. The cabin pressure controller begins to close the outflow valve
as the aircraft climbs to a chosen cabin altitude. The outflow valve then opens or
closes (modulates) to maintain the selected cabin altitude as the flight altitude
changes up or down. The controller will then maintain the selected cabin altitude
up to the flight altitude that produces the maximum differential pressure for which
the aircraft structure is rated. At this point the constant differential mode takes
control.
4.9.4 The Constant-Differential Pressure Mode
Cabin pressurisation puts the aircraft structure under a tensile stress as the cabin
pressure expands the pressure vessel. The cabin differential pressure is the ratio
between the internal and external air pressures. At maximum constant-differential
pressure as the aircraft increases in altitude the cabin altitude will increase but
the internal/external pressure ratio will be maintained. There will be a maximum
cabin altitude allowed and this will determine the ceiling at which the aircraft can
operate.
4.9.5 Cabin Air Pressure Regulator
The pressure regulator maintains cabin altitude at a selected level in the isobaric
range and limits cabin pressure to a pre-set pressure differential in the differential
range by regulating the position of the outflow valve. Normal operation of the
regulator requires only the selection of the desired cabin altitude and cabin rate of
climb the adjustment of the barometric control.
STATIC ATMOSHERE CONNECTION
ADJUSTER
CONTROL
DIAPHRAGM
BAROMETRIC CAPSULE
RESTRICTOR
DIFFERENTIAL
METERING VALVE
HEAD
SOLENOID
DUMP VALVE
REFERENCE
CHAMBER
PILOT
BASE
ACTUATOR
DIAPHRAGM
OUTFLOW VALVE
BAFFLE PLATE
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OUTFLOW VALVE
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ATMOSPHERIC CHAMBER
METERING VALVE
DIAPHRAGM
OUTFLOW VALVE
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Most modern airliners have the means to electronically control the cabin pressure
automatically for the entire flight, from settings made by the flight crew before
take off.
The pressure control system consists:
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Figure 28
The desired mode will normally be Auto, where all settings such as intended
cruise (flight) altitude and destination airfield (landing) altitude are made before
flight. This will allow automatic control of cabin pressure for the whole of that
flight.
This is called the fully automatic mode.
Alternatively, Standby or back up mode can be selected, where a cabin altitude
setting must be made for each desired cabin pressure change. The input setting
is then controlled automatically as before.
This is called the semi-automatic mode.
If neither the fully or semi-automatic modes are available, (i.e.: the pressure
controller fails), the outflow valve can be positioned directly from the flight deck by
operating the electric torque motors to drive the valve.
This is called the manual mode and a choice of an ac or dc electrical supply is
available.
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Outflow Valve
Figure 30
4.10.4 Inward and Outward Safety Relief Valves
Fuselage frames are designed to accept tensile loads associated with and
outward force from within the pressure cell. Their ability to withstand compression
loads that would occur if the pressure outside the aircraft were higher than within
the pressure cell is poor. Therefore an inward relief valve will open and equalise
the pressure if the inward or negative differential exceeds about 0.5 psid.
Two outward relief valves are fitted to prevent the maximum outward differential
pressure from exceeding the structural limit. This will typically be around 8.5psid.
Even though the main pressure control is electronic, the safety relief valves are
mechanical operated and are completely independent of any automatic control
system.
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Most pressurisation systems have three basic cockpit indicators cabin altitude,
cabin rate of climb and the pressure differential indicator. The cabin altitude
gauge measures the actual cabin altitude.
The cabin rate of climb indicator tells the pilot the rate that the cabin is either
climbing or descending. (I.e. the rate at which the cabin loses or gains pressure)
A typical maximum climb rate is 500ft per minute and the maximum descent rate
is 300ft per minute. The control can be automatic or manual depending on aircraft
type.
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The differential pressure gauge (Figure 34) reads the difference between the
cabin and the outside air pressures. This differential pressure is normally
controlled and maintained to a structural limitation around 7psid. This depends on
the aircraft type and the operating ceiling of the aircraft. The differential pressure
gauge may be combined with the cabin altitude (Figure 35).
0
10
1
2
DIFF PX PSI
4
7
Dual Gauge
Figure 35
To ground test the pressurisation system with the engines running, at least three
men are required inside the aircraft for safety reasons.
Both air conditioning and pressurisation systems use safety and warning devices
to protect the aircraft from possible catastrophic failures. Some of the protection
devices may be inhibited in certain stages of flight; landing or take off where the
extra distractions caused by such warnings may be too much for the crews to
deal with safely.
With the air conditioning system the main concerns are with overheating of the air
conditioning packs and extraction and ventilation fans, as well as hot air leaks
from ducting which could damage surrounding structure or components.
4.12.1 Overheating
Most packs systems are protected from overheating by a thermal switch
downstream of the pack outlet. If the outlet temperature reaches a pre
determined figure the switch will operate causing the pack valves to shut,
preventing air from getting to the packs, as well as sending a warning signal to
the cockpit central warning panel with associated caution/warning lights and aural
chimes and to illuminate a fault light on the pack selector switch.
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Once the system has cooled down sufficiently the crew may have an option to
reselect the overheated system. The overheat may have been caused by a fault
in the automatic temperature control system in which case the pilot may be able
to control the system manually via a manual selector switch on the cockpit
controller.
Extraction or ventilation fans will be protected in much the same way. An
overheat will signal the central warning panel with associated caution/warning
lights and aural chimes. The fan may be isolated automatically or manually. Once
the fan has cooled down it may be possible to re-select if required. Fans may also
be protected from over or under speeding, which will also have an effect on the
system temperatures. Speed sensors on the fan will indicate a fault when over or
under speed limits are reached and a warning signal is sent to the cockpit central
warning panel with associated caution/warning lights and aural chimes.
4.12.2 Duct Hot Air Leakage
Any ducting that includes joints is liable to leak under abnormal conditions. A duct
protection system will include fire-wire elements around the hot zones such as
engine air bleeds, air conditioning packs and auxiliary power units if fitted.
The sensing elements will be the thermistor type. As the temperature around the
wire increases the resistance decreases until an electrical circuit is made. When
the circuit is made a warning signal is sent to the cockpit central warning panel
with associated caution/warning lights and aural chimes. The leaking duct may be
isolated automatically or may require the pilot to take action to close off the air
valves. The faulty system will then remain out of use.
4.12.3 Excess Cabin Altitude
If the cabin altitude was allowed to increase unchecked the crew and passengers
could unknowingly suffer the effects of hypoxia. This dangerous condition is
obviously undesirable especially for the aircrew. Most aircraft give a warning on
the CWP with associated audio and visual warnings when the cabin altitude
reaches 10000`.
4.12.4 Smoke Detection
Smoke detectors may be fitted within the cabin; avionics bay and cargo areas to
monitor systems, which if become faulty may generate smoke on overheating, or
are may be liable to catch fire. These detectors will send a signal to the CWP with
associated lights and audio warnings. They may also automatically switch on
extractor fans, which will remove the smoke overboard and away form the cabin
and cockpit areas. In this event, the pilot may have a switch or control lever to
operate a valve to isolate the cockpit air conditioning ducting from the rest of the
aircraft to prevent any smoke from getting to the cockpit.
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Seat Tracks
Figure 1
Aircraft seats can be divided into three main groups; passenger seats, flight
attendant seats and flight deck crew seats. Passenger seats are usually part of
multiple units, although in first class and executive seating, some individual seat
units can be found. Most passenger seats are manufactured from aluminium
alloy tube, which is riveted and welded to form the frame with supporting legs and
braces, individual reclining seat backs and integral tables. The seats and rails are
all classed as primary structure.
Flight Attendant seats are usually more utilitarian than passenger seats and can
be mounted on seat tracks, the aircraft wall structure or, as in the ATR-72, to a
sliding assembly that stows away without taking up passenger space, as shown
below. They will all normally be fitted with a full harness seat belt, compared with
the 'lap strap' assemblies for the passengers. The harnesses should only be
cleaned with acid free soap and water.
Inertia reel system will lock the harness if a rapid de-acceleration of the aircraft
occurs. In the locked position, backward motion is still possible but forward
motion is prevented.
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Attendant Seat
Figure 2
The seats in the flight deck have to be the most comfortable on the aircraft,
because it is laid down in many airline regulations that there must be a full crew in
the cockpit, at all times. The crew must be as 'sharp' and attentive during the
landing as they were at take-off many hours ago.
Flight deck seats will have many different axes of movement such as height,
reach, backrest tilt, lumbar support, arm rest height, etc. Most of the larger seats
will have some of these movements powered by electrical actuators. These seats
will also have at least a four point harness assembly and, in many cases these
days, five point harnesses, with a lower crotch strap
Crew Seat
Figure 3
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The remainder of passenger cabins are fairly standard with overhead stowages.
Passenger service units (PSU) are located on the bottom of the overhead
stowage lockers and normally contain reading lights, call buttons, seat belt and
NO SMOKING warnings and, on aircraft that are equipped with them, drop-out
oxygen masks.
Galleys can be found in a variety of places in the cabin, at the front the rear, and
occasionally, centrally, where they can be used to divide the different classes of
passenger. They have their own power supply for heating, lighting and ventilation.
For maintenance the galley units are removable, as are all other dividing
partitions as well as the overhead units and PSUs.
Galleys are also supplied with their own water supplies to permit the making of
hot drinks, washing-up etc. This means they require connections to both fresh
(potable) water and grey (waste) water from the aircrafts own systems. Some
galleys are fitted in the under floor areas of larger aircraft, which necessitates the
installation of lifts between floors.
7.4 CABIN FURNISHINGS
As with galleys, all furnishings have to be easily removable, not only to allow the
engineers access during deep maintenance, but also to permit various items to
be changed at irregular intervals due to "fair wear and tear". This can include
worn carpets, torn seat covers, cracked plastic cabin wall skins, ceiling panels
and damaged overhead bin doors. All of the previous items are attached by
'quick release' fittings of varying types. Shown below are examples of an
overhead bin, a wall panel and a ceiling panel.
Cabin Furnishings
Figure 5
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Galley Installations
Figure 6
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LD3
LD8
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During unloading, the roll-out-stops are locked down to permit free passage of the
container out of the bay. This is done electrically or by pressing a foot pedal on
each roll out stop if electrical power is not available. The Power Drive Units (PDU)
consist of an electric motor driving a rubber-tyred roller. When commanded to
rotate from the control panel, the roller is raised approximately 12mm from the
floor level by a cam. Only when the roller is raised, will it begin to rotate and apply
a moving friction force to the base of the container to propel it over the balls and
rollers.
Control Panel
Each cargo bay will have a control panel with switches for; system power on/off,
cargo bay lights, raising and lowering of the various lateral and longitudinal
guides. A joystick control with eight positions and centre-off is provided for power
drive unit operation.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The joystick is then used to control the PDUs and move the container into the
desired bay. As the container clears each roller they spring up to prevent it rolling
back out of the bay. At the end of the containers travel it contacts the fixed
loading stops and with all the containers loaded the roll out stops are positioned
into the locked up position, holding the load firmly.
Unloading.
Essentially unloading is the reverse of the loading procedure, with the exception
of locking the roll out stops to their retracted position and positioning all of the
centre/auxiliary guides to the down position.
If any guide has been manually locked down, ensure they are unlocked before
electric power is applied to prevent damage to the motors. At the first sign of any
container stopping or failing to move release the joy stick to the centre/off position
and investigate the cause of the jam.
Only approved personnel, who have received proper training in the particular
installation or layout, should carry out the operation of automatic loading systems.
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Dangerous Goods
Dangerous goods are those which possess potentially hazardous characteristics.
However, as long as suitable precautions are taken these goods are not
necessarily prohibited from air travel. They include obvious items such as; acids,
explosives and radio-active materials and also some unlikely items such as
magnets, breathing apparatus and other gas cylinders and instruments that
contain mercury.
7.8 CARGO RETENTION EQUIPMENT
Once cargo is loaded into the aircraft, it must be restrained to prevent movement,
during take- off, in turbulent flight and landing, (especially hard braking). The LD
containers have positive latches, which attach the containers directly to the
aircraft structure. 'Loose' baggage in cargo holds are usually restrained by nets,
which can be locked into the floor or the walls of the bay.
This system can also be used on pallets, where cases and bags are, again, preloaded and then covered by waterproof sheet and restraint netting. Once loaded,
the pallets are clamped down on to the cargo bay floor.
Baggage Hold-Down
Figure 12
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7.9 AIRSTAIRS
The term airstairs is usually used to describe passenger steps that are integral to
the aircraft structure, meaning that it is independent of normal passenger steps
and of jetways at large airports. They are often fitted to aircraft that will be
operated into poorly equipped airports on a normal, day-to-day operation.
Airstairs can be manually or power operated and can be as simple as a set of
stairs set into the back of the entrance door or on larger aircraft, a fully powered,
folding set of steps that are extended and retracted by the operation of push
buttons.
Airstairs
Figure 13
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The first example shown is from the ATR-72 turbo-propeller aircraft. This unit is
mechanically operated and counterbalanced by a pair of large springs. As can be
seen from the drawing, there are handrails, one of which can be folded, if
required.
The second example, (lower left), is an electrically powered airstair fitted to the
new Boeing 717-200. This aircraft can also be fitted with a second airstair at the
rear of the cabin, (lower right), which will allow the passengers to embark and
disembark through two doors simultaneously. This will speed up the turn around
maintenance.
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8.2
8.3
8.4
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Fire is the most dangerous threat to the safety of an aircraft and is associated
with external areas near the main engines and the APU.
Other external hot spots are landing gear bays, where heat from brake units
could affect the surrounding equipment and wiring, when the gears are retracted.
Overheating of the structure, equipment and wiring from very hot air, leaking
engine compressor bleed air pipes, must also be catered for.
Fire from internal areas such as the passenger, flight deck and toilet
compartments as well as cargo, air-conditioning and electrical/electronic
equipment bays require protection too.
Indeed any source on an aircraft that the manufacturer or operator considers a
likely hazard will be protected.
Ideally, a fire protection system will include as many as possible of the following
features:
Rapid warning of fire/overheat and its accurate location
Must not cause false warnings
Continuous warning for duration of fire/overheat
Confirmation that the fire has been extinguishing
Indication that the fire has re-ignited
A means of testing the system from the flight deck
Detectors that are proof against oil, water, vibration and high temperatures
Detectors that are easily accessible throughout the aircraft
Detectors and extinguishers hot wired electrically or powered from emergency
electrical buses
Adequate visual and aural indication on the flight deck and vital areas on the
aircraft
Separate warnings for each engine and specific areas as determined by the
aircraft manufacturers
Therefore, the Fire (and Overheat) Protection system will normally be split into
two main subsystems:
Fire/Overheat Detection and Warning
Fire Extinguishing
8.1 FIRE/OVERHEAT DETECTION AND WARNING
Fire/Overheat detectors can be divided into two main groups:
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8.1.1
This type is fitted at various strategic points within the fire/overheat zone and
takes the form of a thermally activated switch.
They are electrically connected in parallel with each other and in series with the
audio/visual warning system. This arrangement allows any switch to operate the
warning, even if other switches have failed in the remainder of the system.
Some Unit detectors may have a pair of BI-metallic contacts, that close when
heated and open when they are cooled down, to make or break the electrical
warning circuit.
However, the majority has a thin casing that surrounds two conventional electrical
contacts that are normally set apart from each other. When subjected to heat, the
casing expands and pulls the two contacts together, completing the warning
circuit in a similar manner to the BI-metallic type.
The main advantage of this so-called High Speed Resetting Switch (HSRS), is
its sensitivity and fast reaction time, to initiate the warning and cancel it once the
heat is removed.
Spot Detectors are used mainly to detect high temperature leaks from bleed air
ducts and are normally positioned at pipe to pipe connections.
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If the selector is switched to a single loop (A or B) full fire warnings will activate if
the selected loop senses a fire condition.
Pressing the loop test button simulates a fire condition on the respective loop.
This is done by earthing the inner electrode of the loop that functionally checks
the system and checks the continuity of the loop.
8.1.4 Pressure-Type Sensor
The pressure type detection system uses a continuous loop for the detection
element. This loop is made from sealed stainless steel tube that contains an
element that absorbs gas when it is cold but releases the gas when it is heated.
This tube is connected to a pressure switch that will close when the pressure
reaches a pre-determined level.
The commonest make of this type of system is the Systron-Donner system which
uses a centre titanium centre wire and the expansion of both helium and
hydrogen gas to give the two-stage warnings.
Whilst the firewire system actuates when any part of the loop reaches the limit
temperature, the pressure type system will actuate in two different ways. If a
localised fire occurs, the hydrogen gas is released and its pressure closes the
pressure switch which will set off the warning system, however, if the temperature
over a larger area rises to a lower level than a fire warning the helium expands
and closes the pressure switch to activate the system warning.
8.2 FIRE ZONES
On light aircraft, the only protection against fire is a stainless steel or titanium
bulkhead (firewall), dividing the engine bay from the cabin and the rest of the
aircraft. Larger aircraft have the complete engine cowlings isolated from the
airframe/wing assemblies and, in addition, aircraft cowlings can be divided into a
number of 'fire zones', each one usually having its own warning and extinguishing
system.
The types of zone dictate what type of protection that they receive, for example,
light aircraft have piston engines and hence, due to the high flow of air through
the bay, have no fire protection and depend on isolating the engine of fuel to put
out any fire. The example has four zones around the engine that only two have
firewires and extinguishing.
8.2.1 Hot And Cool Zones
Engines are usually split into hot and cool zones (Figure 5). The hot zone
comprises the combustion chamber turbines and exhaust areas, the cool zone
comprises the intake, compressors and accessory drives.
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8.2.4
All wool, cotton and synthetic fabrics used in interior trim are treated to render
them flame resistant. Tests conducted have shown that whilst the foam used in
seat cushions is flammable, if covered with a flame-resistant fabric, there is little
danger of fire from accidental contact with a cigarette, for example.
Fire protection for the aircraft interior is usually provided by hand-held
extinguishers. Various types are available including, Water, CO 2 and Dry
Powder. Each type is best used on one kind of fire but may be used on other
kinds. It is best to be sure which is safe to use on which type of fire.
8.3 SMOKE DETECTION
A smoke detection system monitors certain areas of the aircraft for the presence
of smoke, which is could be indicative of a fire condition. These may include
cargo and baggage compartments and the toilets of transport category aircraft.
A smoke detection system is used where the type of fire anticipated is expected
to generate a substantial amount of smoke before temperature changes are
sufficient to actuate a heat/fire detection system.
8.3.1 Carbon Monoxide Detectors
The presence of Carbon Monoxide (CO), or Nitrous Oxides (N2O), is dangerous
to flight crew and passengers alike and may indicate a fire condition as it is a byproduct of combustion. Detection of the presence of either or both of these gases
could be the earliest warning of a possible dangerous situation.
Carbon Monoxide is very dangerous, firstly due to the minute amount required to
cause loss of attention and headaches; (this is approximately 2 parts in 10,000).
It is colourless, odourless, tasteless and a non-irritant. Carbon Monoxide
detectors are usually used in cabin and cockpit areas.
The detector is usually a small card with a transparent pocket containing silica gel
crystals that have been treated with a chemical, which changes colour to green or
black when they are exposed to carbon monoxide.
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Air inlet
Light beam
Light source
Photoelectric cell
Light reflected from
smoke into photocell
Air outlet
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Ionzing beam
Radioactive material
Air inlet
Air outlet
+
Target
Ionisation Type Smoke Detector
Figure 7
Smoke flowing through the chamber changes the level of ionisation and
decreases the current. When the current reduces to a specific level the external
circuit initiates a smoke warning signal. Figure 7 shows a typical ionisation smoke
detector.
Flame Detectors
This system uses a photoelectric cell to detect a sharp rise in light, such as that
from a flame in a closed bay.
8.4 FIRE EXTINGUISHING
There are a variety of aircraft and ramp extinguishing agents. Their use depends
upon several variables such as location, proximity to personnel, environment,
possible sources of fire, etc. There are integral extinguishing systems on board
the aircraft as well as hand held extinguishers
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There may also be pop up indicators to indicate that the squib has been fired. A
pressure switch may also be fitted which gives an electrical indication to the
cockpit control panel when the pressure drops to a pre-determined level.
Each bottle will have protection against overpressure using a 'rupture disc', which
fails if the bottle pressure becomes excessive due to overheating.
8.4.2 Directional Flow Control Valves (2 Way Valves)
These valves are non-return valves designed for use in a crossfeed system to
allow the contents of one or several extinguishers to be directed into any one
engine (or compartment). The valves prevent the reverse flow of the
extinguishant into the other bottle or engine.
8.4.3 Fire Extinguishant Container
Figure 11 shows a typical extinguishant container. The cartridge is electrically
ignited which drives the cartridge cutter into the disc that on rupture releases the
extinguishant. The strainer prevents any of the broken disc from entering the
distribution system.
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The safety plug is connected by a pipeline to a red indicator disc on the outside of
the compartment. If the gas pressure increases due to an increase in the
compartment temperature that the bottle is located in, the fusible safety plug
melts at a pre-determined temperature and the bottle contents are discharged
overboard. As the bottle discharges overboard, it blows out the red indicator. The
gauge shows the pressure of the extinguishant in the container.
8.4.4 Toilet Compartment Systems
Small, automatic units will often be found in the toilet waste bins, where they will
discharge themselves when a heat source is sensed in the region of 75 degrees
centigrade. A fusible type plug will melt allowing the contents to discharge.
Most aircraft with this system fitted do not generate any indications to the cockpit
or attendants panel if the system was activated. Some systems have a visible
temperature strip that can be checked before each flight, or by the cabin crew in
flight.
8.4.5 Warnings And Indications
Once a fire has been detected in the engine bay (or compartment being sensed),
a signal is generated by the firewire element and this signal is sent to a control
unit. The control unit processes the signal and sends a signal to the cockpit CWP,
associated power lever handle, and the fire control panel. The CWP red Fire
warning caption light illuminates for the affected engine (or compartment) as well
as the master warning lights and audio warnings. The Affected power lever
handle and fire extinguisher handle on the overhead console also illuminate red.
To activate the extinguishant, the red fire handle is pulled to arm the system and
then the squib button is pressed to fire the bottle. If after the bottle contents have
exhausted and the fire indication remains, the second squib button is pressed to
fire the contents of the other bottle into the same affected engine (or
compartment).
Some aircraft activate the extinguishers differently. The bottle may be fired by
pressing the affected fire button on the fire panel. If the fire remains a cross feed
switch is activated which opens a crossfeed valve and the same fire button is
repressed to fire the other bottles contents into the same affected system.
Once discharged an amber DISCH caption on the fire control panel will indicate
when the corresponding bottle is empty. These captions are usually electrically
activated
Whatever the method of operation of the extinguisher system, the same basic
principle applies. The contents of each bottle can be cross fed into the affected
area that is on fire.
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Regardless of the system, all bottles and squibs have a life, after which they have
to be removed and returned to the manufacturer for maintenance.
A test switch is available for each system. When pressed all warning lights and
audio warnings are checked. If a light fails to illuminate it will normally indicate a
bulb filament failure.
8.5.2
A test switch on the cockpit fire panel is available to test each sensing element
loop. When selected the continuity of each circuit is checked. If the system is
serviceable, the Loop caption(s) will illuminate. If the caption(s) do not illuminate
there is a fault in the system.
8.5.3
Squib-Test.
A squib test button is available to check the continuity of the discharge heads for
each of the fire extinguisher bottles. When pressed a squib warning light or
magnetic indicator will illuminate if the system is serviceable. No illumination
means that there is a fault in the system. The current used during the squib test is
at a much lower value than that required to fire the squib.
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Contents
9
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
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9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.17
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9.18
9.19
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FLYING CONTROLS
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9.1.1 AILERONS
Ailerons are primary flight controls that provide lateral roll control of the aircraft.
They control aircraft movement about the longitudinal axis. Ailerons are normally
mounted on the trailing edge of the wing near to the wing tip.
Elevators are primary flight controls that control the movement of the aircraft
about the lateral axis (pitch). Elevators are normally attached to hinges on the
rear spar of the horizontal stabiliser. Fig 11.1 shows the typical location for
elevators.
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9.1.3 RUDDERS
The rudder is the flight control surface that controls aircraft movement about the
vertical or normal axis. Rudders for small aircraft are normally single structural
units operated by a single control system. Rudders for larger transport aircraft
vary in basic structural and operational design. They may comprise two or more
operational segments; each controlled by different operating systems to provide a
level of redundancy.
Rudder
Figure 3
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9.1.4 SPOILERS
Spoilers are secondary control surfaces used to reduce or spoil the lift on a wing.
They normally consist of multiple flat panels located on the upper surface of the
wings. The diagram below shows the more common configuration.
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Flight Spoilers are used in flight to reduce the amount of lift. If the pilot operates
the controls left or right to roll the aircraft, the spoilers on the down-going wing
move upward to aid rolling the aircraft. The movement of the spoilers is in
proportion to the rate of roll required. On some aircraft, the spoilers are the
primary flight control for rolling. If operating only as flight spoilers, only the
surfaces on one wing will be raised at any one time. The flight spoilers are
normally positioned outboard of the ground spoilers.
9.1.4.2 Ground Spoilers
Ground Spoilers are only used when the aircraft is on the ground. They operate
with the flight spoilers to greatly reduce the lift on landing. The also reduce the
drag after landing to slow down the aircraft. Ground spoilers will normally be
deflected to their maximum position to give maximum drag on landing.
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TRIM CONTROLS
The majority of aircraft at some time during a flight develop a tendency to deviate
from a straight and level attitude. This may be caused by a fuel state change, a
speed change, a change in position of the aircraft's load, or in flap and
undercarriage positions. The pilot can counter this tendency by continuously
applying a correcting force to the controls - an operation, which, if maintained for
any length of time, would be both fatiguing and difficult to maintain. The tendency
to deviate is therefore corrected by making minor trim adjustments to the control
surfaces. Once an aircraft has been trimmed back to a 'balanced' flight condition,
no further effort is required by the pilot until further deviation develops.
9.2.1 FIXED AND ADJUSTABLE TRIM TABS
9.2.1.1
A fixed trim tab is normally a piece of sheet metal attached to the trailing
edge of a control surface. It is adjusted on the ground by bending to an
appropriate position that give zero control forces when in the cruise.
Finding the correct position is by trial and error.
9.2.1.2
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SERVO TABS
Servo Tab
Figure 6
Sometimes referred to as the flight tabs, the servo tabs are used primarily on
large control surfaces, often found on larger, older aircraft. This tab is operated
directly by the primary controls of the aircraft. In response to the pilot's input, only
the tab moves. The force of the airflow on the servo tab then moves the primary
control surface. This tab is used to reduce the effort required to move the
controls on a large aircraft.
Balance Tab
Figure 7
A balance tab is linked to the aircraft in such a manner that a movement of the
main control surface will give an opposite movement to the tab. Thus the balance
tab will help in moving the main surface, therefore reducing the effort required.
This type of tab will normally be found fitted to aircraft where the controls are
found to be rather heavy during initial flight-testing.
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The spring tabs, like some servo tabs, are usually found on large aircraft that
require considerable force to move a control surface. The purpose of the spring
tab is to provide a boost, thereby aiding the movement of a control surface.
Although similar to servo tabs, spring tabs are progressive in their operation so
that there is little assistance at slow speeds but much assistance at high speeds.
Spring Tab
Figure 8
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The following is a typical trim system as used on a fully powered flight control
system.
In a typical rudder trim system for a powered system, trim commands from the
trim switch causes an actuator to extend or retract, which rotates the feel and
centring mechanism. This provides a new zero force pedal position
corresponding to the trimmed rudder position. The trim switch is spring loaded to
return to neutral. Both positive and negative elements of the circuit are switched
to prevent a trim runaway should one set of switch contacts become shortcircuited. The trim indicator is driven electrically by a transmitter in the rudder
trim actuator. The indicator shows up to 17 units of left or right trim. Each unit
represents approximately one degree of rudder trim.
In a typical aileron trim system for a powered system, trim commands from the
trim switches causes the actuator to extend or retract, which repositions the feel
and centring mechanism null detent. The trim switches must be operated
simultaneously to provide an electrical input to the actuator, as both positive and
negative elements of the circuit are switched to prevent a trim runaway should
one set of switch contacts become short circuited. The available aileron trim
provides 15 degrees aileron travel in both directions from neutral.
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For trimming the aircraft longitudinally (about the lateral axis) the elevators are
not trimmed. Instead the angle of incidence of the whole tailplane is altered.
Raising the leading edge of the tailplane will increase lift over the tailplane, which
imparts a nose-down attitude to the aircraft or vice versa.
This is done by mounting the forward end of the tailplane on a screw jack.
Depending on the system the screw jack is rotated by two hydraulic or electric
motors via a gearbox. Movement is induced by a lever in the flight deck, which
operates solenoid selector valves or an electric control circuit to operate the
motors. Over-travel is prevented by micro-switch.
Reasons for fitting to transport aircraft:
1. All aircraft benefit from having as large a range of useable centre of gravity as
possible. This gives flexibility in cargo loading and allows for fuel usage in a
swept wing.
2. Aircraft benefit from a wide speed range. Very simply, when an aircraft is
trimmed at a particular speed, a reduction in speed calls for "up" elevator and
an increase in speed calls for "down" elevator. This would cause extra drag.
3. The need to compensate for centre of pressure changes due to slat/flap
extension, gear extension.
4. To reduce trim drag to a minimum to give the optimum performance in cruise.
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The actuator comprises a re-circulating ball screw jack and nut assembly driven
by two hydraulic motors with separate spur gear reduction trains.
Figure 10
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Friction brakes ensure that air loads cannot back-drive the actuator when the
system is de-pressurised.
The actuator is signalled from one of three sources:
i)
Auto-pilot servo
ii)
iii)
A cable loop runs from the pedestal in the cockpit, under the cabin floor, and
ends at a cable reduction-gearing unit at the tailplane incidence actuator.
Hydraulic Power Supply
Each hydraulic motor is powered from a separate system. In the event of a single
hydraulic system failure, a bypass valve permits that motor to "freewheel" when
the system is de-pressurised.
Position Indication Systems
Geared indicator scales inboard of the cockpit hand-wheels present the
demanded position of the tail-plane. This will be the actual tail-plane incidence
with the hydraulic system(s) pressurised.
Actual tail-plane position is continuously displayed on the pilot's instrument panel,
signalled by a position transmitter operated by the tail-plane.
External markings on the structure adjacent to the tail-plane give the approximate
position of the tail-plane.
Tail-plane in Motion Warning
Some aircraft types have a tail-plane in motion warning system to alert the pilots
of continuous motion of the tail-plane beyond a certain time period.
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This system is a relatively new approach to civil aviation, although it has been in
use for some time in military aircraft. It is a complex system that senses
disturbances in the air that may cause both discomfort to passengers and crew,
whilst causing extra unnecessary loading on the airframe.
The gusts that are about to hit the aircraft are sensed either by a tiny pair of
vanes on either side of the nose or by accelerometers mounted inside the nose of
the aircraft. These instantly send a signal, 'bump coming', to the flight control
computers, which instantly send a correcting signal to the elevators that counter
the bump and give a smoother ride.
The whole system requires the quick reactions of both the computers and the
hydraulic jacks to be successful. If the aircraft senses a downdraft, the
computers instantly signal just the correct amount of 'up elevator' to counteract
the disturbance and leave the aircraft to fly smoothly on.
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ACT is nothing new, it has been used on aircraft for many decades but it has
increased in usage with the advent of flight control computers and fly-by-wire
systems. The Tristar aircraft has a system installed that reduces the flight loads
on the wings by partially deploying the spoilers. This changes the lift profile over
the wing, bringing the lift closer to the wing root, which is much stronger (see next
fig). This means that the wing can be lighter and the wing stresses will be
reduced.
Figure 11
Numerous control surfaces, auxiliary force and moment generators can be added
to make the aircraft operate unconventionally. Fighter aircraft and some executive
jets may have a number of such devices fitted to make them more agile. These
include:
Canards, these differ from foreplanes as they can also move independently
giving more response in roll.
Flaperons which are control surfaces that act as flaps and/or ailerons
depending on the pilots selection. They have the ability to move both up and
down independently for roll control, but can also move simultaneously for take
off and landing.
Thrust vectoring, mainly used on combat aircraft, but the advantages gained
with short take off and landing will mean that some form of vectoring system
will be developed for commercial aircraft in the future.
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Varying lift profiles means wings can be more streamlined (less drag)
It is impossible for the aircraft to be flown beyond its design limitations under
normal conditions!
Rolling moment
Pitching moment
Yawing moment
The use of ACT can provide two more additional forces of control and movement:
In order to change altitude a pilot must pitch the nose of the aircraft up, which
may cause him to lose sight of his destination (the runway). Using ACT, the pilot
can change altitude by causing the foreplanes and flaperons to operate together
increasing the lift on the front and rear of the aircraft simultaneously. This is
known as the direct lift force
The pilot, conventionally, must roll the aircraft to change its flight path in a
sideways plane. ACT allows the aircraft to side step during normal flight by
deploying the rudder and the canards together to pull the nose and tail of the
aircraft across in the same direction. This is known as the direct side force.
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These devices have two primary aims, to provide extra lift during take-off and to
provide greater lift as well as high drag during landing. The types of flap used
on different aircraft depends on the type of aircraft, the method of aircraft
operation and other variables. For example, a single engined light aircraft might
only have some form of simple trailing edge flap, whilst a large airliner like the
Boeing 777 has complex, triple slotted flaps.
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Whilst the term 'flaps' is used, it is taken as meaning trailing edge flaps, and the
term 'leading edge flaps 'refers to those fitted to the leading edges of the wings of
most large aircraft.
The methods of operation of flaps, are numerous. They can vary from simple,
mechanical push rods or cables actuated, via a lever in the cockpit, by the pilot,
to complicated, multiple flaps that are electrically selected on the flight deck and
hydraulically or electrically powered.
Most flap systems have a number of positions, which can be selected at various
times. As an example, five positions could be as follows;
00 - flaps up
80 - take-off, first position
Flap Mechanism
Figure 13
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Other high lift devices can be found on the leading edges of the wings and
include slats, drooped leading edges and Krueger flaps. All of these devices
are aimed at smoothing the airflow over the leading edges of the wings when they
are at a high angle of attack, thereby maintaining, or increasing lift when the wing
would normally be stalled.
9.5.2 SLATS
Slats are separate small aerofoils, which can be fixed or retractable. Their
purpose is to control the air passing over the top of the wing at slow speeds. On
larger aircraft, the retractable slats have their extension interconnected with the
trailing edge flaps.
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Drooped leading edges are a different design, but are aiming at the same effect,
that of smoothing the air over the top of the wing. They operate in much the same
way as most high lift devices, by screw jack operation with the motive power for
the jacks coming from the hydraulic system.
9.5.4 KRUEGER FLAPS
Krueger flaps are, again, a different design for the same effect. These are
usually found fitted to the leading edges of the wing at the inboard sections
where the effect of 'slats' or 'drooped leading edges' are not as efficient.
Figure 15
Krueger (left) and Drooped (right) Leading Edge Flaps
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These devices are used to spoil lift from the wing after touchdown. This ensures
that the aircraft's weight is fully on its landing gear, which enables the brakes to
work at 100% for the full landing run. If this did not happen, the aircraft would
tend to 'float' or bounce at touchdown, making the brakes inefficient and the risk
of skidding much greater.
Lift dumpers are nearly always flat, rectangular panels, hinged at their leading
edge and powered by hydraulics. They can usually be found on the top of the
wing, and located about the maximum thickness, where their deployment would
destroy the maximum lift from the wing.
To ensure that they deploy at the correct time and also without the need for the
pilot to select them, at a very busy time, there is a simple system to deploy them
automatically. A set of switches are fitted to the landing gear which 'make' and
indicate weight-on-wheels to several systems, once the aircraft is completely on
the ground. By giving the pilot a "lift dumper arming" button, he can arm the
system, in flight, and know that it will deploy the lift dumpers at the correct time.
9.6.2 SPEED BRAKES
The use of speed brakes is similar regardless of the aircraft type. If the aircraft is
a sailplane it is so streamlined that it requires high drag when descending and
landing in unprepared fields. A large 400 seat airliner needs to be able to follow
Air Traffic Control instructions to descend and maintain certain speeds and a
military jet fighter needs to have very high drag on approach, permitting the
engines to accelerate quickly if the landing is aborted.
All types of speed brake use a variation of the same principle, to put panels of
varying shapes into the airflow, to increase the drag. Some are able to modulate,
(vary the amount of drag to suit the situation), whilst others are just 'IN' or 'OUT'.
Some airliners use the same surfaces on the top of the wing to carry out more
than one operation, such as speed brakes when in flight and needing drag; roll
control to augment (or replace) ailerons; or as lift dumpers to be used after
landing.
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Light aircraft rarely need speed brakes because of their generally high drag
designs. A reduction in power will produce a satisfactory slowing down of the
aircraft. Streamlined sailplanes, however, usually have vertical panels that
project from the wing, top and bottom, which produce large amounts of drag,
enabling steep, slow and safe approaches when landing.
Military jets have a different need for drag, not only as mentioned during the
approach to landing, but during combat and other operations where fast
application of drag with a quick reduction in speed can have a life saving effect.
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SYSTEM OPERATION
In large modern aircraft that fly at high speeds, the air loads on the flying control
surfaces far exceed the ability of the pilot to move them manually. To overcome
this problem hydraulic pressure is used to move the control surfaces, a
POWERED FLYING CONTROL UNIT or BOOSTER being used to convert
hydraulic pressure into a force exerted on the control surface.
In its simplest form, a P.F.C.U. consists of a hydraulic jack, the body of which is
fixed to the aircraft structure and the ram, via a linkage to the control surface.
To control the P.F.C.U. a servo valve (control valve) is mounted on the jack. The
servo valve, which is connected to the pilot's controls by a system of cables
and/or pushrods, called the input system, directs fluid to either side of the jack
piston and directs the fluid from the other side to return. This flow of fluid will
displace the jack ram and as this is connected to the control surface via an output
system of pushrods or cables, the control surface is moved.
Figure. 17
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9.7.3 PROPORTIONALITY
To make the controls "proportional" (i.e. the degree of movement of the jack-ram
and hence the control surface, should be proportional to the degree of movement
of the pilot's controls), a "follow-up linkage" is used. This linkage connects the
input system, through a series of levers to the output system in such a way that
the movement of the output system (jack ram) tends to cancel the input once the
desired position is reached and so output movement ceases. In effect the
movement of the jack ram is always trying to re-centre the servo valve and stop
fluid flow in the jack.
Hydraulically powered flight control units usually derive their hydraulic power from
the aircraft hydraulic system. If a PFCU obtained hydraulic power from only one
hydraulic supply, a failure of that hydraulic supply due to an engine shut down,
loss of fluid due to a leak, or failure of a hydraulic pump. The result would be loss
of powered control of the aircraft. The probability of hydraulic failure is too great
to allow a system to rely on one hydraulic supply, so redundancy must be
introduced into the flight control system.
As in the previous notes on hydraulic systems, modern large multi-engine aircraft
are arranged such that the engine driven pumps (and the other types of pumps)
supply two or more independent hydraulic power supply systems.
The following are methods that use that arrangement of hydraulic redundancy to
allow failure of one hydraulic supply and still maintain control of the aircraft.
These are similar to the arrangement shown. They consist of a single jack ram
but with two pistons. These pistons are housed in two co-axial cylinders each of
which receives pressure fluid from separate power supply circuits via their own
duplicated servo valves. The servo valves, which are controlled by the same input
system, are carefully set up in the overhaul workshop to ensure they work in
unison. This prevents the two hydraulic pistons working against each other. With
this arrangement a loss of one hydraulic supply will allow the relevant piston to
"free stroke whilst the other piston operates the control surface.
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TANDEM ACTUATOR
Figure 18
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These are similar to the tandem arrangement but two piston rams are located in
cylinders mounted side by side with the piston rams connected to a common
output lever that transmits the movement to the control surface. The
arrangement for the input system, the duplicated servo valves and hydraulic fluid
supplies are the same.
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Figure 20
Generally the input system of the powered flying control system is mainly a cable
system with the related quadrants, pulleys and fairleads with the connections to
the control column and the PFCU input lever by push rods. To guard against loss
of control due to cable breaks the cable system is duplicated. All duplicated runs
are routed separately through the aircraft to avoid one incident damaging both
control runs. The cable systems meet at a common input lever to the PFCU'S.
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Input Systems
Figure 21
9.7.10 HIGH SPEED PRIMARY CONTROLS
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Primary controls are designed to give adequate control in all flight phases. The
flight phase at which the control surfaces are least effective is during low speeds
(landing). This is because of the reduced aerodynamic effect with low speed.
This means that the size and range of movement of each control surface must be
sufficient to maintain sufficient control authority. With the control system designed
to give efficient control at low speed, there may be a problem at high speed. This
is that at high speeds the increased air-loads on the control surfaces will cause
them to be too sensitive producing over control and possible loss of control or
over-stressing of the airframe. To prevent this two systems may possibly be
used.
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Geared Controls
In this system a single acting hydraulic jack may be fitted to an idler lever. The
control rod is attached to this jack so that the radius of operation can be altered.
Thus for a given angular movement of the idler lever, if the length of the jack is
shortened, the linear movement of the control rod is reduced. This will maintain a
constant range of movement at the pilots controls but reduce the range of
movement of the control surface. Pressure at the jack is usually controlled by a
pressure-modulating valve sensitive to a pressure transducer in the pitot system.
High Speed Control Surfaces (ailerons)
Normal, "low speed" ailerons are situated at the usual wing tips position to gain
maximum authority due to the moment arm produced. But again at high speed
their authority may be too great. In this system an additional set of "high speed"
ailerons is also fitted at the wing root. Hydraulic isolate valves are incorporated in
the control system such that at low speed the outer ailerons are functional, but at
high speed, their hydraulic power is cut off and the high speed ailerons are
powered to maintain roll control. The isolate valves are again controlled by
pressure switches in the pitot system.
9.8 TRAILING EDGE FLAP CONTROLS
On small aircraft the flaps are operated using hydraulic jacks to operate a single
flap on each mainplane. This arrangement is not suitable for use on larger
aircraft due to the size of the airframe that requires that the flaps are
manufactured and mounted in "segments" along the trailing edge.
The following system that may be regarded as a simple system, similarly uses
linear hydraulic actuators for an aircraft that has three flap segments on each
mainplane each positioned by a separate hydraulic actuator.
Movement of each actuator is controlled by a servo valve (simiIar to that in a
primary flight control unit). Control is by flap lever/quadrant on the centre
console. This is connected to the actuator servo valves by a duplicated system of
control cables and pushrods.
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9.8.2 GENERAL
The flap surfaces are operated through linkages by hydraulic actuators. The
actuators respond simultaneously to the control-cable-relayed demands of a
selector lever mounted on the flight compartment centre console.
The piston rod end of each actuator is structurally anchored; movement being
confined to the unit body. A position control element (servo-valve) incorporated
in the body is controlled by an attached operating lever that has limited travel on
each side of the neutral position. The lever is moved towards or away from the
anchored piston rod end to retract or extend the actuator. Each actuator
incorporates internal restrictors that control the rate of response and an internal
mechanical lock that engages when the flaps are fully up. The lock is
hydraulically released when a down selection is made.
The control system consists of a duplicated input circuit, which through the
medium of a spring strut, signals all six actuators. Beyond the spring strut the
signal to the inner flap actuators is conveyed by a rod and lever system and to
the mid and outer flap actuators by interconnected signalling cables.
The purpose of the spring strut is to "store" control lever movement due to the
actuators' restricted rate of travel.
The adjacent ends of the mid and outer flap surfaces are connected by a link that
allows sufficient free movement to accommodate normal variations of relative
positions without the links being loaded. The links are incorporated as a safety
feature and take effect to prevent an asymmetric flap condition.
The flap selector lever is afforded the following gated positions - 0, 5, 15 and
30.
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From the flap selector lever on the centre console, the duplicated input cables are
routed aft through the roof structure to a position immediately aft of the rear spar.
At this point, the cables are directed through the roof skin terminating with a
double quadrant assembly. A double acting spring strut is connected between an
output lever on the quadrant and a series of levers and control rods. These:
Operate the position control elements (servo valves) on the inner flap
actuators and transmit actuator movement to the inner flap surfaces.
Provide an input to the left and right mid and out flap signalling circuits.
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Immediately a selection is made the total input motion is absorbed by the spring
strut and progressively released as all six actuators respond at their limited rate
of travel. When the spring strut returns to its pre-selection settled length - the rod
that connects to the position control element-operating lever on each actuator
arrests. The actuators will then marginally run on until their now restrained
element operating levers reach neutral positions. This simultaneously creates a
hydraulic lock at all six actuators and hence arrests the surfaces in alignment at
the selected position.
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System integrity is such that duplication of the input cables which allows for
functioning in the event of loss of either circuit) will maintain control.
2. The other is that an asymmetric deployment of the flaps is prevented. An
Should this occur at either of the inner flaps - the system will remain functional
(full asymmetry between inner flaps can be adequately countered by aileron
action).
Should this occur at a mid or outer flap - the link which interconnects the adjacent
ends of these surfaces will take effect to allow full functioning of both surfaces
from one actuator. Thus preventing an asymmetric condition that would be
beyond the ailerons ability to counter.
C. Loss of signalling (cable break) to a mid or outer flap actuator.
Should loss of signalling to a mid or outer flap actuator occur and the 'free'
actuator become hydraulically locked at any stage during a programmed
operation - the interconnecting link will arrest the adjacent functional actuator and
thus its intact signalling system. This will have the effect of simultaneously
arresting the interconnected input circuits of the remaining actuators that then run
on marginally, until their now restrained servo valve operating levers reach
neutral positions - thus arresting all six surfaces in approximate alignment. The
actuator arrested by the link will remain programmed to achieve intended travel in
opposition to the locked adjacent surface. For this reason and to prevent
excessive structural overloading - the actuators incorporate internal relief valves.
D. Loss of main system pressure
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Flap position is indicated on a twin pointer scale calibrated to 0', 5', 15' and 30'
settings. The flap position is signalled by two transmitters that are driven from the
flap hinge arms via control rods.
On large aircraft it is more common for the flaps to be driven by twin hydraulic
motors, each motor deriving its hydraulic supply from a different hydraulic system.
Each motor is mounted on the same gearbox, such that drive from either or both
motors will drive the gearbox.
The gearbox is commonly located in the main gear bay. The drive is transmitted
to the flap surfaces by a system of torque tubes, gearboxes and screw jacks. The
screw jacks drive trolley assemblies along flap tracks mounted to the wing
structure via support units. The flap segments are mounted onto the trolleys.
System Description
The flap system of each side of the aircraft comprises of flap sections supported
and moved by six support/operating units. (Flap Tracks) The flaps are manually
controlled by a lever on the central console to UP (0), take off (20), approach
(35) and landing (45) positions. This manual control operates independent
Electro/hydraulic systems A and B, employed simultaneously to power the drive
unit (gearbox) and their supplies are drawn from the aircraft electric and hydraulic
systems bearing the same suffix letter.
Both systems normally operate together, but should a hydraulic system fail, or a fault
develop which necessitates selection of ISOLATE on one system, the flaps travel only at
half rate due to the design of the drive unit.
a. Drive Unit
The drive unit, comprises a gearbox and selector drum assembly, powered by two
hydraulic motors. It rotates a torque shaft system that operates screw jack and trolley
mechanisms at each support/operating unit.
The drive unit is mounted to the rear of the wing rear spar member in the left
main landing gear bay. It is powered by two hydraulic motor/lock valve
assemblies; one supplied from hydraulic system A and the other from system B.
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The motors drive a main shaft through a differential gear and a spur wheel
reduction gearing. A gear driven selector drum operates micro-switches to arrest
the flaps when they reach the selected position.
b. Flap Transmission System
Torque shafts extend outboard in each wing from either end of the drive unit main
shaft. The sections of torque shaft couple via universal joints and serrated sleeve
joints to bevel gearboxes and to intermediate bevel gearboxes. The bevel
gearboxes and intermediate gearboxes are connected by serrated sleeve joints
and universal joints to screw shaft assemblies located at each support unit. Flap
trolleys fitted to each screw shaft engage via their rollers with trolley tracks fitted
to the support units. These trolleys support the flap sections.
The flaps are hinged by pins to lugs on the flap trolleys. A torque link pivoted to
each flap section carries a forward flap trolley, the rollers of which engage with
the cam track on the support unit.
c. Hydraulic System
For redundancy the flaps are supplied by two independent hydraulic systems,
which are identical. The following therefore describes one system only.
Hydraulic pressure is supplied to the flap selector valve via a flow control valve
and isolating valve.
Movement of the flap selector lever energises the appropriate solenoid selector
valve to allow pressurised fluid to pass to the hydraulic motor through the lock
valve. Return fluid from the hydraulic motor passes through the lock valve and
flap selector valve back to the main system. The flow control valve controls the
rate at which the flaps move. A throttle valve slows down the flaps at all selected
positions.
When the flaps reach the selected position the selector valve solenoid is deenergised, through the operation of the selector drum micro switches. The
pressurised fluid is held at the selector valve and the two service lines from the
lock valve are connected together and into return. The lock valve prevents the
hydraulic motor from rotating.
d. Flap Control
Each separate flap operating hydraulic circuit is controlled by a separate 28 volt
D.C. electrical system. Each supply is derived from a separate D.C. Bus Bar.
Each system is controlled by three micro-switches operated by control lever
movement, these provide a circuit to the selector valve solenoids via six microswitches operated by the drive unit selector drum.
Cams on the outer periphery of the selector drum operate one switch at both the
normal, up and down limit positions of the flaps and two switches at the take-off
(20') and approach (35') positions.
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However, this will allow the damaged portion of the system to stop and the
remainder to continue travelling, so producing an asymmetric flap condition. To
prevent this an asymmetry protection circuit is incorporated in the control system.
This system uses an A.C. electrical supply and is controlled by four synchro's
which are small devices mounted on and driven by screw shafts in board and out
board of the flap systems. These are paired, and as they rotate send an
alternating signal to an asymmetry control box. If the signals become out of
phase with each other the over-travel/ asymmetry isolate relay will be energised
to lockout the system.
g. Position Indication
Flap position indication is provided by a D.C. ratio meter indicating system
comprising two transmitters, driven from the outboard end of the left and right
torque shaft systems and dual indicators positioned on the centre in the flight
deck.
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Normal operation is achieved by operation of the flap control lever. Three rotary
variable differential transducers (RVDTs) sense movement and signal the Flap
Control Unit (FCU), which control the direction control motors. If pneumatic power
is not available the FCU will switch to electric drive motor operation.
Figure 25
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Figure 27
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Purpose
Eight pneumatic drive units (PDU) power the LE flap system. Each power drive
unit has both a pneumatic and an electric drive motor. The pneumatic motor is
the primary drive source and is powered by the leading edge pneumatic manifold.
The electric motor is an additional drive source for use when the pneumatic
system is not available.
Leading Edge Flap Drive Unit- operation
a. Pneumatic Drive
The flap lever is used to command FCU operation. The flap control unit signal is
passed to the directional control motor and the shutoff valve. Pneumatic
pressure flows from the inlet duct through the alternate valve (normally open) to
the shutoff valve. The shutoff valve (normally closed) opens to pressurise the
regulator and the air Motor brake. Pneumatic pressure at the regulator opens the
butterfly valve and regulates the pressure to the control valve. Pneumatic
pressure at the air motor brake releases the brake. The direction and speed
difference between the direction control motor and the output shaft follow-up gear
is sensed by the differential. The differential uses the speed differences to
position the control valve and maintain PDU speed. Travel limits are governed by
the primary position controller. This translates the amount of distance that the nut
travels. When the translating nut reaches its travel limit it stops the direction
control motor rotation that, in turn, stops PDU operation.
b. Electric Drive
The signal to activate the electric drive motor closes the alternate solenoid valve.
The electric motor brake then releases the electric motor drive. The pneumatic
brake holds the sun gear of the planetary gearbox at the air motor output shaft.
The electric motor drives the output shaft through the ring gear of the planetary
gear reduction. When the translating nut in the alternate position controller
reaches the end of its travel it opens the electric motor limit switches. The
alternate controller position switches control the electric motor shutdown in both
primary and alternate control modes.
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Operating Times
The approximate leading edge flap extension or retraction times are:
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Figure 28
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Purpose/Location
The Krueger flaps modify the configuration of the inboard portion of the wing
leading edge to increase low speed lift. There are three Krueger type LE flaps
installed on each wing inboard of the inboard engines (flaps 11 through 16).
Figure. 29
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Figure 30
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9.10.1 OPERATION
Rotary variable differential transducers (RVDTs) convert control wheel inputs into
electrical signals. Spoiler control modules receive the signals and command the
Power Control Actuators (PCAs) to raise the spoilers. Placing the speed-brake
lever in the UP position will raise all flight spoilers.
Figure 31
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Three RVDTs are grouped together in a can-like unit, mounted on the bottom of
each control unit assembly. The RVDTs convert aileron control wheel rotation
into a signal voltage proportional to the control wheel movement.
The Spoiler Control Modules mix RVDT inputs with other inputs according to a
programmed logic. Six SCMs control the 12 spoiler surfaces.
Power Control Actuators operate the spoilers. Each spoiler has one PCA,
powered by one of three hydraulic systems. Each PCA consists of a hydraulic
actuator, an electro-hydraulic servo valve (EHSV) and a Rotary variable
differential transformer (RVDT). The PCA extends or retracts as commanded to
raise or lower the spoiler. The RVDT sends a feedback signal to the SCM
proportional to the amount of surface deflection.
Electro-hydraulic Servo valves controls the flow of hydraulic fluid in the PVA in
response to the SCM commands. The command operates a jet pipe that supplies
hydraulic fluid to the EHSV control bobbin. The EHSV is spring loaded to the
retract position, so the spoiler panel will retract if there is no command signal.
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Most aircraft use conventional mechanical controls to move the flight controls.
These will normally consist of cables, chains and control tubes. Many examples
of this type of system have been described and illustrated previously. The
ailerons and elevators on this type of system would normally be operated by a
conventional control column and control wheel. Operation of this is instinctive to
the pilot, the control wheel being rotated to the left to bank left and right to bank
right. Pushing the control column forwards causes the aircraft to dive and pulling
back causes the aircraft to climb. A typical control wheel and other cockpit
controls is illustrated.
Figure 33
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Many modern aircraft use electrical inputs to the powered control units. This
eliminates the need for mechanical controls and all of the chains, pulleys,
fairleads and linkages associated with this type of system. This topic is covered
in more detail in the Fly By Wire section, but the following paragraphs illustrate a
typical Airbus system.
The electrical flight control computers are designed to ensure a high degree of
safety. This is accomplished by using a high level of redundancy which consists
of five EFCS computers installed in the aircraft, the use of dissimilar redundancy
which consists of two types of computers with each being capable of achieving
pitch and roll control along with other redundant features assuring aircraft control.
Each computer is also composed of one control unit and one monitoring unit.
Control and monitoring software are different and the control and monitoring units
are physically separated.
Monitoring
In each computer, one monitoring channel is associated to a control channel by
use of self- monitored channels. Each computer is able to detect its own failures
(microprocessor test, electrical power monitoring, input and output test). Input
monitoring by comparison of signals of the same type, but sent by different
sources, and checking of the signal coherence along with permanent cross talk
between associated control and monitoring channels, consolidate and validate
information received. This allows permanent monitoring of each channel by its
associated one. Automatic test sequences can be performed on the ground
when electric and hydraulic power is applied (no surface deflection during test).
Side-stick Controller
The side-stick controllers are used for pitch and roll manual control and are
shown below. The side-stick controllers are installed on the captains and first
officer's forward lateral consoles. An adjustable arm-rest is fitted on each seat to
facilitate the side-stick control. The side-stick controllers are electrically coupled.
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Figure 34
In the case of one pilot wanting to take control of the aircraft (priority), the
autopilot instinctive disconnect button is used to signal the priority system. A
visual indication is given to the pilots to indicate left or right side-stick priority. In
autopilot operation the side-stick controllers remain In neutral position.
The autopilot function can be overridden by the pilots and the autopilot then
disengages.
Control Laws
Normal control laws selected for A320 pitch and lateral control are manoeuvre
command laws with normal acceleration and roll rates used as basic parameters.
Inside the normal flight envelope, the main features are a neutral static stability,
short term attitude stability, along with automatic longitudinal trimming.
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turn co-ordination
In addition, protections are provided against extreme attitudes (pitch and roll)
excessive load factors, over-speed, and stall.
The load alleviation function (LAF) is accomplished by the electrical flight control
system (EFCS). The LAF is implemented in the elevator and aileron computer
(ELAC) and the spoiler elevator computer (SEC). The control surfaces used are
both ailerons as well as spoilers 4 and 5 (i.e. the outboard pair on both sides) for
up gusts.
There are four specific accelerometers that are installed in the forward fuselage
station to provide the electrical flight control computers with vertical acceleration
values. These sense the up gust and deploy the spoilers to smooth out the
normal result of an up gust of wind as described in the before mentioned
example.
Four hydraulic accumulators are installed to provide the extra hydraulic flow
needed to achieve the surface rates and duration of movement required for load
alleviation as illustrated below.
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9.12.1.1
'Q' feel is an artificial force felt at the control column, which increases as the
aerodynamic pressure (Q) at the control surface increases.
Aerodynamic pressure conforms to the relationship Q = pv2,. Where p is air
density, and v is the velocity of air flow.
Thus, a 'Q' feel system has to simulate the actual control surface loading lost with
the use of powered controls; preventing the pilot damaging the aircraft by pulling
excessive 'g' loads.
Artificial 'Q' feel" units have to increase the control column centralizing force, in
proportion to the square of the airspeed.
In general, 'Q' feel systems can be either mechanically or hydraulically operated.
Typical systems are explained below.
9.12.1.2
Spring feel has the disadvantage of being constant throughout the airspeed
range. However, with this system the effective force provided by the spring
cartridge is adjusted for given airspeeds. This is achieved by moving the fulcrum
point of its bell crank lever. Rather like the study of lever mechanisms, where the
given forces by distances are equal on either side. Thus, we can attain a
mechanical advantage over the spring, increasing or reducing the effective feel
force.
9.12.2 OPERATION
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Should the actuator be extended, the fulcrum arm would be lowered. This gives a
short distance from the roller to the spring, relative to the control rods. Hence,
there is a good mechanical advantage in the mechanism, making it easy to move
the spring cartridge. This would be the configuration for low airspeeds.
As the airspeed of the aircraft increases, the fulcrum arm would move up,
progressively giving more feel to the system.
The linear actuator operates from a closed loop positional servo system. Input is
by means of an airspeed sensor, which converts the pitot/static pressure
differential into an electric signal. Feedback is achieved by means of a follow-up
potentiometer attached to the fulcrum arm.
PITOT/ STATIC
SLOTTED BELLCRANK
LEVER
AIRSPEED
FOLLOW-UP POT
SENSOR
SERVO
AMP
ROLLER
+
_
FULCRUM ARM
LINEAR ELECT
ACTUATOR
SPRING
CARTRIDGE
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NORMAL OPERATION
A hydraulic jack is attached to the control rods adjacent to the control column.
The principle of operation is that the pressure of hydraulic fluid within "this 'Q' feel simulator jack, will be proportional to the amount of force necessary at the
stick, to overcome it. Low pressure produces light feel. High pressure produces
heavy feel.
To provide this pressure differential relative to airspeed a special 'Q' feel unit is
used.
Pitot and static pressure are transmitted to the unit, but are isolated from one
another by a flexible diaphragm. As the airspeed increases the pitot pressure acts
to push the diaphragm down. This action is the resistive force acting against the
upward tendency of the servo valve piston.
Signal pressure is supplied to the 'Q feel jack at differing magnitudes, by the
servo valve. This signal pressure is proportional to the airspeed.
Different pressures are achieved by the action of the servo valve piston acting
against the force created at the diaphragm. At zero airspeed (static) the piston
will be fully up, as there is no pitot pressure resisting it. This will close the valve
pressure inlet and open the signal pressure lines to exhaust (return line). Hence,
no feel simulated.
With an increase in airspeed, there will be a greater force felt on the diaphragm
side of the piston. Therefore, a greater pressure will be required in the signal
pressure lines to close off the servo valve pressure inlet port. Hence, feel is
simulated at the control column, and this builds up in proportion to the square of
the airspeed.
On the Mach number correction side of the unit the diaphragm has differential
areas, upon which pitot and static pressure may act. This is due to the underside
of the capsule reducing the area on the pitot pressure side, but the static
pressure can affect the whole of the diaphragm under-surface.
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Hence, an increased force is felt on the underside of the diaphragm, for relative
pressures on either side. At low and moderate airspeeds this retains the capsule
in the position as shown in the diagram.
As higher Mach numbers are approached, an increase in pitot relative to static
pressure is experienced. This has the effect of pushing the diaphragm down, in
proportion to the Mach number reached. In turn, a linkage has the effect of
pushing up on the servo valve piston against the normal diaphragm. Signal
pressure is subsequently reduced, and there is less centering force at the stick.
The pilot has less feel.
Mach numbers are not always constant for a given airspeed. They change with
the aircraft altitude. To compensate for this effect the capsule is evacuated, and
operates on an aneroid principle.
MACH
CORRECTION
CAPSULE
PITOT
DIAPHRAGM
STATIC
EXHAUST
CONTROL
COLUMN
PRESSURE
INLET
INPUT TO
PFCU
Q FEEL JACK
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Artificial feel is provided by a spring rod, the zero force position of which is
controlled by an. electrical trim actuator. An automatic reset function initiated by
pressing the RESET pushbutton allows the rudder trim position to be nulled
through the FACS. Rudder trim position is displayed on an indicator adjacent to
the trim switch.
Figure 38
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The mach trim system operates within the range from 0.68 IMN (Indicated Mach
Number) to 0.84 IMN when the aircraft is above 9000 ft.
The system operates in passive mode when the aircraft is flown with the autopilot engaged, but becomes active if the autopilot is disengaged.
A mach trim activity light on the pilot's instrument panel flashes intermittently to
indicate that a trimming demand exists. Illumination of the light for a sustained
period indicates a runaway or seized actuator.
A mach trim ON/OFF switch located in the cockpit permits a faulty system to be
isolated.
9.14.2 CONTROLLER
The controller is supplied with height and speed inputs from the aircraft pitot static
system. The inputs are used to generate control signals that determine the
direction and rate of rotation of the mach trim actuator. The controller also
provides the 28 volts DC output to energize the clutch and connect the mach trim
actuator to the tail-plane trim system.
The actuator is located in the centre pedestal in the cockpit, and is connected by
a chain drive to the manual tail-plane trim hand-wheels cross-shaft. A solenoid
operated clutch connects the mach trim actuator to the drive system. The tailplane auto-trim actuator operated by the auto-pilot system is also attached to the
mach trim actuator. The control system ensures that only one actuator can be
engaged at a time.
9.14.4 OPERATION
With the system selected ON and the auto-pilot disengaged, the mach trim
actuator is clutched to the tail trim mechanism as soon as the aircraft power
supplies are switched on.
The system becomes active as soon as the aircraft flies above 9000 ft and its
speed is within the Mach number range 0.68 IMN to 0.84 IMN.
If the manual tail-plane trim hand-wheels are operated, the mach trim actuator is
declutched to permit the tail-plane incidence to be changed and the clutch reengaged when the trim hand-wheels are released.
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9.15.1 Q LIMITER
The rudder 'Q pot restricts movement as airspeed increases by extending the
stepped stop, which restricts movement of the clawed stop. The clawed stop is
connected by rod to one end of the inner level in the trim unit that restricts the
movement of the input lever.
The stepped stop is extended by operation of the rudder 'Q' pot. The 'Q' pot
assembly comprises a cylinder assembly, a sealed piston bolted to a springloaded piston rod. The sealed piston divides the 'Q' pot into two sealed
chambers No.1 pitot static and No.2 pitot pressure. These chambers are supplied
from the 'Q' pot pitot head located on the lower left-hand nose fuselage.
As pressure from the pitot head rises in chamber No.2, the piston moves,
compressing the spring and extending the piston rod and consequently the
stepped stop into the clawed stop.
A microswitch is mounted on the 'Q' pot and is operated by a cam on the stop in
the extended position.
9.16 GUST LOCKS
The following notes describe a typical aircraft system and refer in some cases to
specific references associated with that system.
9.16.1 DESCRIPTION
The gust lock system is employed to lock the primary control surfaces in the
neutral position for taxiing, parking or mooring the aircraft. The system consists
of forward and aft installations that are electrically connected for operation by a
single lever on the flight compartment centre console.
The forward installation caters for the locking of the aileron and elevator surfaces;
the aft installation, which includes an electrical actuator, locks the rudder.
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Each installation incorporates a weight switch controlled solenoid lock (snib); that
in the forward installation renders it impossible to select controls LOCKED in
flight. The aft snib prevents locking of the rudder should its associated gust lock
actuator be subjected to spurious electrical signals.
When ground selected LOCKED, the control lever, in addition to locking the
primary control surfaces via the mechanisms described in the following
paragraphs, also operates an interlock mechanism; this baulks engine power
lever movement to restrict engine power during taxiing.
Warning of the locked condition is provided by a warning light on panel 1P.
The mechanism, shown in the following diagram, basically consists of two pivoted
locking arms, each of which is provided with an open-ended slot. The aileron and
elevator arms are connected by input springpots to levers fixed to the controls
locking lever shaft.
The controls locking lever handle has two positions:
a. UNLOCKED - forward and
b. LOCKED - aft.
The handle incorporates a spring-loaded push rod that protrudes from the upper
end of the handle as a push-button. The rod is provided with a collar at the lower
end that can engage in either of two locking holes in a structurally anchored
gated bracket on the levers shaft. The locking holes are joined by a slot that
allows the collar to be push-button displaced. The handle is then ground selected
from UNLOCKED to LOCKED and vice-versa.
When selected LOCKED the input springpots load the locking arms against pins
fitted to the aileron and elevator primary bellcranks at the positions shown; this
'arms' the mechanism such that when the associated primary circuit is brought to
its lock position the slot in the related locking arm will 'snap' engage with the lock
pin on the bellcrank. When UNLOCKED is selected, the input springpots will pull
the locking arms clear of the bellcrank - thus freeing the controls.
NOTE:
THE MECHANISM ADDITIONALLY INCORPORATES A 'FAILSAFE' SPRING ASSEMBLY AT
EACH LOCKING ARM; THESE WILL PREVENT THE ARMS FROM ENGAGING WITH THE
BELLCRANKS SHOULD A LINKAGE FAILURE OCCUR WHEN THE CONTROLS ARE SELECTED
UNLOCKED.
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The rudder gust lock mechanism shown in the following diagram is located in the
upper left side of the rear fuselage.
Basically the mechanism comprises a lock strut that pivots in a limited lateral arc
about its bracket-attached forward end. The aft end of the strut is equipped with
a bayonet fitting, encompassed by a nylon guide block assembly. The bayonet
incorporates an open-ended slot to operationally engage a lock pin in the rudder
control lever assembly. The strut is positioned for lock
engagement/disengagement by a springpot interposed between the bayonet
fitting and an electrical actuator structurally anchored to the fuselage.
The linear actuator, circuit identification WM5, is a split field series wound unit
driven by a bi-directional motor and equipped with internal extend and retract limit
switches. The unit operationally retracts to 'arm' the strut for lock pin
engagement; engagement occurs when the rudder pedals are centralized.
Conversely, the actuator extends to disengage the lock. Disengagement is
assisted by a tension spring.
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The system power supply is derived from the 28v dc right essential services
busbar. C/B No. 192 (3A) on panel 2D caters for: rudder gust lock actuator
operation, on ground retraction of the solenoid lock snibs and controls locked
warning indication. A paralleled supply for locked warning indication is also taken
from C/B No. 178 (3A) on panel 2D; this is operationally taken via the normally
open contacts of microswitch WM4 when the rudder lock strut is engaged. The
dual supply assures warning integrity should one or other of the two circuit
breakers trip out during a locked condition.
9.16.5 OPERATION
The operation of the gust lock system is essentially as detailed in the preceding
paragraphs, however, some discussion of the electrical aspects of control is
necessary; this follows:
Solenoid locks
The two snib-type solenoid locks are flight de-energized (i.e. snibs extended) by a
weight switch in the right equipment bay of the nose fuselage. In this condition,
the forward unit will baulk a toe' on the control lever; thus preventing lever
movement from the UNLOCKED to the LOCKED position. The rear unit snib will
prevent engagement of the rudder gust lock strut.
When on the ground, 28v dc is made available through the weight switch relay to
energize both solenoids; this withdraws the snibs, thus allowing unimpeded
ground operation of the control lever from UNLOCKED to LOCKED and
engagement of the rudder lock strut.
With the aircraft on-ground and electrical power available (solenoid snibs
retracted) selection of the control lever to LOCKED will cause an adjustable cam
on the levers shaft to connect to pole A of a two-pole microswitch WM2 to the
retract field winding of the actuator. The actuator then retracts to arm the system
for rudder lock engagement; this occurs when the rudder pedals are centralized.
When fully retracted the actuator limit switches changeover in readiness for a
subsequent extend command. An UNLOCK selection similarly causes actuator
extension to disengage in the rudder lock strut.
Controls locked warning
A CONTROL LOCKS warning light (red) on Panel IP will illuminate:
a. if the controls locking lever is out of its UNLOCKED detent or
if the rudder gust lock strut is not in a fully disengaged position.
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When applied to control systems the term 'rigging' is used to describe the practice
of truing and checking the system to ensure that the flying controls operate
correctly. The objective of rigging is to have the cockpit control in neutral at the
same time as the control surface is in neutral. Rigging a control system ensures
that:
The pilot's control is in the correct relationship to the relevant control surface.
The control surface moves in the correct sense and to its designed maximum
travel position in either direction.
a. Before operating any flying control system in an aircraft, first check that there
are no obstructions that could damage the control surface when it is moved.
It is also important to display warning notices informing personnel of the
possibility of movement of the control surface. Inform personnel working in
the vicinity of a control system when you are about to operate it.
b. In rigging an aircraft control system it is sometimes necessary to level the
aircraft both laterally and longitudinally to put it into the rigging position, as
described. The appropriate aircraft maintenance manual will state on what
occasions, if any, this is necessary.
c. Before starting to rig a flying control system it is advisable to ensure that all
parts of the system and the control surfaces are serviceable. There is little
merit in rigging a control system only to discover, subsequently, that some
parts have to be replaced. Thus cables and tubes should automatically be
examined for wear and corrosion, and other components for freedom of
movement, security of attachment and so on. Replace components as
necessary before continuing.
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The first action is to set the cockpit control to neutral and to lock it in this position,
using the equipment provided for the particular system. The rest of the control
run is then adjusted to the neutral setting and locked in that position, often by
using rigging pins. Generally speaking, control surfaces are in neutral when they
are in line with the main surface to which they are attached. An exception to this
is where the trailing edge of the aileron is set a specified amount below the
mainplane trailing edge. This setting is known as aileron droop.
9.17.3.2
Rigging Pins
Rigging pins are issued in sets, the type and number depending upon the aircraft
and also upon the specific control run being rigged. The type, number and
positions of rigging pins in the aircraft's system are shown in diagrams of
appropriate aircraft maintenance manual. The first pins, called the No. I or
master pin, is fitted at the cockpit end of the control run and, in conjunction with
the cockpit control neutral setting bar, secures that end of the system in neutral.
Between these two items, there may be an adjustable link that has to be set at
the correct length. By adjusting the control cable and tubes, holes in idler gears
or levers can be made to align with corresponding holes in the airframe structure;
rigging pins are then used to join these two holes, thereby positively locating and
locking the control system in neutral. When all the rigging pins have been fitted in
this way, that particular control run has been adjusted to, and locked in, neutral.
This setting may be checked by using setting gauges.
Figure 42
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The next stage is to remove and then refit each rigging pin in turn to ensure that
this can be done without strain. This indicates that the system has been set up
satisfactorily, and that there is no backlash in the system; this is particularly
important where the system is cable operated. Finally, it is vital to check that the
complete set of rigging pins are removed from the aircraft on completion of the
work.
Note: There have been many accidents or near accidents attributed to failure to
remove rigging pins, or the use of incorrect items to lock controls in neutral.
In one particular incident, a new aircraft was taxiing out from the manufacturer for
delivery to the customer. Whilst carrying out the full and free control test prior to
take off the pilot felt a restriction in the aileron controls. When the aircraft taxied
back to the hangar, a bolt was found inserted in the captains control rigging pin
hole. Obviously someone had used this in preference to the correct rigging pin.
The correct checks had obviously not been carried out and the rigging pin/bolt
not removed. (see diagrams following).
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Where control surface setting gauges are provided, they are used to check the
neutral and maximum travel position of controllable aerofoil surfaces. Each
gauge is manufactured for use with one specific surface. The gauge is firmly
attached to a fixed part of the aircraft, next to the movable surface with which it is
associated. With the controls set at neutral, the trailing edge of the control
surface should coincide with the neutral mark on the gauge. Now move the
control surface to the maximum travel position, in either direction, and see if the
trailing edge of the control surface coincides with the appropriate mark on the
gauge. The control surface movement can be quickly and easily adjusted with
the gauge in position by restricting the mechanical stops.
9.17.5 CHECKING FOR SENSE OF MOVEMENT
Having established the neutral position of the control system, the next stage is to
ensure that the control run being rigged operates the control surface in the
correct sense. This is clearly vital; inadvertent cross-over of connections would
reverse the control surface movement with possible disastrous results. The
sense of operation can be readily checked by two tradesmen - one at the control
in the cockpit and the other at the control surface, if you are not sure of the
relationship between control movement and the corresponding control surface
movement.
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Figure 45
9.17.7
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b. Check that turnbuckles, adjustable end fittings and limit stops are in safety
and locked.
c. Examine all parts of the system and supporting structure for security of
attachment and check that shackle pins and nuts are correctly split-pinned.
d. Check cable alignment around pulleys.
e. Lubricate the system as necessary in accordance with servicing instructions
for the system.
f.
Examine the control surface itself to ensure that it has not been damaged in
any way.
g. Check to ensure that no tools or other 'foreign objects' have been left within
the system to become a FOD hazard.
h. The final check is always a duplicate check - by a suitable qualified, engineer.
9.17.8 DUPLICATE CHECKS
In the interest of safety, all work on, and the functioning of, aircraft control
systems must be checked twice, each time by a suitably authorised qualified
person. Duplicate checks are divided into parts:
a.
b.
c.
d.
The term 'control systems' applies to all engine, undercarriage, flying and
associated control systems and equipment directly affecting the safety of the
aircraft. Full regulations concerning duplicates are described in module 10.
9.17.9 PRIMARY CONTROL SYSTEMS - EXAMPLE OF RIGGING
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e. Ensure that the chains are correctly positioned and then adjust the
turnbuckles evenly to tension the control cables; a tension-meter may or may
not be required to check cable tension, depending on whether or not the
system is a regulated one.
f.
Adjust the operating rods until the ailerons are in line with the trailing edge of
the main plane or as specified (or the neutral setting on the setting gauge, if
one is provided).
g. Remove the control column locking device and also the rigging pins, if fitted.
h. Operate the ailerons, checking for freedom of movement and that they move
in the correct sense relative to the control column movement.
i.
Measure the range of movement of the ailerons and adjust the limit stops until
the range is as specified in the maintenance manual. If the limit stops are not
adjustable, and the range of movement is incorrect, replace the stops.
j.
Then, using a spring balance, check the control system for static and running
friction.
k. Carry out the necessary checks after rigging.
l.
To rig other primary control systems (i.e. elevators and rudders) a procedure
similar to that outlined above is carried out. Remember, however, that each
system is peculiar to the aircraft in which it is installed and the need to consult the
aircraft maintenance manual should be obvious.
9.17.10
To rig a primary control system, in which light alloy tubes are used, the procedure
may be similar to that described below:
a. Carry out the checks before rigging as in paragraph 8.2.
b. Set and lock the pilot's control in the neutral position and disconnect the
control tubes.
c. Commence by attaching the forward control tube to the pilot's control.
d. Fit the appropriate (master) rigging pin.
e. Connect the tubes in sequence from the cockpit to the control surface, fitting
the rigging pins in the appropriate housings.
f.
g. Remove the cockpit control locking device and the rigging pins.
h. Operate the control, checking for freedom of movement and that it moves in
the correct sense in relation to the control surface.
i.
Measure the range of movement and, as necessary, adjust the limit stops.
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As you would expect in this type of system, a power unit of some sort acts to
move, or to assist the movement of, the control surface in response to movement
of the cockpit control. A powered flying control system has other units, such as a
trim actuator, artificial feel unit and yaw damper, fitted to it. But we are not
concerned with any of these units at this time. Our concern is with rigging the
manual part of the system, and here the same principles apply as in the other
examples.
In a typical rudder powered control system. Control tubes are used from the
cockpit to the bell crank lever, to which the artificial feel unit is attached. The
remainder of the input system to the PFCU is cable-operated, apart from the yaw
damper lever group. It is convenient in rigging a powered flying control system to
split the operation up into three stages as described below.
Stage 1. This stage describes the operations required to rig the rudder controls in
the cockpit.
This part of the system uses tubes that, as we have seen, form a rigid link.
a. Disconnect all control tubes and set the pilot's control - i.e. the rudder pedals to the specified initial setting (neutral). Lock the pedals in neutral with the
tools provided.
b. Connect the forward control tube to the rudder lever, make any necessary
adjustments and insert the master rigging pin in the appropriate housings.
Continue to build up the system in the cockpit; connect the various control tubes
to their corresponding lever, adjusting as necessary; fit the subsidiary rigging pins
in their correct positions, thereby locking the levers in neutral.
Stage 2. This stage describes the operations required in that part of the control
run situated in the centre of the fuselage.
a. Set the control lever on the cable tension regulator vertical by inserting a
subsidiary rigging pin.
b. Set the artificial feel units as described in the aircraft maintenance manual.
c. Set the trim actuator to neutral and connect to the artificial feel unit.
d. Fit the control cables to the cable tension regulator, and run the cables
around their pulleys.
e. Connect the cables to the tie-rods and feed the cables around their pulleys to
the rear part of the fuselage.
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Stage 3. This final stage describes the operations required to rig the control
system up to the control surface (rudder) itself.
a. Connect the cables to the cable quadrant and to their respective tie-rods.
b. Set the cable quadrant to neutral by inserting a subsidiary rigging pin.
c. The yaw damper can now be connected into the system, control tubes
connecting this unit to the cable quadrant and to the PFCU.
d. Adjust the system, as necessary, as detailed in the aircraft maintenance
manual.
e. Connect the link rod to the rudder operating lever and adjust as necessary.
f.
After tensioning the cables as described earlier, remove and then re-insert
each rigging pin in turn to ensure that the system is correctly adjusted to the
neutral position.
g. Unlock the control circuit by removing all rigging pins and the rudder pedal
locking device.
h. Check the system for friction.
i.
j.
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This is typical of a system fitted to larger aircraft. This is a simple system that
employs a micro-switch (transducer), operated by a vane. The transducer is
mounted in the wing leading edge such that the operating vane is at the
stagnation point during normal flight. Therefore no air-loads are imposed on the
vane and it is not deflected from its null position.
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9.18.2.1
System Functions
Stall Warning - As with the previous system this tells the pilot that he is
approaching a stall condition.
Stall Warning Sensors - There are several designs in use. They may be
mounted on the main-planes or side of the fuselage. They are normally
duplicated, each providing a signal to a duplicated system.
Stall Warning Computer - Receives signals from the sensors and initiates
warnings or control movements.
Stick Shaker - The Main stall warning device. An electrically driven, out of
balance rotor, which shakes the control column when a stall warning
condition, is detected.
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Stick Pusher - A hydraulic or pneumatic ram which pushes the control column
forward when a stall identification condition is sensed. It may usually be overridden by higher than normal pilot force.
Mach Sensing - Speeds over the aircraft critical Mach number may cause
high-speed stall or flame out. To prevent this an input to the computer from
mach switches or the air data computer may be included to give a stall
warning at high mach numbers.
Four slotted conical probes, are mounted, two on either side of the forward
fuselage, and project into the air stream. Each probe can rotate about its own
axis through 50 in pitch, 4 of which are above fuselage datum. The probe
detects the direction of airflow and transmits to the computer unit a voltage,
picked off from potentiometers, proportional to the angle between the airflow and
the fuselage datum.
When the aircraft angle of incidence is steady, pressure acts equally on the two
probe slots, but as the angle of incidence changes, differential pressures are set
up which, applied to the opposite sides of a paddle wheel, cause the wheel to
rotate the probe until the pressures are again equal, i.e. the direction of flow
bisects the angle between the slots.
Ice protection for the probes is provided by heaters supplied from the No 1 and
No 2 essential 28-volt dc supply. The left probe heaters are controlled by the first
pilot's pressure head heater switch and the right probe heaters by the No 2
autopilot pressure head heater switch.
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Separate ammeters on the engineers engine panel monitor the heater supplies.
When the aircraft is on the ground the current is limited by a resistor in series with
the power supply.
Nitrogen is stored at 1,500 psi in a reservoir. Nitrogen is piped via a stop valve to
a pressure reducing valve and non-return valve to a low-pressure reservoir.
Gauges monitoring the high and low pressure are on the right sill panel and
forward roof panel respectively. A relief valve in the low-pressure line vents at 52
p.s.i. to prevent too great a pressure build-up in the system.
Low-pressure nitrogen is fed to solenoid valve A and from there through solenoid
B to a control ram, which operates on the control column linkage. A dump valve
operated from a STALL DUMP VALVE lever on the centre console is coupled to
this part of the circuit, and when the lever is set to DUMP, pressure in the line is
released and prevents further operation of the stick pusher until the lever is reset.
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Automatic ignition is signalled from the lower two of four Ferranti-type probes
located on each side of the forward fuselage. It is switched on at a predetermined
incidence, which is modified by slat position and Mach number and remains on as
long as the incidence is at or above this value. Indication of igniter operator is
shown on the engine start panel. The system is brought into operation earlier
whenever the slats are in or whenever 0.74M is exceeded. The system, which is
physically shared with, but electrically isolated from the stall identification system,
consists of two computer units, two mach switches and two angle of incidence
probes. One of the two igniters on each engine is coupled to its associated
computer, thus providing a completely duplicated and independent system.
9.18.8 STALL WARNING
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Stick Shaker
Figure 49
9.18.9 STALL IDENTIFICATION
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The system reverts to normal operation once the stall-warning signal is cancelled
by resuming normal flight.
When the stick shakers operate, a priority circuit receives signals from each of
the computer units of the stall warning system. The first signal received is
passed to the stall identification interlock relays to arm the solenoid valves circuit.
The signal from the stall identification probes is fed to the appropriate computer
unit, and when the signal reaches a particular value, the unit supplies a 28 volt dc
output. The value of the signal can be changed by combinations of the flap and
slat position compensation. The signal is passed through the lift rate modifier so
that a quick rate of change of the probe angle causes an advanced signal,
provided that has been preceded for 0.7 seconds by a stick shaker signal.
The computer unit output is passed through a priority circuit to the stall
identification relay in the interlock circuit. Providing the sequence is correct, this
completes the circuit to the solenoid valves that open to allow nitrogen to the
rams that extend to move the control column forward. The warning horn in each
system sounds when the respective stall warning and stall identification computer
units both signal, which is simultaneous with control column movement.
Both solenoid operated selector valves are opened by a stall identification signal.
The opening of each valve is indicated by the associated red light on the
overhead panel, and the subsequent movement of the ram is indicated by the
STALL IDENT amber light adjacent to the airspeed indicators on each pilot's
panel also coming on.
The system is pneumatically powered from a HP nitrogen bottle that feeds the
stick pusher ram through a reducing valve, an LP reservoir and the two solenoidoperated selector valves. A gauge on the forward roof panel indicates the
pressure in the low-pressure reservoir and another on the right sill panel indicates
the pressure in the HP bottle. Minimum HP pressure for flight is 500 p.s.i. When
pressure falls to 32 PSI, the LP red light on the forward roof panel comes on.
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9.19.1 INTRODUCTION
FBW is a control system that receives inputs directly by electrical signals. The
flying control actuators are electro-hydraulic design converting electrical signals
into movement of a hydraulic ram.
Many systems on the aircraft use electrical signals to automatically control the
flight path. It is a natural development to integrate the pilots input with these
automatic controls. Correcting signals can be sent directly to the control actuator
as well as those sent by the pilot.
An optical fibre cable consists of multiple glass fibres, each about as thick as a
human hair. The cable can carry pulses of light without amplification and without
electromagnetic interference. One fibre can carry over 9,000 simultaneous
signals.
Fibre optics transmits information using:
Lighter in weight
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The pilot is the main controller of the aircraft controls. There are, however, other
inputs as follows:
Mach trim will deflect the tailplane or elevators to compensate for changes in
aircraft attitude at high Mach Numbers due to rearward movement of the
centre of pressure
Airspeed The aircraft engines can also be controlled to give fully automatic
programmable airspeed.
The flight controls keep the aeroplane at the desired attitude during flight. They
consist of movable surfaces on the wing and the empennage. The flight controls
change the lift of the wing and the empennage.
There are two types of flight controls: the primary flight control system and the
high lift control system.
9.19.8 777 PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM
The primary flight control system (PFCS) uses a fly-by-wire control system with
digital and analogue electronic equipment. It receives commands from the flight
crew and the autopilot and causes the control surfaces to move.
The PFCS controls the attitude of the airplane during flight. The control surfaces
operated by the PFCS are:
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The high lift control system (HLCS) uses a fly-by-wire control system with digital
electronic equipment. It receives commands from the flight crew and causes the
flaps and slats to move.
Operation of the HLCS increases the wing lift so the aeroplane can takeoff and
land at lower speed and higher weight. The high lift devices operated by the
HLCS are:
Operation of the HLCS also causes the ailerons and the flaperons to move. They
droop on both wings when the high lift devices extend.
9.19.10
Reduced weight
9.19.11
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Purpose
The primary flight control system (PFCS) controls the aeroplane flight attitude in
relation to the three basic axes:
Longitudinal
Lateral
Vertical.
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Roll Control
The roll control uses the ailerons, flaperons, and spoilers to control the aeroplane
attitude about the longitudinal axis. During a bank of the aeroplane, the aileron
and flaperon on one wing move in an opposite direction from the aileron and
flaperon on the other wing. The spoilers move up only on the down wing and do
not move on the up wing.
Pitch Control
The pitch control uses the horizontal stabiliser and the elevator to control the
aeroplane attitude about the lateral axis. The stabiliser controls long term pitch
changes. The elevator supplies short term pitch control.
Yaw Control
The yaw control uses the rudder to control the aeroplane attitude about the
vertical axis. The rudder has a tab, which moves to increase the effectiveness of
the rudder.
Speedbrakes
The PFCS also includes the speedbrakes. In addition to roll control, the spoilers
also act as speedbrakes in the air and on the ground. They deploy on both wings
to increase drag and to decrease the amount of lift the wings supply.
9.19.13
The pilots or the autopilot commands control the PFCS. The pilots can override
the autopilot.
9.19.14
MANUAL OPERATION
Position transducers change the pilots' manual commands of the control wheel,
the control columns, the rudder pedals, and the speedbrake lever to analogue
electrical signals. These signals go to the four actuator control electronics
(ACEs). The ACEs change the signals to digital format and send them to the
three primary flight computers (PFCs).
The PFCs have interfaces with the aeroplane systems through the three flight
controls ARINC 629 buses. In addition to command signals from the ACEs, the
PFCs also receive data from:
The PFCs calculate the flight control commands based on control laws and flight
envelope protection functions. The control laws supply stability augmentation in
the pitch and yaw axes and flight envelope protections in all three axes. The
digital command signals from the PFCs go to the ACEs.
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The ACEs change these command signals to analogue format and send them to
the power control units (PCUs) and the stabiliser trim control modules (STCMs).
The ACEs and the PCUs form control loops, which control the surfaces based on
the PFCs commands.
One, two or three PCUs operate each control surface. One PCU controls each
spoiler, two PCUs control each aileron, flaperon, and elevator, and three PCUs
control the rudder. The PCUs contain a hydraulic actuator, an electrohydraulic
servo valve, and a position feedback transducer.
When commanded, the servo valve causes the hydraulic actuator to move the
control surface. The position transducer sends a position feedback signal to the
ACEs. The ACEs then stop the PCU command when the position feedback signal
equals the commanded position.
Two STCMs control hydraulic power to the motors and brakes of the horizontal
stabilizer.
9.19.15
AUTOPILOT OPERATION
The PFCs receive autopilot commands from all three autopilot flight director
computers (AFDCs). The PFCs use the autopilot commands in the same manner
as the pilots' manual commands. In addition, the PFCs supply the backdrive
signals to the backdrive actuators through the AFDCs. The backdrive actuators
move the control wheels, control columns, and rudder pedals in synchronisation
with the autopilot commands. The movement of the flight deck controls supplies
visual indications to the flight crew.
9.19.16
The PFCS has three modes of operation: normal, secondary, and direct.
Normal mode operates when the necessary data are available for the PFCs
and the ACEs. All the control laws, protection functions, and the AFDCs
operate.
When the PFCS detects the loss of important air and attitude data, the PFCS
operation changes to secondary mode. The PFCs and the ACEs operate but
the PFC control laws and protection functions downgrade. The autopilot
cannot operate in secondary mode.
In direct mode, the PFCs are not used. The ACEs set the position of the
control surfaces in direct response to analog pilot control inputs.
9.19.17
The control wheel, control column, and rudder pedal position transducers are
below the flight deck floor in the forward equipment centre. The speedbrake lever
position transducers are in the control stand. The location of these transducers is
shown in other sections.
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The E1, E2, and E3 racks contain most of the electronic equipment of the PFCS.
The E1 rack contains:
The L1 ACE
The L2 ACE.
The SAARU.
a. General
ARINC 629 digital data buses supply the principal means of communication
among aeroplane systems. Three dedicated flight controls ARINC 629 buses
connect the PFCS to:
Physical separation of the buses, and redundant LRUs, protects against multiple
failures due to one event.
b. PFCS Interface
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The three primary flight computers (PFCs) and the four actuator control
electronics (ACEs) have interfaces with the flight controls data buses.
The L PFC, C PFC and R PFC receive data from all three flight controls data
buses but transmit data only on their on-side data bus. (On-side means that the
relationship is with equipment of the same side. For example, the left bus is the
on-side bus for the left PFC.)
Each ACE receives data from all three PFCs through the three flight controls data
buses. Each ACE processes control data from its on-side PFC. If this data is not
valid, the ACE processes data from an alternate PFC. The ACEs process some
data from the other PFCs at all times. For example, this occurs during data
validation and voted commands. The ACEs transmit only on their on-side bus.
c. AFDS Interface
The autopilot flight director system (AFDS) interfaces with the PFCS through the
autopilot flight director computers (AFDCs). Each AFDC transmits to its on-side
flight controls data bus, but receives data from all three buses. The AFDCs
receive backdrive commands, engagement status, and other data from the PFCs.
The AFDCs transmit pitch, roll and yaw commands and engage requests to the
PFCs.
d. AIMS Interface
The two AIMS cabinets receive data from all three-flight controls data buses, but
normally transmit only to their on-side bus. During tests on the ground, the AIMS
cabinets transmit also to the centre bus.
The PFCS supplies information to the AIMS for:
The primary display system (PDS), (flight, synoptic, and EICAS displays)
The central maintenance computing system (CMCS)
The aeroplane condition monitoring system (ACMS)
The flight management computing system (FMCS)
e. ADIRS Interface
The air data inertial reference system (ADIRS) consists of the air data inertial
reference unit (ADIRU) and the secondary attitude air data reference unit
(SAARU).
The ADIRU and SAARU supply air data variables and inertial data to the PFCs.
The ADIRU receives data from all three buses and transmits data to the left and
right flight controls data buses. The SAARU also receives data on all three buses,
but transmits data only to the centre flight controls data bus.
f. Air Data Modules
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Six air data modules (ADMs) supply pitot and static air data to the ADIRU and the
SAARU. The ADMs transmit these data through the flight controls ARINC 629
buses.
Figure: PFCS - FLIGHT CONTROLS ARINC 629 BUS INTERFACES
PFCS - SYSTEMS ARINC 629 BUS INTERFACES
General
Many components of the PFCS transmit to and receive information from other
aeroplane systems. Data on the systems ARINC 629 buses goes through the
AIMS data conversion gateway function and then to the flight control ARINC 629
buses. The PFCS uses information from:
The flap/slat electronics units (FSEUs)
The proximity sensor electronics units (PSEUs)
The left and right systems card files.
The PFCS transmits information to the left and right warning electronic units
(WEUs).
The PFCS also uses radio altimeter data supplied through AIMS.
FSEU Interface
The FSEUs supply flaps and slats signal to the PFCs for the gain functions of the
control laws. These signals show the retracted or not retracted condition of the
flaps and the slats. The FSEUs also supply a signal to the ACEs.
PSEU Interface
The PSEUs supply truck tilt signals and associated fault messages to the PFCS.
The truck tilt signals are used together with the weight on wheels and radio
altimeter functions to operate the auto speedbrake.
Systems Card Files Interface
The two systems card files supply signals from the hydraulic interface module
(HYDIM) cards and the weight on wheels (WOW) cards to the PFCS.
The HYDIM cards supply hydraulic systems condition signals to the PFCS. They
also supply data about the truck tilt pressure sensors.
The WOW cards supply air/ground signals to the PFCS. These signals supply
air/ground information to the PFCS.
WEU Interface
The PFCS sends stabiliser and rudder trim position signals to the WEUs. The
WEUs supply a takeoff warning if the stabiliser is out of green band or the rudder
trim is out of normal limits.
The PFCs receive stall data from the WEUs for stall protection.
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PCUs.
Rudder Trim Selector and Manual Trim Cancel Switch
The rudder trim selector and the manual trim cancel switch supply signals to the
ACEs. These signals show the pilot commands for rudder trim.
Pitch Trim Switches
The pitch trim switches supply signals to the ACEs to show the pilot pitch trim
commands.
Flight Control Position Transducers
The flight control position transducers supply electrical inputs to the ACEs. They
show the position of the:
Control wheel
Control column
Rudder pedals
Speedbrake lever.
Flight Control Force Transducers
The pitch and roll force transducers supply signals to the ACEs. The signals show
when the pilot applies a force to the control wheel or control column.
FSEUs
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INTENTIONALLY BLANK
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CONTENTS
10 SYSTEM LAY-OUT....................................................................... 10-1
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.10
10.11
10.12
10.13
10.14
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10 SYSTEM LAY-OUT
The purpose of the fuel system is to store and deliver fuel to the engines and the
apu. An aircraft must be able to carry sufficient fuel to enable the engines to
operate over long periods. to meet this requirement there must be some way of
storing this fuel safely and supplying it to the engines in a suitable condition and
at a controlled rate.
A typical fuel system therefore will consist of a number of tanks, fuel lines,
connections and fittings, which are compatible with all types of fuel meeting
engine and apu specifications.
Often, the fuel system is subdivided into storage, refuelling, distribution, transfer,
venting and indicating subsystems.
The following example of a system layout is for a typical large commercial twin
aircraft. The number of tanks and system complexity will vary from aircraft to
aircraft. Clearly a four-engine aircraft will have more components than a twin.
The figure shows a typical fuel cell layout
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Whatever the construction method, fuel tanks should be shaped so that almost all
the fuel is available to the engine. Awkward pockets which prevent fuel from
leaving the tank are undesirable and are avoided if possible.
10.1.1 Rigid Metal Tanks
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A protective covering may be fixed to the outside of a flexible fuel tank. The
covering is not special to type and similar covering materials are used to protect
different types of tank. The protective covering usually consists of several layers
of fabric, or fabric and rubber, which are cemented to the material of the tank with
adhesives. When a tank is fitted with a protective cover it, in general, becomes
stiff enough to support its own weight and retain its shape. However, when the
various metal fittings are added, the tank will sag and it needs support when
fitted.
Some tanks, which do not have protective covers, are reinforced by nylon fabric
or net. This type of reinforcement does not stiffen the tank, which remains very
flexible and limp. This type of tank cannot support its own weight and is the type
which is sometimes called a bag tank.
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These coverings have been developed to reduce the magnitude of a fuel leak if,
for any reason, the fuel tank is pierced or ruptured. The self-sealing covering is
usually made from layers of cellular rubber with an overall protective cover of
glass fabric or nylon fabric on the outside. This type of rubber is a material that is
immediately affected by contact with fuel. If a tank leaks, the cellular rubber
swells on contact with the fuel and forces its way into the puncture to block the
hole and reduce or stop the leak. Unfortunately, minor leaks may remain
undiscovered for some time until the self-sealing cover begins to swell and bulge
on the outside.
10.2.3 Attachments and Fittings
To complete a flexible fuel tank, provision must be made for attaching fuel system
components and for joining each tank into the fuel system. The fuel tank is
constructed with moulded connectors and apertures of an appropriate size and
position but because of the flexible nature of the material, each aperture needs to
be reinforced before a system component can be fitted. Each aperture is
strengthened and stiffened by fitting a metal attachment ring. The attachment
rings are sometimes called stud rings or bolt rings.
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The majority of aircraft carry fuel only in wing and centre tanks. However, a few
extended range aircraft will have an additional integral tank in the vertical
stabiliser. Aircraft manufacturers number fuel tanks, in which case the philosophy
will be from left to right, nose to tail. Generally, fuel tanks are numbered as shown
in Fig 4.
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Before assembly, all the structural parts that become integral fuel tanks are
cleaned to a particular specification; the clean parts are immediately coated with
a special sealant and assembled wet. It is important that the joints are finished
(rivets closed or bolts tightened) before the sealant sets. This first coating of
sealant is called the interfay and it should bond with all parts of the joint. After
the joint is tightened it is necessary to remove the surplus sealant that has been
squeezed out as the joint closed. After cleaning the work, a neat coating of
sealant is applied at the edges of the joint; this coating is called the fillet (see the
figure) and it should be strong enough to cope with any flexing between the parts.
A final brush-on coat of sealant is applied to overlap the joint and fillet. Interfay,
fillet and the brush-on coat are part of the standard treatment for sealing integral
fuel tank structures and all use a similar sealant. As an aid to quick production,
the joint can be covered by a barrier coating of a quicker drying substance. The
barrier-coating material is not the same as the sealant used for jointing and it will
not prevent or cure leaks. The barrier-coat becomes tack-free in a relatively short
time and it is applied over partially cured sealants to reduce the possibility of
contamination from swarf, when work must continue in the area of an uncured
joint. To extend the leak-free life of the integral fuel tank, take great care when
handling or working on the skin area which covers the integral fuel tank.
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Generally speaking, large commercial aircraft have three tanks in each wing,
inner fuel tank, outer fuel tank and a surge tank. On some aircraft the fuel tanks
are referred to as fuel cells. A centre tank is sometimes available as a standard
option.
Each fuel tank has additional space for 2% expansion of the fuel without spillage
into the surge tank. Removable access panels are provided in the lower wing
surface. The centre tank, if fitted, is accessible through manholes in the rear
spar.
10.3.2 Water Draining
Water drain valves are provided at low points of each tank. All valves may be
opened with standard tools and the outer seal of the valve is replaceable without
emptying the tanks.
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A typical system has a water scavenge system fitted in the optional centre tank.
Two jet pumps using tappings on the tank pumps for motive power, collect water
from low points and discharge it towards the fuel pump inlet. Removable access
panels are provided in the lower wing surface. The optional centre tank is
accessible through two manholes in the rear spar.
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10.4
SUPPLY SYSTEMS
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Multi tank fuel systems can use a low-pressure fuel booster pump in each tank as
shown.
Location of Pump Canister Assemblies
Figure 11
The pumps are located in collector tanks which are equipped with check valves
which provide a one way fuel flow.
10.5.3 Engine Fuel Feed (Collector Tanks)
Rather than use booster pumps in each tank, some aircraft fuel systems use
groups of tanks that feed collector tanks as shown in the diagram.
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Another multi tank system is the use of fire cells. In normal conditions, each
engine is supplied from one pump in the optional centre tank or both pumps in the
tank of its own wing. Any one pump can supply the maximum demand of one
engine. A cross-feed pipe, controlled by a double motor actuated spherical plug
valve, allows both engines to be fed from one side or all the fuel to be used by
one engine. The valve is mounted on the rear spar in the centre section.
Two plug-in a.c. driven booster pumps supplied from different busbars are fitted
in each tank. Each pump has a suction inlet. On each side, the two pumps in the
wing tank and one pump in the centre tank (when fitted) deliver fuel via a built in
non-return valve into a single pipe. The pumps in the wing tanks are fitted with
pressure relief sequence valves that ensure that when all pumps are running, the
centre tank pumps will deliver fuel preferentially. No sequence valves are
provided on a two tank version aircraft.
In each wing tank the pumps are located in a collector box. The box is fed by
gravity through flap non-return valves. This ensures that the system can continue
to supply fuel under negative g or transient manoeuvres. A bypass is provided
at the pumps to permit gravity feed.
Air release valves are fitted to the feed lines.
The supply of fuel to each engine can be shut off by an engine LP valve mounted
on the front spar. This is a spherical plug valve driven by a double motor
actuator. To provide the maximum integrity, the two actuators are supplied from
different busbars and the cables are routed separately.
Controls and indications for pumps and crossfeed valves of the feed system are
located on the overhead panel. In normal operation, all wing pumps will remain
on throughout the flight. If a centre tank is fitted, switching of pumps is automatic.
If there are no malfunctions, no action is required during flight.
The engine LP valves are controlled by operating the engine fire handles.
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Pumps employed in aircraft fuel systems differ in size, shape, output, etc.
However regardless of type and any special features they may have, they all
operate on the same principle and consist of very similar components.
Each tank is normally provided with two fuel pumps. They are all identical and
interchangeable. These pumps are installed in the canister assemblies to enable
replacement without de-fuelling the tank.
The fuel pumps are centrifugal pumps driven by 115 volts, three phase motors.
The output of each pump is about 250-300 litres per minute. Maximum fuel
pressure at zero flow is about 38 p.s.i.
Each pump includes a non-return and a by-pass valve.
The by-pass valve is to reduce the pressure drop allowing an engine to be
operated on suction feed up to about 6000 feet.
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Fig 14
Some pumps have special features that are dictated by the aircraft role and any
design requirements namely:
a. Pressure relief valve.
b. Non-return valve.
c. AC DC motor.
d. Thermal trip devices.
e. Cannister shut off valve to facilitate pump replacement with fuel in the tanks.
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Cannister Assembly
Figure 15
10.6.2 Jet Pumps
These are another method of transferring fuel around an aircraft fuel system.
They use fuel bled from the booster pump which is continually fed through the
central nozzle into a venturi. The depression created in the venturi draws fuel
from the surrounding tank, in through the filter then up through the venturi tube
and either into the next fuel tank or straight to the collector box.
JET PUMP
FIGURE 16
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Figure 17
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Sequence valves are fitted to give an automatic transfer from one tank to another,
the following example is for an aircraft with pumps in the centre tank, inner tank
and outer tank.
The valve limits the fuel pressure of the outer tank pumps from 38 psi to 17.5 psi.
This is to give priority to the inner tank fuel pumps for structural reasons.
When the inner tanks are empty, the engines will be automatically supplied from
the outer tanks So the outer fuel pumps run continuously.
Sequence Valves
Figure 18
10.6.4 Transfer Valves
The example at figure 13 shows the fuel tank split into two cells at rib 15. To
enable transfer to take place, two transfer valves are fitted in this instance at rib
15. Operation of these valves is actuated by a signal from low level sensors
shown just inboard of rib 2.
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LP Valve
Figure 19
The L.P. shut off valve enables isolation of the fuel system in the event of fire and
engine maintenance, i.e. engine removal. Located at the top of the pylon on the
outside of the front wing spar it will be controlled normally be operation of the fire
handles and activated by either a pair of electric motors or mechanically as
shown above.
10.6.6 Cross Feed Valve
Cross-feed Valve
Figure 20
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The cross feed valve enables fuel to be fed to any engine from any tank.
Normally of a spherical type construction with two 28 VDC electric motors
mounted on a differential gearbox. One motor only will drive the valve at any
time, the other motor is a back up. The cross feed valve would normally be fitted
on the rear spar as shown in the figure.
10.7 APU FUEL FEED
The feed to the APU is taken from the left engine feed but may be taken from the
right engine feed when the cross feed valve is open.
The tank booster pumps can supply fuel to the APU at the required pressure. For
starting the APU without electrical power available for the tank pumps, a separate
pump is provided that can be operated from the aircraft batteries and is mounted
in the feed line on the rear spar of the centre section.
The supply of fuel to the APU can be shut off by a valve mounted on the rear spar
of the centre section. It is a spherical plug valve driven by a double motor
actuator. To provide the maximum integrity, the two actuators are supplied from
different busbars and the cables are located in separated routes.
The feed pipe emerges from the top of the tank and passes through the
pressurised fuselage in a drained and vented shroud that extends to the APU fire
wall.
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Jettison System
Figure 22
Because of electrical emergency situations, the valve will be driven by two 28
VDC electric motors. The motors are mounted from the outside and are attached
to the bottom of the tank through a gearbox and in many instances are
interchangeable with the cross feed valves.
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Fuel Jettison
Figure 24
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The jettison operation is controlled from a jettison panel located either on a flight
engineers station or from an overhead panel on a two crew configuration.
Normally the panel is protected by a quick release cover.
In the following example, two switches are provided to operate the jettison valve.
i.
ii.
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10.10
10.10.1 General
An air vent is fitted to the top of each tank to allow free flow of air in and out of the
tank as the fuel level rises and falls. This is known as inwards and outwards
venting and is required to prevent over pressurisation of the tanks as the fuel
level rises and depressurisation as it falls.
10.10.2 Venting Due to Heat
This is a very simple method of venting tanks which requires only that fuel tank
vent orifices be connected to a vent pipe gallery, which leads to atmosphere
directly. Venting of this type is found mainly in small aircraft; some helicopters
and aircraft with low flight ceilings.
The disadvantages of open orifice or open vented tanks are that they are
subject to fuel venting during manoeuvres, they limit the maximum ceiling of the
aircraft due to the fact that fuel boils at the low ambient atmospheric pressure
found at altitude; danger of cavitation in fuel supply lines if fuel should boil;
increased rate of evaporation (REID VAPOUR PRESSURE) leading to a greater
fire risk.
REID VAPOUR PRESSURE (RVP) the rate at which fuel gives off vapour.
Obviously there are many inherent problems with the open vented system. It is
for many reasons that most aircraft fuel systems are pressurised.
10.10.4 Pressurised Fuel Tanks
On most large aircraft, the fuel tanks are vented through a pipe connected to the
surge vent tank. The vent pipes are sized to prevent tank overpressure in the
event of a refuel cut off failure.
In the example shown, the centre tank vent pipe is connected to the left-hand
surge vent tank.
The inner and outer tank pipes are connected to the relevant side surge vent
tank.
The centre tank vent pipe ends inside the surge vent tank at the top. The inner
and outer vent pipes end about 3 centimetres above the bottom of the surge vent
tank.
These ends are arranged so that any fuel overflowing into the surge vent tank is
drawn back into the wing tanks by suction, as long as one or more fuel pumps are
running. On some aircraft fuel pumps are fitted to pump the fuel back to the
tanks from the surge tank and will be activated by a float switch.
Each vent tank is vented to atmosphere via the NACA valve.
This valve ensures tank pressurisation during flight and allows the fuel to flow out
in the event of a high level cut-off failure during refuelling.
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On some aircraft a frangeable disc is fitted in the surge tank to prevent structural
damage caused by over pressure. A flame arrester is also fitted in the NACA
intake in case of ground fires.
Venting System
Figure 26
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Figure 27
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The use of the centre wing box as a tank on some aircraft has made it necessary
to protect this area against leaking fuel. A vapour seal is installed around the
forward and lower part of the tank. The space between the tank sink and the
vapour seal is ventilated with air coming from the air conditioning system. The air
is directed to the outside through several small outlets. If the tank has a fuel leak,
the vent air line will collect this fuel and drain it through these outlets.
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10.11
Cross-feed Valves permit the transfer of fuel from any tank to any engine,
whereas Transfer Valves enable fuel to be transferred from tank to tank.
10.11.1 Auto transfer
When an aircraft has a wing with lateral dihedral the fuel pumps will normally be
inboard and the fuel flow towards the wing root. When the wing contains more
than one tank, the outboard tank will automatically transfer into the inboard tank
and so be the first to empty. Since the inboard tanks will be feeding the engines,
a transfer valve between the inboard and outboard tanks will be opened
automatically, whenever a high level float switch in the inboard tank detects it
being not full.
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Figure 32
10.11.2 Manual transfer
No in-flight transfer of fuel between left and right mainplanes is possible for
reasons of trim. However fuel can be fed from any tank to any engine by means
of boost pump selection and the opening of a crossfeed valve from the flight
deck.
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10.12
Provision is made to display fuel tank quantity, boost pump low pressure,
crossfeed valve and fuel/fire shut off valve position, on the flight deck overhead
panel. Though the layout will vary from aircraft type to type, generally it will be
similar to the examples shown below.
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Additionally, aural and visual warnings on the glare shield will result if the fuel
system develops a fault.
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10.13
FUEL LEVEL SENSING
A modern aircraft will use thermistors to send signals through amplifiers to
actuate warnings, sequencing, etc. Older aircraft may use float switches as
shown in the following diagram.
High level sensing is installed to prevent an overfilling of the fuel tanks. When the
fuel washes around the respective sensor, the:
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If during refuelling the high level shut off system fails, fuel enters the adjacent
vent tank and washes around the overflow sensor. This is indicated by the amber
FULL light on the refuel panel.
10.13.3 Low Level Sensing
Calibration sensors are installed in centre tanks, inner tanks and trim tank. They
give a signal at a predetermined filling level in the trim tank for accuracy test of
the fuel quantity indication during refuelling. For the trim tank the calibration
sensor switching level is corrected by the stabiliser position.
10.13.5 Under Full Level Sensing
When the fuel quantity drops in either outer tank below a certain level, the
maximum flight speed (VMO) becomes reduced in order to protect the wing
structure. The sensor signals are sent to the ADC (Air Data Computer).
10.14
FUEL QUANTITY SYSTEM MEASUREMENT AND INDICATION
The system has the following tasks:
1
Measuring of the fuel quantity in the tanks.
2
Indicating of the fuel quantity on:
The fuel quantity indicator.
The pre-selector.
The ECAM system fuel page.
ECAM/EFIS.
3
Controlling of automatic refuelling.
4
Fuel quantity messaging to the flight management computer.
The system comprises:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
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10.15
PRINCIPLE OF CAPACITANCE GAUGING
A capacitor is an electrical device which stores electrical charge. The amount of
charge it can hold depends upon three physical properties of the capacitor itself,
namely:
a. The surface area of the plates.
b. The size of the gap between the plates.
c. The insulating material (dielectric) between the plates.
In a fuel tank capacitor stack two of the above are fixed, ie. the area of the
plates and the gap between them. The only variable is the dielectric which, in a
fuel tank, is either fuel or air or both. The amount of charge held in the capacitor,
when the tank is full, will be of a preset value. As the fuel level falls, the dielectric
will gradually change to air and the amount of charge stored will reduce. This
change in capacitance is sensed by a signal conditioner and the change in fuel
level is thus sensed.
10.16
FUEL QUANTITY INDICATING SYSTEM
Each tank has installed a group of probes arranged so that a minimum of one
probe is immersed at all times, the number of probes will vary from aircraft to
aircraft. The following example is from a wide-bodied twin fitted with a fuel trim
system.
The number of probes is:
6 in each outer tank.
6 in each inner tank.
4 in the centre tank.
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The probes of each group are wired in parallel and connected to a summing
adapter, located on the wing rear spar. The probe level signals are sent to the
fuel quantity computer.
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The purpose of the index compensator is to sense the different types of fuels,
additives, etc. and make correction signals for accurate fuel readings.
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10.16.2 Measurement
The signals from the capacitance probes in each tank are sent via adapters to the
fuel quantity computer. The computer calculates the fuel quantity. To increase
the measuring accuracy, further signals enter the computation:
10.18
REFUELLING
As you will be aware, as any liquid flows through a pipeline, it will produce Static
Electricity. If this static electricity were allowed to discharge in the presence of
aviation fuel vapour, an explosion would result, with possible catastrophic results.
To therefore minimise the explosion risks, the following guidelines must be
followed.
Safety Precautions:
Use correct grade of fuel (Av-gas, Av-tur, Av-tag).
No smoking within 15m.
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Refuelling a small aircraft is no more complex than filling the family car. One
limitation is that on some aircraft it is not possible to fly the aircraft with all the
seats occupied with full baggage allowance, when the tanks are full. This means
that if the aircraft is to be flown fully loaded, it may be necessary to re-fuel to less
than full, to keep the aircraft within its weight limits.
As the aircraft become more complex, the refuelling exercise has to be carried
out with more care. If the aircraft is small but has say, two tanks in each wing,
and the fuel load is to be three quarters full; then it may be the rule for that aircraft
that the inner tanks have to be filled to the top first and the remainder put into the
outer tanks. This puts less bending load on to the wing spars.
When we get to larger aircraft, there are several further problems to consider. Not
only must the aircraft be filled laterally in the correct order but, if the aircraft has
the fin, tailplane and rear fuselage tanks mentioned earlier, it must be refuelled in
the correct order longitudinally as well to ensure the aircraft stability is
maintained.
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Modern large aircraft utilise pressure refuelling, which has replaced open line
refuelling on most aircraft with high fuel capacities. The time taken to fill a Boeing
747 through a normal hose and nozzle system would take hours. With pressure
refuelling, a large diameter hose is rigidly connected to a coupling in the aircraft
and fuel under pressure of about 40 psi is pumped into the aircraft tanks. To
assist this operation, most aircraft can have the total fuel load pre-set at the point
of connection so that the aircraft stops the refuelling at the correct time. The
illustrations show the location and layout of a typical, Boeing 777, refuelling
panel.
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Fuel flows from the refuel adapters into the refuel/jettison manifold. When the
refuel valves open, fuel flows from the manifold into the fuel tanks. A flow tube at
the end of each refuel valve decreases the exit force of the fuel. The flow tube
also puts the fuel in different parts of the tank.
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As each tank reaches full, the high level sensor signals the refuel valve to close
to stop fuel flow. When all refuel flow ceases, fuel that is left in the refuel/jettison
manifold goes through the manifold drain valves and into the main tanks. The
manifold has two vacuum relief valves. These valves permit air into the manifold
when the fuel leaves via the manifold drain valves.
Refuel Manifold Drain Valve
Fig 43
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If a refuel system failure prevents the refuel valves from closing, fuel goes into the
surge tanks. If the fuel gets to the level of the surge tank float switches, the switch
closes, and all refuel valves are closed.
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10.19
DEFUELLING
Defuelling a pressure type fuel system is almost the reverse of the refuelling
procedure. A de-fuel bowser would be connected to the single fuel point coupling,
and using a combination of both the bowsers suction pump and the aircrafts own
fuel supply booster pumps, selected tanks can have their contents returned to the
bowser.
10.20
LONGITUDINAL BALANCE FUEL SYSTEMS
The weight of the fuel is a large percentage of an aircrafts total weight, and the
balance of the aircraft in flight changes as the fuel is used. These conditions add
to the complexity of the design of an aircraft fuel system. In small aircraft the fuel
tank or tanks are located near the centre of gravity so the balance changes very
little as the fuel is used. In large aircraft, fuel tanks are installed in every available
location and fuel valves allow the flight engineer to keep the aircraft balanced by
scheduling the use of the fuel from the various tanks. High performance military
jets and more modern civil aircraft will use a fully automatic fuel scheduling
system to reduce the workload on the flight crew.
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10.21
In supersonic flight the aerodynamic centre of pressure moves aft, thus changing
the longitudinal stability. This was compensated in aircraft like Concorde, by
moving the centre of gravity, shifting fuel as necessary between the fuel tanks in
the rear fuselage and the wings as shown in the previous diagram.
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CONTENTS
11 HYDRAULIC POWER INTRODUCTION ...................................... 11-3
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
11.11
11.12
11.13
11.14
11.15
11.16
11.17
11.18
11.19
11.20
11.21
11.22
11.23
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11.24
11.25
11.26
11.27
11.28
11.29
11.30
11.31
11.32
11.33
11.34
11.35
11.36
11.37
11.38
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Fluid: A substance,
either a gas or a liquid,
which flows and
conforms to the shape of
its container.
Hydraulics: A fluid
power system, which
transmits force through
an incompressible
fluid.
Page 11-3
Pneumatics: A fluid
power system, which
transmits force through
a compressible fluid.
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The obvious advantage of electrical systems is that cables can be routed around
obstructions even easier than pipelines. They are also generally lighter in weight,
however, the power required to actuate landing gear and flight controls of large
aircraft, would require large electric motors powered by equally large (and heavy)
electrical generators, requiring high current cables connecting the system
components. Therefore, electrically operated systems are normally limited to light
aircraft.
11.1.3 PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
Some older type aircraft used pneumatics to operate brakes systems and
emergency landing gear extension systems. Modern, large transport aircraft use
high-pressure pneumatics to actuate systems in high temperature, fire hazard areas
such as; jet-engine thrust reversing systems and engine starting operations, also
cabin pressurisation and air-conditioning systems. However, the main disadvantages
over hydraulic actuation is its compressibility when actuating highly loaded systems
such as landing gears and flight control operations. Also, difficulty in detecting leaks
in the system, and problems with moisture and corrosion contamination have limited
the use of pneumatic power as a remote control system.
Pneumatic power has some advantages such as; lightness and return lines are
unnecessary.
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Compressibility of Fluids
Figure. 1
11.4 PASCALS LAW OF FLUID COMPRESSIBILITY
Power transmission in a closed hydraulic (or pneumatic) system, is best
explained by PASCALS LAW, which states: Pressure in an enclosed
container is transmitted equally and undiminished to all parts of the
container and acts at right angles to the enclosing walls. See figure 2
Container (a), shows that pressure produced by
a fluid in an open container is caused by the
height of fluid above the point at which the
pressure is measured.
The higher the fluid above the gauge, the
greater the pressure.
Container (a)
Container (b)
Pascals Law
Figure. 2
Issue 1 Mod 11.11
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RETURN
PRESSURE =
10Nf/mm2
FORCE A =
12,568Nf
40mm
PRESSURE =
10Nf/mm2
10mm
FORCE B =
11782.5Nf
40mm
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12568Nf
11782.5Nf
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Be as incompressible as possible.
Be chemically stable.
Must not foam during operation when subject to sudden pressure increases or
decreases.
Not all fluids have these properties, therefore, the only type of fluid allowed in a
specific hydraulic system is that recommended by the manufacturer of the
hydraulic components (specified in the Maintenance Manual).
Technical bulletins issued by the fluid manufacturer provide information about the
compatibility of the hydraulic fluids with various aircraft materials.
11.10
There are three basic types of hydraulic fluids used in aircraft hydraulic systems:
vegetable base, mineral base, and synthetic base.
1. Vegetable (Castor oil) base,
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DTD 900/4081
(MIL- H- 7644) - Golden yellow (or Blue) in
colour, used with natural rubber seals. It is inflammable, strips paint and attacks
synthetic rubber. It is toxic in a fine spray mist.
These systems can be flushed with alcohol. (Only found on very old aircraft types)
2. Mineral base,
DTD 585 (MIL- H- 5606) - Red in colour, used with synthetic rubber seals. It is a
kerosene-type petroleum product with good lubricating properties, but it is
inflammable and attacks natural rubber. It can be flushed with naphtha, varsol, or
Stoddard solvent. Neoprene seals and hoses may be used with this fluid.
Its density and lubricating properties vary with temperature.
3. Synthetic ester base,
SEALS
Seals are used throughout hydraulic and pneumatic systems to minimise internal
leakage and the loss of system pressure. The two main types of seals used in
aviation are:
a) Gaskets. These are used where there is no relative movement between
the surfaces. (Covers, inspection panels and end-plate sealing etc.)
b) Packings.
Used where relative movement does exist.
(Piston and actuator sealing, rotating shaft sealing etc.)
All rubber seals have a Shelf life starting from the Cure date (Date of manufacture)
This shelf life is dependant on the type of material, its use and the conditions of
storage.
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Note:
All rubber items should be stored in a constant, dry and relatively cool
environment, away from any form of Ultra-Violet (UV) light, (Sunlight or strong
artificial light) and ionised atmospheres. (Storage batteries and strong magnetic
fields). Such varying conditions and harsh atmospheres can cause rapid
deterioration and reduced self-life of all rubber components.
Rubber seals are supplied individually in hermetically-sealed packaging, the Cure
date being clearly marked on each package, together with the manufacturers part
number, Batch number and Mil Spec. The seals should be stored in their original,
unopened packaging until required for use. The issue of seals from the Bonded
Store should be as they are received. First in First Out
11.11.1
TYPES OF SEALS
There are many different types of seals available for a variety of applications. Most
can be broken down into six general designs:
Chevron/V-ring, U-section, Square section, O-ring, Bonded Seal, Wiper ring, Duplex,
One-way seals:
Both Chevron (V-ring) and U-section seals
derive their name from their shape. (See fig.
6a) These seals will prevent fluid flow in one
direction only. To prevent flow in both
directions, two sets of seals must be installed
placed back-to-back. (See fig. 6b)
Both seal types are used in very high-pressure
situations, normally with two or more seals
placed together as in fig. 6b.
Figure 6a
Chevron/V-ring & U-section Seals
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Figure. 7
Double Acting seal
Figure 9
Square Section Seal
Wiper Ring Seal: (Fig. 10) This type does not act as a
pressure seal, but as a scraper, by removing dirt, oil and
water from the piston shaft, preventing damage to the
pressure seal, thereby prolonging the pressure seal life.
Fig. 10
Wiper Ring Seal
Page 11-11
Fig. 11
Bonded Seal
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Figure. 12
The groove in which an O-ring seal
fits should be wider than the O-ring,
but the depth should be 10% less
than the O-ring diameter.
Chamfer:-
Correct
Incorrect
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11.12
As aircraft have become more complex, the demand for hydraulically operated
equipment has increased. Retractable landing gear, wing flaps, brakes, engine
cowl flaps, passenger doors and stairs, hydraulically powered flight controls, i.e.
elevators, rudders, ailerons, air brakes and lift dump systems, leading edge flaps
and slats. On modern aircraft, this demand has warranted the design of a
complete and independent, Hydraulic Power Supply System
Figure 14 shows a block diagram of a large, jet transport aircraft.
To aid in understanding the development of the systems, we will start with a very
basic hydraulic system and build on it as we discuss the various components.
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Figure 14
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11.13
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11.13.1
Hydraulic fluid, stored in the reservoir, is drawn into the hand pump via a pipeline
attached to the bottom of the reservoir, through a non-return valve (NRV) and
into the hand pump. The pump pushes the fluid through another NRV, via the
pressure pipeline, to a 3-position selector valve. Depending on the position
selected, it will either direct the fluid through a port, to one side of the doubleacting, linear actuator piston, or the other. Or it can be selected to the Off
position, which locks the fluid in the actuator and prevents any movement of the
piston in either direction. Fluid from the non-pressure side of the actuator piston,
is diverted back to the reservoir by another port in the selector valve via a return
pipeline.
By installing an Engine driven pump (EDP) (See figure 16) the pilot is relieved
from the physical task of hand pumping, which allows him to concentrate fully on
flying the aircraft. The hand pump is still retained however, and is used as an
Emergency back up, in case of an EDP failure. The hand pump is also used for
testing the hydraulic system when the aircraft is on the ground during servicing
operations and to build up the pressure in the system to operate the brakes
before the engines are started.
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The use of an EDP creates a problem in that the pump is still maintaining
pressure in the system when it is not needed during cruise flight, thereby wasting
valuable engine power. The pump absorbs very little power when it is not moving
fluid against an opposition. This problem is overcome by the installation of a
pump, unloading valve. (Also called an; Automatic Cut-out valve). This valve
relieves the pressure off the pump by diverting the fluid back to the reservoir. The
fluid circulates freely from the pump, to the reservoir and back to the pump again
with no opposition, thereby using very little engine power. The selector valve
holds fluid trapped in the actuator, preventing any movement, or creep of the
piston rod. (The actual operation of the unloading valve (cut-out valve) will be
discussed in detail in a later section.)
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11.14
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
11.15
INTRODUCTION
RESERVOIRS
The reservoir stores the hydraulic fluid. It supplies fluid to the system through a
pump and receives the return fluid from the system. It accommodates the extra
fluid caused by thermal expansion and compensates for slight leaks, which may
occur throughout the system. Through its design, it provides a reserve supply of
fluid for emergency operation of systems which are essential for flight control and
landing. This is done by the installation of a standpipe (stackpipe). It should also
be observed that when the actuator piston rod is moved inwards, less fluid is
required as the piston rod occupies space within the cylinder. With the actuator in
this position, the surplus fluid is stored temporarily in the reservoir until the piston
travels in the opposite direction.
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11.16.1
VENTED RESERVOIR
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11.16.2
PRESSURISED RESERVOIR
Construction
1.
Welded Aluminium Alloy.
2.
Pressurised via a Pressure Reducing Valve (PRV) from Engine
Compressor/ Bleed air, Cabin pressure, or from a Nitrogen storage
cylinder.
3.
Fluid quantity sight glass. (Indicating Max, Min, and Normal Operating fluid
levels)
4.
Max, pressure relief/ depressurising valve.
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5.
6.
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Pressurised Reservoir
Figure 21
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11.16.3
Hand pump.
Level indicator.
Selector Valve
SELECTOR VALVE
SHOWN CLOSED
FWD
PRESSURE FILL
CONNECTION
TO SYSTEM A
RESERVOIR
HAND
PUMP
FILTER
FILL
SUPPLY
TO STANDBY
AND B
SYSTEM
RESERVOIR
SUCTION HOSE.
(STAYS WITH
AIRCRAFT)
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11.16.4
FILTERS
The extremely small operating clearances in modern hydraulic pumps, valves and
components, require very effective filtration of the fluid. Therefore, filters are rated
by the size of particles, which they can arrest. The size of these particles is
measured in Microns.
One micron is equal to one millionth of a meter or 0.000039 inch. An indication
of just how small these particles are can be seen by the information in Fig. 23.
(e.g. Particles as small as 40 microns are just visible with the naked eye)
Filters, which will remove particles less than 10 microns will maintain a very clean
fluid
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There are several types of filtration designs, two of the most common types used
are shown in Fig 24. The paper element type, is made of specially treated paper
folded into pleats to increase its surface area. The micronic element is wrapped
around a spring wire coil to prevent it from collapsing under hydraulic pressure.
Such filters normally have a bypass valve across the filtering element in case the
filter becomes blocked with contamination, in which case the fluid bypasses the
filter allowing unfiltered fluid into the system rather than starving the system
completely of fluid.
Aircraft hydraulic filters are fitted at strategic locations throughout the system.
The main locations being:
L.P. (Low pressure) filter.
H.P. (High Pressure) filter.
By- pass filter.
Filters
Figure 24
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11.17
ACCUMULATORS
11.17.1
PURPOSE
a.
b.
c.
CONSTRUCTION
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11.17.3
CHARGING OPERATION
AN812, High Pressure (HP) Air Valve for Accumulators and Air-Oil Shock Struts.
Figure 26.
11.17.4
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Charging Valves
Figure 28
Deflation Cap
Figure 29
Figure. 29. Shows a special cap for safely deflating an accumulator, or air-oleo
strut under controlled conditions.
Screwing on the cap progressively, pushes the valve core off its seat slowly,
allowing gradual de-pressurisation to take place.
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11.18
Figure 30
Issue 1 Mod 11.11
Figure 31
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11.19
HAND PUMPS
Single-action, piston type pumps, move fluid on one stroke only, while doubleaction pumps move fluid on both strokes. Most modern aircraft hydraulic systems
use the double-action type because of their greater efficiency.
Figure 32 illustrates the operating principle of a typical double-action hand pump.
This type is called a Piston rod displacement pump because the pumping action
is caused by the difference in area between the two sides of the piston, due to
the piston rod area displacement.
In view (A), the handle is pulling the piston to the left. Fluid is drawn in through
the inlet check valve, When the piston reaches the end of its stroke, chamber 1
is full of fluid and the inlet check valve closes by the action of its spring.
As the handle is moved to the right, as in view (B), the piston is pushed to the
right, forcing fluid through the outlet check valve and into chamber 2. The
volume of chamber 2 is smaller than chamber 1 because of the piston rod
area, therefore, the excess fluid is displaced through the outlet port.
On the return stroke, (To the left again) the remainder of the fluid in chamber 2
is also displaced through the outlet port. At the same time, a new charge of fluid
is being drawn into chamber 1, from the inlet port, through the inlet check valve.
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11.20
This is a low-pressure pump, (Approx. 100 psi) whose prime function is to provide
a positive pressure to the inlet side of the main system pressure pump, to prevent
cavitation. It is located between the reservoir fluid supply and the Engine-driven
pump (EDP) inlet. The pump can be mounted independently, or attached to the
reservoir.
It is normally powered by a 3-phase electric motor, and in some cases, by a
hydraulic motor driven by system pressure.
Many modern hydraulic pumps have a Spur-gear type pump built into the body
of the main pressure pumps. (This will be discussed in more detail under Variable
displacement, piston type pumps).
In the event of a boost pump failure, The EDP (Main pressure pump) and system
will still operate, but at a possible reduced efficiency with a risk of cavitation of the
EDP. in severe cases.
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11.21
POWERED PUMPS
The only function of a pump is to move fluid through the system. There are a
number of ways powered pumps can do this.
The two basic types are:
1.
Constant Volume/Fixed displacement (Non-self idling). Figures. 33 & 34.
2.
Constant Pressure/Variable displacement (Self-idling). Figures. 43 & 44.
A Constant Volume/Fixed displacement, (Non-self idling) pump moves a
specific volume of fluid for each revolution of the drive-shaft. It requires some
form of Regulator, or Relief valve (Sometimes called a; Cut-out, or Unloading
valve) in the system to relieve the pressure which builds up when the pump
delivers more fluid than the system requires. (See Figs. 16, 17, and 33.).
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The left-hand gear is driven by the engine through a splined shaft. This gear
rotates in a close fitting housing and drives the right-hand gear housed in the
same manner. As the gears rotate in the direction shown, fluid is transported
between the teeth around the outside of the gears, from the inlet side of the
pump. When the teeth mesh with each other, in the outlet chamber, fluid is
displaced into the outlet side of the pump.
A very small amount of fluid is allowed to leak past the gears and around the
shaft for lubrication, cooling, and sealing. This fluid drains into the hollow shafts
of the gears where it is picked up by the low pressure on the inlet side of the
pump.
A relief valve holds the oil in the shafts until it builds up to about 15 psi. This is
called; case pressure. This is maintained so that, in the event of the shaft, or
seal, becoming scored, fluid will be forced out of the pump rather than air being
drawn in.
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11.21.2
PISTON PUMPS
Aircraft hydraulic systems that require a relatively small volume of fluid under a
pressure of 2,500 psi or more, often use fixed-angle, Multi-piston pumps as
shown in fig. 28.
a
This type of pump consists of a bronze cylinder block, rotated by a splined drive
shaft, driven by the engine, through a universal link. The cylinder housing is
mounted at a fixed angle to the drive shaft and bearing housing. The cylinder
block usually has seven, or nine axially-drilled holes, which accommodate,
High precision, close fitting pistons. These in turn are attached by a ball-jointed
rod to a pump drive plate which is rotated by the engine. As the piston and
cylinder block assembly are rotated by the drive-shaft, the pistons on one side
(upper pistons) are at the bottom of their stroke, and open to the Inlet port. due
to the angle of the housing. The pistons on the opposite side (Bottom pistons)
are then at the top on their stroke, open to the Outlet port. (See fig. 35)
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A valve plate with two crescent-shaped openings cover the end of the
cylinders. One above the pistons moving up, thereby pushing fluid through the
Outlet port. The other, above the pistons moving down, drawing fluid into the
cylinder, through the Inlet port.
b
In this type of fixed volume pump, the cylinders are arranged radially around an
eccentric crankshaft. (See Fig.29A & B). When the crankshaft is rotated, the
pistons move outwards in each cylinder, forcing pressurised fluid into the annular
outlet port through each cylinder delivery valve. When each piston is at the
bottom of its stroke, the pistons uncover the inlet port, allowing a fresh charge of
fluid to enter each cylinder.
The fresh charge of fluid is then
compressed as the piston moves
outwards again forcing fluid once more
through the delivery valve. This process
is repeated with each revolution of the
eccentric crankshaft
Typical Radial, Piston-type,
Hydraulic Pump - Side View
Figure 36
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Vane Pumps
These pumps are used in systems, which required moving a large volume of fluid,
but at relatively low pressures.
The vanes are allowed to float freely in slots machined in the rotor, and are held
in place by a spacer. This rotating assembly is attached to a drive shaft and is
driven by the engine, or, an electric motor. The rotating assembly is mounted
concentrically in a ported, steel sleeve which is pressed into a cast, aluminium
housing.
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11.21.3
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11.21.4
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The piston stroke is varied by a Yoke mechanism, sometimes called a Swashplate, or Cam. (See Figures. 43. & 44.) The pistons are attached to shoes that
rotate against the stationary Yoke. The angle between the Yoke and cylinder
block is varied, to increase, or decrease the piston stroke. This action is carried
out by a Servo Control Piston, which senses system pressure. This
pressure pushes the Servo Control Piston against the return spring pressure, and
reduces the Yoke angle, thereby, reducing the HP piston strokes. When the Yoke
is at 90 to the drive shaft, (Perpendicular to the pistons) the piston stroke is zero
and there is no flow of fluid, therefore, no load on the drive-shaft.
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11.21.5
STRATOPOWER PUMPS
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11.21.6
OPERATION
The forces which control the pump output and system pressure is between the
compensator spring and the compensator stem piston. Pump out-put pressure is
ported around the compensator stem which acts as a piston and opposes the
compensator spring. As the pressure increases, the stem piston compresses the
compensator spring.
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The spider, which is connected to the compensator stem, moves the sleeves up
and down the delivery pistons. When the pressure is high, the stem piston moves
the spider, compressing the compensator spring and uncovers the relief holes
near the bottom of the delivery pistons during the full stroke. This allows the fluid
to be dumped during the compression stroke to the inlet side of the pump,
preventing fluid flow through the check-valves and into the system.
The pump is allowed to deliver a small amount of fluid even at its minimum
stroke to ensure adequate lubrication and cooling of the pump at all times during
operation.
When system pressure drops, the compensator spring forces the stem and spider
assembly down the piston, covering the relief holes at the bottom of the delivery
piston stroke. This prevents bleed-off of fluid during the compression stroke. The
compressed fluid is then forced out through the check valves and into the system
to meet the fluid demand. During any intermediate pressure condition the spider
sleeves cover the relief holes at some point along the discharge pistons stroke,
thereby maintaining system pressure and fluid flow to the required value. The
value of the compensator valve is set by the pressure adjusting screw, which
varies the tension of the compensator spring.
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11.22
A failure of the hydraulic supply circuit may have a disastrous effect on the
operation of the aircraft. If such an emergency arises, provision must be made to
supply the services which are hydraulically operated by some alternative source
of power. There are several ways in which this can be achieved;
a
Duplication of supplies,
11.23
HAND PUMPS
DUPLICATION OF SUPPLY
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Figure 48
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Multi-engined aircraft normally have one EDP mounted on each engine similar to
the one in Figure. 49. However, some aircraft like the Lockheed L1011 Tri-Star,
have one EDP driven by each wing mounted engine, (Nos. 1 & 3 engines.) and
two EDPs driven from the rear fuselage mounted engine. (No. 2 engine.) This is
to ensure adequate flow and pressure supply to a large and complex hydraulic
system and to cater for redundancy and continued safety in the case of an engine
or pump failure.
Modern Jet transport aircraft now have at least two hydraulic systems
completely independent of each other with duplicated actuation of all primary
hydraulically powered flight control systems. Figure 50 shows a schematic
diagram of the Boeing 737 hydraulic system. This consists of two Main systems
(Systems A & B) with EDPs drawing fluid from separate reservoirs and a
Standby system as an additional back-up in case of failure of one or both main
systems.
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11.25
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Some aircraft such as the Airbus 300 series and B767 use hydraulic pumps
operated by air turbines, which are driven by bleed air from the engines. These
Air-turbine driven pumps (ATDP) receives pressurised air from the aircrafts
main bleed air system. The flow of air is controlled and modulated by a solenoid
operated pressure regulator and shut-off valve to maintain the turbine speed
within set parameters. The turbine is connected by a shaft to the pump. (See
figure 52)
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11.27
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11.28
Fig. 54
Hydraulic Ram Air Turbine (HYRAT) Pump Unit.
It is only deployed in the case of a major hydraulic failure to provide minimum
hydraulic supply for the safe recovery of the aircraft. The HYRAT may be
deployed automatically or by manual selection. Pressure output is governed by
varying the blade angle in response to aircraft speed and pressure demand.
Issue 1 Mod 11.11
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11.29
HYDRAULIC VALVES
The valves used in hydraulic systems may be divided into pressure control and
flow control valves.
a
A flow control valve selects and directs the flow of fluid through the system
or circuit in a particular direction and is not normally concerned with the
pressure.
11.30
11.30.1
The flaps are comparatively fragile and if they are lowered when the aircraft is
flying at high speeds, are liable to be damaged by the airflow. The flaps are
designed to be used only when the aircraft is landing or taking-off. To prevent
such damage occurring, a pressure relief valve is provided in the circuit. This
valve, which acts as a blow-back valve, bypasses pressure fluid in the Down
line to the return line. In effect, the valve enables the flaps to blow-back if they
are left down and the aircraft speed is increased. It also prevents the pilot from
lowering the flaps at high air speeds.
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11.30.2
PRESSURE REGULATORS
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reached between the fluid pressure on the ball, the spring pressure on top of the
piston, and the system pressure acting upwards under the piston. At the condition
of balance, when the pressure is 1,500psi, there will be a force of 1,500 pounds
(lbs) pushing up on the piston. The total downward force of 1,000 lbs applied by
the spring and a 1/3 of 1,500 lbs (500 lbs) of fluid force pushing down on the ball.
If the system pressure rises above this balanced pressure, the spring pressure is
constant and not effected by hydraulic pressure, therefore the piston will move up
and lift the ball off its seat. This allows the pump delivery (flow) to return to the
reservoir with very little resistance and therefore virtually zero pressure. The NRV
holds the pressure trapped in the system and the accumulator. This condition will
continue until the pressure in the system drops to 1,000 psi, at which point the
spring will force the piston down, allowing the ball to re-seat and the pressure will
rise again to the unloaded pressure of 1,500 psi. This gives a system cycling
pressure of: 1,000 1,500 psi.
11.30.3
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11.30.4
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OPERATION
Assume that the piston in figure 58 has an area of one square inch (1in) and is
held on its seat by the large spring with 100 pounds force (lbsf). The piston has
a shoulder area of square inch, which is acted on by the full 1,500psi. system
pressure. The reducer valve seat area is square inch (Same as piston
shoulder) and is acted on by the 200 psi reduced pressure. A small hole in the
piston bleeds fluid into the chamber behind the piston and the relief valve
maintains this pressure at 750 psi. This relief action is determined by the
pressure inside the piston cavity, acting on one side of the relief ball and the
spring, and reduced pressure (200 psi) acting on the opposite side. When the
reduced pressure drops, the hydraulic force on the ball drops, allowing it to
unseat. This decreases the hydraulic force on the piston and allows it to move up.
Fluid now flows into the reduced pressure line and restores the 200-psi. This
increased pressure closes the relief valve so that the pressure behind the piston
can again increase up to 750 psi and seat the valve. The small bleed hole also
prevents the piston from chattering by giving the piston a relatively smooth action.
The piston remains off its seat just enough to maintain the reduced pressure as it
is used.
11.31
Flow control valves in hydraulic systems control fluid flow and the direction of
flow. They may control manually (direct operation by flight or ground crew) or
automatically (by flow, pressure or remote sensing devices)
Flow Control valves can be mechanically, electrically or hydraulically operated.
The valves may be of the ball, sleeve, poppet, rotary, piston or sliding- spool type.
11.31.1
This valve is the simplest of all flow control valves and is used in most systems.
Its basic function is to allow fluid flow in one direction only. The different types
are shown in fig. 59. An NRV or Check valve, is always fitted just down-stream of
the pump to ensure there is no reverse-flow through the pump which could
cause damage to it when stationary or not in use.
Some applications require full flow in one direction and a restricted flow in the
other. This valve is known as a Restricted or Orifice Check valve (fig. 60)
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Fig 59
Fig 60
(Flapper Valve)
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11.31.2
SELECTOR VALVES
Selector valves may be considered to be the first valve in the Services System
and not part of the Power System.
The purpose of the Selector Valve is to direct fluid to the appropriate side of an
actuator, and to provide a return path for the fluid displaced from the opposite
side of the actuator, back to the reservoir. Many flow control valves are simple
four-way valves, connecting the pressure and return lines to alternate sides of the
actuator, without a neutral position, however, control valves in open-centre
systems often lock fluid in the actuator while providing an idling circuit for the
pump.
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Figures. 61. Illustrates the Ball, Rotary and Sliding-spool type valves, which are
normally used in relatively low-pressure actuation. Higher-pressure systems
require a more positive shut-off of fluid flow and Poppet-type selector valves are
often used.
OPEN CENTRE, POPPET TYPE, SELECTOR VALVE
OPERATION
When the Control Selector handle is in the
Neutral position, Poppet valve 3 is off its seat.
Fluid flows straight through the valve from the
pump to the next selector valve and on to the
reservoir. All the other poppet valves are closed.
When Gear Down is selected, movement of the
cams causes valve 3 to close, and valves 1 and
4 open, redirecting pump pressure to the Gear
Down side of the gear actuator, through valve 4
Fluid on the other side of the actuator piston is
then redirected back to the reservoir through
valve 1 via the return line. When the actuator
reaches the end of its travel, the pressure
increases to a specific value and operates a
mechanism, which returns the selector handle to
the neutral position, thereby closing valves 1
and 4 and reopening poppet valve 3
When Gear Up is selected, valve 3 once again
closes and valves 2 and 5 open. This directs
pump pressure to the Gear Up side of the
actuator through valve 2 Fluid on the other side
of the actuator is redirected back to the reservoir
through valve 5 via the return line. When the
actuator again reaches the end of its stroke, the
pressure increase is again sensed by the return
mechanism and the selector handle is returned
to the Neutral position, thereby closing valves 2
and 5 and reopening poppet valve 3 again.
Note: This type of selector requires a pressuresensing device which moves the selector handle
back to the Neutral position when the actuator is
fully extended or retracted.
Fig 62 Open Centre, Poppet Type, Selector
Valve
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With the solenoid energised, the pilot valve is held against the pressure seat,
and supply pressure acts on the left-hand side of the slide valve only. The right
hand side being open to return, thereby forcing the slide valve to the right. This
directs system pressure fluid to the actuator to retract its ram. Fluid from the
opposite side of the actuator, being open to return to the reservoir, via the return
line.
DOUBLE SOLENOID TYPE
This valve is similar to the single solenoid valve but is used
where the service has intermediate positions. With both
solenoids de-energised, the valve will hold the service in any
rigid position (Hydraulically locked) but with the supply
pressure isolated from the utility system.
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11.31.3
PRIORITY VALVES
These valves are similar to Sequence valves except they are opened by
hydraulic pressure rather than by mechanical means.
They are called priority valves because such devices as Wheel-well doors,
which must operate first, require a lower pressure than the Main Landing Gear.
The valve will shut off all the flow to the Main Gear until the doors have actuated
to the fully Open position and the pressure builds up at the end of the actuator
stroke. The priority valve senses the pressure build-up and opens, allowing fluid
to flow to the Main Gear actuators.
Fig. 65
Typical Priority Valve Operation
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11.31.4
SEQUENCE VALVES
Most modern aircraft with retractable landing gear have landing gear doors, which
close in flight to cover the wheel well to ensure a streamlined airflow. When the
gear is selected UP or Down, by the pilot, the gear doors must open first
before the gear starts to retract. For this reason, a Sequence Valve is sometimes
installed. These are usually similar in construction to Check valves (NRVs) which
allow a flow of fluid in one direction, but may be opened manually to allow fluid to
flow in both directions.
These valves are similar to Priority Valves regarding their function, by allowing
one hydraulic component to function before another is allowed to function. The
difference between them is that Priority valves are controlled by fluid pressure,
whereas Sequence valves are controlled by mechanical displacement of a
plunger, which moves a Ball valve off its seat to redirect fluid to another
component.
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The illustration in Fig. 67 (below) Shows the location and typical use of
Sequence Valves in a simple Landing Gear system. It explains the basic
sequence of operation as the gear is selected UP.
(a)
i
Ii
iii
Gear selected UP
Wheel-well door Fully OPEN
Gear retracting
(b)
i
ii
iii
Gear fully UP
Door Sequence valve OPEN
Wheel-well door Fully CLOSED
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11.31.5
HYDRAULIC FUSES
PURPOSE
These special valves are used to block off fluid flow if a serious leak should
develop. There are two types of hydraulic fuse. The first type shuts off the fluid
flow if the pressure drop across the fuse falls below a specified limit. The second
type shuts off the fluid flow after a specific amount of fluid has flowed through it
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11.32
POWER DISTRIBUTION
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POWER CIRCUITS
The power circuit supplies fluid to the component circuits and accommodates the
fluid returned from these circuits. The system varies with the type of aircraft and
may contain more than one Engine-driven pump (EDP). The circuit may be selfidling or non-self-idling. The self-idling circuit is designed to idle when the
working pressure has been achieved, while in the non-self-idling circuit the
pump supplies fluid continuously to the circuit and necessitates the installation of
an automatic unloading (cut-out) valve.
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11.34
COMPONENT CIRCUITS
Each component (system), has its own hydraulic circuit within the hydraulic
system. These circuits are usually connected to a common pressure line and a
common return line of a power circuit. Fluid expelled from each component circuit
is conveyed back to the reservoir by the return line.
11.34.1
FLAPS
The flap circuit illustrated in Fig 73 consists of port and starboard flap jacks,
synchronising jacks, and various components interconnected by pipelines. As
with the landing gear circuit, fluid is supplied by the main system power circuit, to
a control (selector) valve, via a Shut-off valve, which directs the fluid to the
desired end of the jacks, at the same time connecting the other end of the jacks
to the reservoir. A non-return valve before the control valve prevents operation of
other services, such as alighting gear, from interfering with the flaps.
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THROTTLING VALVE
During flight, it is essential that the Wing flaps are lowered and raised slowly to
prevent sudden change in the trim of the aircraft, therefore, a throttling valve is
provided in the circuit. This valve reduces the rate of flow of fluid to and from the
flap actuators and is normally situated in the DOWN line.
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OPERATION
With fluid pressure normal, fluid flows through the piston ports, but an increase in
the Inlet pressure or an increase in flow to the valve would increase the pressure
on one side of the piston which in turn will move the piston in the direction of the
flow. The leading needle valve approaches and restricts the outlet port, thereby
restricting the flow of fluid out of the valve. The design of the valve and strength
of the springs ensures that the needles will not seat and completely shut off the
flow.
SYNCHRONISATION
Owing to slight variations in jack volume or piston friction, or to unequal air
loading such as will occur when landing the aircraft in a crosswind, the rate at
which the port and starboard flaps move may differ. To minimise this possibility
the movement of the flaps is synchronised. The methods of synchronisation vary
and may consist of a single jack, mechanical linkage (cable), hydraulic
synchronisation valves or jacks.
The method of synchronisation varies with the type of aircraft, but the method
illustrated in Fig. 69 employs two additional jacks interconnected by transfer
pipes, which are not connected to the power circuit. The operation is as follows.
When the flaps travel in alignment, the fluid in the synchronising jacks is merely
transferred from one side of the piston in one jack, to the opposite side of the
piston in the other jack. There is normally a tendency for the travel of one flap to
be slower than the travel of the other flap. When this occurs, the synchronising
jack on the slow flap will provide an assisting force to the slow flap.
Example: Assume that Flaps Down has been selected and that the Port flap
tends to move down faster than the starboard flap. The piston in the port
synchronising jack would expel more fluid from D into A, therefore, pressure is
generated in A which, acting on the piston of the starboard synchronising jack,
produces an assisting force helping to keep the starboard flap in alignment with
the port flap. The fluid expelled from B is accommodated in C. (Fig. 74)
NOTE : Only the basic flap synchronising circuit is described and illustrated. In
the aircraft, provision must be made for priming, thermal expansion and
contraction; in some aircraft, the flap synchronising circuit is connected to the
power circuit.
A hydraulic lock will be formed between a non-return valve (or the
Control/Selector valve when selected in the OFF position) and the jacks. A
hydraulic lock or a closed circuit can be designed into a system as a Landing
gear protection device.
NOTE : In some aircraft the synchronising circuit is independent of the main
hydraulic circuit, the fluid in the circuit having no pressure except that built-up by
transfer.
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LANDING GEAR
The Landing gear circuit illustrated consists of two main undercarriage jacks, a
nose wheel jack, fairing door jacks and various components interconnected by
pipelines. Normally, fluid is supplied by the power circuit to the control valve,
which may be manually or electrically operated and directs the fluid to the desired
end of the jacks, at the same time connecting the other end of the jacks to the
reservoir. A non-return valve positioned before the control valve provides a
hydraulic lock in both UP and DOWN position, which ensures that the alighting
gear remains in its selected position, when any other service is operated.
11.35
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HYDRAULIC PRESSURE
Since the hydraulic bay is often some distance from the flight deck and to avoid
the inherent risk of hydraulic oil leaking onto electronic equipment, no oil pipes
run directly to the flight deck instruments.
On all modern aircraft, electro-hydraulic transducers fitted in the hydraulic bay,
relay pressure information for each system to the flight deck. In this way all
hydraulic lines stay out of the pressure cell. Instead, electrical cables are routed
from each transducer to some form of ratiometer or solid state liquid crystal
display (LCD), calibrated to read hydraulic pressure.
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11.37
HYDRAULIC QUANTITY
The quantity of oil in the reservoir of each system will be relayed to a quantity
gauge on the flight deck by means of a float switch in the tank. Alternatively, a
capacitance type detector can be employed. Both types cause a voltage change
at the gauge corresponding to a change in oil level in the tank. The gauges can
be calibrated to show the actual quantity (litres) or displayed as a percentage of
full.
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Additionally, a low level switch can be fitted in the reservoir or within the
gauge/indicator which will trigger visual and aural warnings, when the level
reaches a pre-calibrated minimum value.
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Hydraulic Temperature
The system may be fitted with a temperature transducer relaying system
temperature to a gauge, but normally this is unnecessary. Usually, all that is
required is a temperature switch, usually in the return line as it enters the
reservoir, to trigger the visual/aural warning if the temperature should exceed a
pre-determined maximum value. Such temperature sensors are often associated
with electric motor driven hydraulic pumps and may monitor the temperature of
the motor windings as well as actual oil temperature.
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11.38
Hydraulic Power is used for the operation of a large number of aircraft systems.
These include:
Spoilers
Nosewheel Steering
Windscreen Wipers
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Contents
12 ICE FORMATION, ........................................................................ 12-3
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.10
12.11
12.12
12.13
12.14
12.15
12.16
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12 ICE FORMATION,
12.1 CLASSIFICATION AND DETECTION INTRODUCTION
The operation of aircraft in the present day necessitates flying in all weather
conditions and it is essential that the aircraft is protected against the build up of
ice which may affect the safety and performance of the aircraft.
Aircraft designed for public transport and some military aircraft must be provided
with certain detection and protection equipment for flights in which there is a
probability of encountering icing (or rain) conditions.
In addition to the requirements outlined above, certain basic standards have to be
met by all aircraft whether or not they are required to be protected by the
requirements. These basic requirements are intended to provide a reasonable
protection if the aircraft is flown intentionally for short periods in icing conditions.
The requirements cover such considerations as the stability and control balance
characteristics, jamming of controls and the ability of the engine to continue to
function.
12.2 FACTORS AFFECTING ICE FORMATION
Ice formation on aircraft in flight is the same as that on the ground; it can be
classified under four main headings, i.e. Hoar Frost, Rime, Glaze Ice and Pack
Snow. Dependent on the circumstances, variations of these forms of icing can
occur and two different types of icing may appear simultaneously on parts of the
aircraft.
Ice in the atmosphere is caused by coldness acting on moisture in the air. Water
occurs in the atmosphere in three forms, i.e. invisible vapour, liquid water and ice.
The smallest drops of liquid water constitute clouds and fog, the largest drops
occur only in rain and in between these are the drops making drizzle. Icing
consists of crystals, their size and density being dependent on the temperature
and the type of water in the atmosphere from which they form. Snowflakes are
produced when a number of these crystals stick together or, in very cold regions,
by small individual crystals.
12.3 TYPES OF ICE FORMATION
12.3.1 HOAR FROST
Hoar frost occurs on a surface which is at a temperature below the frost point of
the adjacent air and of course, below freezing point. It is formed in clear air when
water vapour condenses on the cold airframe surface and is converted directly to
ice and builds up into a white semi-crystalline coating; normally hoar frost is
feathery.
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When hoar frost occurs on aircraft on the ground, the weight of the deposit is
unlikely to be serious, but the deposit, if not removed from the airframe, may
interfere with the airflow and attainment of flying speed during take-off, the
windscreen may be obscured and the free working control surfaces may be
affected. Hoar frost on aircraft in flight usually commences with a thin layer of
glaze ice on the leading edge, followed by the formation of frost which gradually
spreads over the whole surface.
Again the effects are not usually serious, though some change in the landing
characteristics of the aircraft can be expected.
12.3.2 RIME ICE
This ice formation, which is less dense than glaze ice, is an opaque, rough
deposit. At ground level it forms in freezing fog and consists of a deposit of ice
on the windward side of exposed objects. Rime is light and porous and results
from the small water drops freezing as individual particles, with little or no
spreading, a large amount of air is trapped between the particles.
Aircraft in flight may experience rime icing when flying through a cloud of small
water drops with the air temperature and the temperature of the airframe below
freezing point. The icing builds up on the leading edge, but does not extend far
back along the chord. Ice of this type usually has no great weight, but the danger
of rime is that it will interfere with the airflow over the wings.
If the super-cooled droplets are small enough and the temperature is low, each
droplet freezes instantly on impact as an individual particle and being a nonadhesive dry powder in the slipstream the accumulation on the aircraft is not
serious. This is called "opaque rime".
12.3.3 GLAZE ICE
Glaze ice is the glassy deposit that forms over the village pond in the depth of
winter. On aircraft in flight, glaze ice forms when the aircraft encounters large
water drops in clouds or in freezing rain (or super-cooled rain) with the air
temperature and the temperature of the airframe below freezing point. It consists
of a transparent or opaque coating of ice with a glassy surface and results from
the liquid water flowing over the airframe before freezing. Glaze ice may be
mixed with sleet or snow. IT WILL FORM IN GREATEST THICKNESS ON THE
LEADING EDGES OF AEROFOILS AND IN REDUCED THICKNESS AS FAR
AFT AS ONE HALF OF THE CHORD. Ice formed in this way is dense, tough
and sticks closely to the surface of the aircraft, it cannot easily be shaken off and
if it breaks off at all, it comes away in lumps of an appreciable and sometimes
dangerous size.
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The main danger of glaze ice is still aerodynamic but also the weight of the ice
produces unequal loading and propeller blade vibrations. Glaze ice is the MOST
SEVERE and most dangerous form of ice formation on aircraft because of its
high RATE OF CATCH. Super-cooled rain is rare in the British Isles but is more
common on the Continent and East coast of North America.
12.3.4 PACK SNOW
Normally, snow falling on an aircraft in flight does not settle, but if the temperature
of the airframe is below freezing point, glaze ice may form from the moisture in
the snow. The icing of the aircraft in such conditions, however, is primarily due to
water drops, though snow may subsequently be embedded in the ice so formed.
12.3.5 HAIL
Hail is formed when water droplets, falling as rain, pass through icing levels and
freeze.
Air currents in some storm clouds (Cumulo-nimbus) may carry the hail vertically
through the cloud a number of times, increasing the size of the hailstone at each
pass until it is heavy enough to break out of the base of the cloud and fall towards
earth.
Aircraft encountering this type of ice formation may suffer severe damage in the
form of dented skin, cracked windscreens, blocked intakes and serious damage
to gas turbine engines.
12.4 AREAS TO BE PROTECTED
The following areas are critical areas on the aircraft where ice forms and
where protection is essential.
a. all aerofoil leading edges
b. engine air intakes (including carburettor intakes)
c. windscreens
d. propellers
e. pitot static pressure heads
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PROTECTION
The build up of ice on the aircraft is known as 'ice accretion' and, from the
foregoing, it is evident that if ice continues to be deposited on the aircraft one, or
more, of the following effects may occur.
a. Decrease in Lift
This may occur due to changes in wing section resulting in loss of streamlined
flow around the leading edge and top surfaces.
b. Increase in Drag
Drag will increase due to the rough surface, especially if the formation is rime.
This condition results in greatly increased surface friction.
c. Increased Weight and Wing Loading
The weight of the ice may prevent the aircraft from maintaining height.
d. Decrease in Thrust
With turbo-prop and piston engines, the efficiency of the propeller will decrease
due to alteration of the blade profile and increased blade thickness. Vibration
may also occur due to uneven distribution of ice along the blades.
Gas Turbine engines may also be affected by ice on the engine intake, causing
disturbance of the airflow to the compressor. Furthermore, ice breaking away
from the intake, may be ingested by the engine causing severe damage to the
compressor blades and other regions within the engine.
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This may occur due to displacement of the centre of gravity caused by the weight
of the ice.
g. Radio antennae
Reduced efficiency
h. Loss of Control
Loss of control may occur due to ice preventing movement of control surfaces.
(This is not usually a problem in flight but may occur on the ground).
12.4.2 EFFECTS OF ICING ON THE GROUND
The effects of ice accretion on the ground are similar to those occurring in flight
but the following additional effects may be caused.
a. Restriction of the controls may occur if ice is not removed from hinges and
gaps in the controls.
b. The take off run may be increased because of the increase in weight and
drag.
c. The rate of climb may be reduced because the weight and drag are
increased.
12.5 ICE DETECTION
The ANO Schedule 4 states that:
In the case of an aircraft of MTWA exceeding 5700 kg (12500 lb), means of
observing the existence and build up of ice on the aircraft must be provided.
The equipment will be carried on flights when the weather reports or forecasts
available at the aerodrome at the time of departure indicate that conditions
favouring ice formation are likely to be met.
12.6 METHODS OF ICE DETECTION
Ice detection systems use one of the following methods of detecting and
assessing the formation of ice.
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This consists of an aluminium alloy oblong base (called the plinth) on which ismounted a steel tube detector mast of aerofoil section, angled back to
approximately 300 from the vertical, mounted on the side of the fuselage, so that
it can be seen from the flight compartment windows. The mast houses a heating
element, and in the plinth there is a built-in floodlight.
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MAST
OUTLET HOLES
INLET HOLES
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTORS
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Should icing conditions persist and the detector heads again ice up, the cam is
automatically re-set and the time cycle repeated.The pilot will switch on the deicing system when the warning lights indicate icing conditions. In some systems
the warning phase is connected to automatically switch on the de-icing system.
This cycling will continue until such time that the icing conditions no longer exist.
12.6.3 SERRATED ROTOR ICE DETECTOR HEAD
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This ice detector senses the presence of icing conditions and provides an
indication in the flight compartment that such conditions exist. The system
consists of' a solid state ice detector and advisory warning light. The ice detector
is attached to the fuselage with its probe protruding through the skin. The ice
detector probe (exposed to the airstream) is an ice-sensing element that
ultrasonically vibrates in an axial mode of its own resonant frequency of
approximately 40 kHz.
SENSOR
UNIT
DETECTOR
PROBE
VIBRATING
ROD
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In this method of ice protection, ice is allowed to form on the surfaces and is then
removed by operating the particular system in the specified sequence.
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Ice is prevented from forming by ensuring that the ice protection system is
operating whenever icing conditions are encountered or forecast.
12.10
There are four primary systems used for ice protection. These are:
1. Fluid
2. Pneumatic
3. Thermal
4. Electrical
12.11
FLUID SYSTEMS
WINDSCREEN PROTECTION
The method employed in this system is to spray the windscreen panel with an
ALCOHOL based fluid. The principal components of the system are:
Supply pipelines
Spray tubes
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The diagram illustrates a typical aircraft system in which the fluid is supplied to
the spray tubes by two electrically driven pumps.
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The next diagram shows a hand pump installation on the HS 125 aircraft where it
is used as an auxiliary system.
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12.11.2
AEROFOIL SYSTEMS
The fluids used for aerofoil ice protection are all GLYCOL based and have
properties of low freezing point, non-corrosive, low toxicity and low volatility.
They have a detrimental effect on some windscreen sealing compounds and
cause crazing of perspex panels.
The components in the system are the tank, pump, filter, pipelines, distributors,
controls and indicators normally consisting of a switch, pump power failure
warning light and tank contents indicator.
When icing conditions are encountered, the system may be switched on
automatically by the ice detector or manually by the pilot.
Fluid is supplied to the pump by gravity feed from the tank and is then directed
under pressure to the distributors on the aerofoil leading edges. After an initial
'flood' period, during which the pump runs continuously to prime the pipelines and
wet the leading edge, the system is then controlled by a cyclic timer which turns
the pump ON and OFF for predetermined periods.
The leading edge distributors appears in one of two forms, i.e. strip and panel.
Strip Distributor
The distributor consists of a 'U' channel divided into two channels, called the
primary and secondary channels, by a central web. The outer part of the channel
is closed by a porous metal spreader through which the de-icing fluid seeps to
wet the outer surface. The primary and secondary feed channels are
interconnected by flow control tubes to ensure an even spread of fluid over the
outer surface.
The strips are let into the leading edge so that the porous element is flush with
the surface of the leading edge curvature. This type of distributor is rarely used
and would only be found on very old aircraft.
Panel Distributors
This type of distributor consists of a micro porous stainless steel outer panel, a
micro-porous plastic sheet and metering tube. The fluid passes through the
metering tube that calibrates the flow rate into a cavity between the plastic sheet
and a back-plate. This cavity remains filled when the system is operating and the
fluid seeps through the porous stainless steel outer panel. The airflow then
directs the fluid over the aerofoil.
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PROTECTION
The outer panel is usually made of stainless steel mesh although a new
technique of laser drilling of stainless steel sheet is appearing on some new
aircraft.
DISTRIBUTOR
PANELS
FILTER
VENT
MAIN
FEED
PIPES
GALLEY
PIPES
PUMP
TANK
DISTRIBUTOR
PANELS
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PROPELLER SYSTEMS
It is necessary to de-ice the propeller blade root and a section of the propeller
blade to prevent the build up which could change the blade profile and upset the
aerodynamic characteristics of the propeller. Uneven ice build up will also
introduce imbalance of the propeller and cause vibration. The leading edge of
the propeller blade is therefore de-iced and the ice is shed by centrifugal force.
The blade root has a rubber cuff into which the de-icing fluid is fed by a pipeline
from a slinger ring on the spinner back plate. From the cuff the fluid is spread
along the leading edge of the blade by centrifugal force.
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Fluid is fed into the slinger ring from a fixed pipe on the front of the engine.
PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
Pneumatic (or mechanical) systems are used for de-icing only, It is not possible
to prevent ice formation and works on the principle of cyclic inflation and deflation
of rubber tubes on aerofoil leading edges. The system is employed in certain
types of piston engine and twin turbo-propeller aircraft. The number of
components comprising a system and the method of applying the operating
principle will vary but a typical arrangement is shown.
The de-icer boots (or overshoes) consist of layers of natural rubber and
rubberised fabric between which are disposed flat inflatable tubes closed at the
ends. They are fitted in sections along the leading edges of wing, vertical
stabilisers and horizontal stabilisers. The tubes may be laid spanwise, chordwise
or a combination of each method. The tubes are made of rubberised fabric
vulcanised inside the rubber layers and are connected to the air supply by short
lengths of flexible hose secured by hose clips.
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Depending on the type specified, a boot may be attached to the leading edge
either by screw fasteners or by cementing them directly to the leading edge skin.
The external surfaces of the boots are coated with a film of conductive material to
bleed off accumulations of static electricity.
AIR SUPPLIES
The tubes in the overshoes are inflated by air from the pressure side of an engine
driver vacuum pump or, in some types of turbo-propeller aircraft, from a tapping
on the engine compressor. At the end of the inflated stage of the operating
sequence, and whenever the system is switched off, the boots are deflated by
vacuum derived from the vacuum pump or from the venturi section of an ejector
nozzle in systems using the engine compressor tapping.
12.12.2
DISTRIBUTION
The method of distributing air supplies to the boots depends on the system
required for a particular type of aircraft. In general three methods are in use:
12.12.3
The controls and indication required for the operation of a system will depend on
the type of aircraft and on the particular arrangement of the system. In a typical
system a main ON-OFF switch, pressure and vacuum gauges or indicating lights
form part of the controlling section.
Pressure and vacuum is applied to the boots in an alternating, timed sequence
and the methods adopted usually vary with the methods of air distribution. In
most installations, however, timing control is affected by an electronic device.
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OPERATION
When the system is switched on, pressure is admitted to the boot sections to
inflate groups of tubes in sequence. The inflator weakens the bond between ice
and the boot surfaces and cracks the ice that is carried away by the airflow. At
the end of the inflation stage of the operating sequence, the air in the tubes is
vented to atmosphere through the distributor and the tubes are fully deflated by
the vacuum source. The inflation and deflation cycle is repeated whilst the
system is switched on. When the system is switched off, vacuum is supplied
continually to all tubes of the overshoes to hold the tubes flat against the leading
edges thus minimising aerodynamic drag.
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The thermal (hot air) system fitted to aerofoils for the purpose of preventing the
formation of ice employs heated air ducted span-wise along the inside of the
leading edge of the aerofoil and distributed between double thickness skins.
Entry to the leading edge is made at the stagnation point where maximum
temperature is required. The hot air then flows back chord-wise through a series
of corrugations into the main aerofoil section to suitable exhaust points.
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The following diagram illustrates the principle of a thermal system using exhaust
gases to heat ambient air.
Ambient air enters an intake formed on one side of the engine nacelle and is
ducted to pass through tubes of a heat exchanger. The exhaust gases from the
jet pipe are partially diverted by electrically actuated flaps to flow between the
tubes of the heat exchanger before discharging to atmosphere.
The heated air from the heat exchanger passes to a duct containing an
electrically operated hot air valve before passing to the leading edges.
In the event of failure of the gas flap in the open position, an emergency manual
override facility is provided to close the hot air valve and open an actuator
operated spill valve to direct the hot air overboard.
The gas flap actuator and the hot air valve actuator are electrically interlocked in
such a way that the hot air valve must be fully open before the gas flap opens.
Conversely, the gas flap must be fully closed before the hot air valve closes. This
arrangement, controlled by the limit switches in the actuators, prevents
overheating of the heat exchanger.
Temperature control is automatic with a standby 'manual' facility. A control unit,
in conjunction with 'normal' control and 'overheat' thermistors, provides automatic
control and overheat protection. An overheat control unit, in conjunction with an
'override' thermistor and flame-stat provides a final overheat protection system.
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In this system, air is bled from a late stage of the gas turbine engine compressor
before being distributed to aerofoil leading edges in the same manner as the
exhaust system. The system may be used for anti-icing or de-icing purposes on
wing and tail leading edges. It may also be used for ice protection of engine
intakes
In principle, the system works by either maintaining the temperature of the skin
above that at which ice occurs or by raising the skin temperature to melt the ice
after it has formed. On aircraft with engines mounted on the rear fuselage,
distribution of air along the wing leading edges may be graded to give a higher
intensity of heating for the inboard section. This is to prevent the shedding of ice
accretions into the engine intakes of a size that could result in hazards to the
engine.
The following diagram illustrates, in schematic form, a thermal system for a four
engine aircraft.
In operation, anti-icing shut off valves on each engine open to supply air to the
leading edge ducting at temperatures of about 200C. Wing and fuselage cross
over ducts ensure a supply to all surfaces in the event of an engine shut down in
flight.
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or blockage of the ram air inlet, the overhead sensor will control the temperature
by regulation of the hot air valve.
Note: Temperature regulation may also be achieved by controlling the position of
the hot air valve.
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Electrical heater elements are attached to the outer surface of the area to be
protected. There are two methods; these being the heater mat and spray mat.
12.14.1
HEATER MAT
This type of element consists of two thin layers of rubber or PTFE sandwiching a
heater element. Each mat is moulded to fit snugly over the section to be
protected. Heater elements differ in design, construction and materials according
to their purpose and environment. The latest mats have elements made from a
range of alloys woven in continuous filament glass yarn.
The diagram below shows the application of a heater element to the air intake of
a turbo-prop engine.
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SPRAY MAT
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The system layout shows the distribution and heating elements on the leading
edges of an aircraft tailplane and fin.
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Anti-icing
Anti-iced areas have their heat supplied continuously, the heating intensity being
graded such that under operating conditions no ice formation occurs. The heat is
regulated by means of either a sensing element embedded in the mat and an
associated thermal controller or a surface mounted thermostatic switch which is
pre-set to give cut-in and cut-out temperature levels.
Cyclic De-icing
Cyclic de-icing areas are usually arranged in groups being connected to a cyclic
switch. The detailed design of the cycling switch depends upon the loading and
type of power supply, e.g. dc or 3-phase ac. Its operation is controlled either by
timed impulses from a pulse generator or by an electronic device built into the
switch.
The timed impulses are set to the appropriate rate for the range of ambient
temperatures likely to be encountered.
At a relatively high ambient temperature the atmospheric water content, and
consequently the rate of icing, is likely to be high but only a comparatively short
heating period will be required to shed the ice. At very low temperatures the
atmospheric water content and rate of icing are lower and longer heating periods
are required. The ratio of time ON to time OFF, however, remains unchanged.
The typical ratio is 1:10. Setting of the pulse generator may be manual, as
estimated from indications of ambient air temperature, or by an automatic control
system in which the ON:OFF periods are varied by signals derived from an
ambient air temperature probe, working in conjunction with either an ice detector
or a rate of icing indicator.
The source of power may be dc, single phase ac or 3-phase ac. In a 3-phase
system the heated areas are arranged so as to obtain balanced loading of
phases for both anti-icing or de-icing circuits, if possible. De-icing heaters are
connected in such a manner that, as far as practicable, current requirements are
constant. To achieve this the OFF period for certain areas is made to coincide
with the ON period for others.
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WINDSCREEN ANTI-ICING
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When the electrical power is applied, the conductive coating heats the glass.
When it attains a temperature predetermined for normal operation the change in
resistance of the appropriate sensing element causes the controlling device to
isolate the heating power supply. When the glass has cooled through a certain
range of temperature, power is again applied and the cycle is repeated. In the
event of a failure of the controller, the glass temperature will rise until the setting
of the overheat system sensing element is attained. At this setting an overheat
control circuit cuts off the heating power supply and illuminates a warning light.
The power is restored again and the warning light extinguished when the glass
has cooled through a specific temperature range.
12.15 WINDSCREEN CABIN WINDOW DE-MISTING SYSTEMS
Glass is a very poor conductor of heat and at altitude the low atmospheric
temperature will maintain the inside of the windscreens and cabin windows at low
temperature resulting in condensation on the inner surface and obscured vision.
Windscreens are normally kept mist free by blowing hot air, from the air
conditioning system, across the inner surface of the glass. In addition, demisting
of some windscreens and, usually, all cabin windows is achieved by using
windows of "dry air sandwich" construction.
This is rather like double-glazing with outer and inner layers of glass sandwiching
a layer of dry air between them.
The outer layer of glass is of thick laminate construction (glass and vinyl) to give
the necessary impact and shatterproof qualities. The inner layer of glass is much
thinner allowing it to be warmed by the cabin air temperature, thus preventing
condensation.
The air sandwich is kept dry to prevent internal condensation of the outer glass,
by one of two methods:
During manufacture the two layers of glass are hermetically sealed with dry air
between them.
The space between glass layers is vented to the cabin to allow the pressure in
the air space to equalise with cabin pressure. Venting takes place through a
desiccant unit that absorbs moisture from the air during the venting process to
maintain the dry air sandwich.
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ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
On some larger aircraft the fixed cabin windows are interconnected to a common
desiccant unit whilst escape windows have their own integral unit. The diagram
shows typical fixed window and escape hatch desiccant systems.
The desiccant used is Silica Gel crystals which are blue in colour but gradually
change to pink or white as they absorb moisture. Frequent checks must be made
on the state of the desiccant which must be replaced when it begins to turn pink.
Failure to take this action may result in condensation within the dry air sandwich
which may involve lengthy rectification to dry out the sandwich or may require the
windscreen/window to be replaced.
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PROTECTION
12.16
12.17
Vision through windscreens may become obscured by factors other than ice and
misting. For example, rain, dust, dirt and flies can impair vision to an extent
where methods of clearing the screens must be provided to enable safe ground
manoeuvring, take off and landing. Windscreen clearing systems may be
considered under the following headings:
a. Rain clearing systems which can be further broken down into
a.
windscreen wipers
b.
c.
rain repellent
d.
windscreen washing
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MODULE 11.12
ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
In this type of system the wiper blades are driven by an electric motor(s) taking
their power from the aircraft electrical system. Sometimes the pilot's and copilot's wipers are operated by separate motors to ensure that clear vision is
maintained through one of the screens in case one system should fail.
The following diagram shows a typical electrical wiper and installation. An
electrically operated wiper is installed on each windscreen panel. Each wiper is
driven by a motor-converter assembly that converts the rotary motion of the motor
to reciprocating motion to operate the wiper arm. A shaft protruding from the
assembly provides an attachment for the wiper arms.
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The wiper is controlled by setting the wiper control switch to the desired wiper
speed. When the "high" position is selected, relays 1 and 2 are energised. With
both relays energised, fields 1 and 2 are energised in parallel. The circuit is
completed and the motors operate at an approximate speed of 250
strokes/minute. When the "low" position is selected, relay 1 is energised. This
causes fields 1 and 2 to be energised in series. The motor then operates at
approximately 160 strokes/minute. Setting the switch to the OFF position allows
the relay contacts to return to their normal positions. However, the wiper motor
will continue to run until the wiper arm reaches the "park" position. When both
relays are open and the park switch is closed, the excitation of the motor is
reversed. This causes the motor to move off the lower edge of the windscreen,
opening the cam operated park switch. This de-energises the motor and
releases the brake solenoid applying the brake. This ensures that the motor will
not coast and re-close the park switch.
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The path swept by the wiper blade may clear an arc as shown in the diagram on
the left, or in a parallel motion as shown on the right. The parallel motion is
preferred as it provides a greater swept surface, but the operating mechanism is
more complex.
ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Older aircraft employed hydraulic motors instead of electric motors to drive the
wiper blades. A typical example is shown in the figure below. It consists of two
independently operated motors powered from each hydraulic system with control
valves operated from a selector on the flight deck
Figure 28
Mod 11.12 issue 1
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12.18.3
MODULE 11.12
ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
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PROTECTION
Operational Check
Before carrying out an operational check, the following precautions must be
taken:
a. Ensure that the windscreen is free of foreign matter
b. Ensure that the blade is secure and undamaged
During the check ensure that the windscreen is kept wet with water.
NEVER operate the windscreen wipers on a dry screen. It may cause scratches.
Adjustments
The following adjustments may be made:
a. Blade tension should be adjusted to the value stated in the Maintenance
Manual. This is carried out by attaching a spring balance to the wiper arm at
its point of attachment to the wiper blade and lifting at an angle of 90. If the
tension is not within the required limits, the spring may be adjusted by the
appropriate pressure adjusting screw.
b. Blade angle should be adjusted to ensure that the blade does not strike the
windscreen frame. This would cause rapid blade damage. This may involve
re-positioning the operating arm on the drive spindle. Where a parallel motion
bar is used, the length of the tie rod may be altered to vary the angle of
sweep.
c. Proper parking of the wipers are essential to ensure that they do not obscure
vision. If the wipers do not park as they should, they should be adjusted by
the method laid down in the Maintenance Manual.
Trouble shooting may be carried out using charts in the Maintenance Manual
(Chapter 30-42-0 in the ATA100 Scheme).
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12.19
MODULE 11.12
ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
Windscreen wipers suffer from two basic problems. One is that at speed the
aerodynamic forces tend to reduce the blade pressure on the screen and cause
ineffective wiping. The other problem is to achieve blade oscillation rates that are
high enough to clear the screen during heavy rain.
A windscreen washing system allows a spray of fluid (usually de-icing fluid, e.g.
Kilfrost), to be directed on to the windscreens to enable the windscreen wider to
clear dust and dirt from dry windscreens in flight or on the ground.
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PROTECTION
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12.21
MODULE 11.12
ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
RAIN REPELLANT
When water is poured onto clear glass it spreads evenly to form a thin film. Even
when the glass is tilted at an angle and subjected to an air stream, the glass will
remain wetted and reduce vision. However, when the glass is treated with certain
chemicals (typically silicone based), the water film will break up and form beads
of water, leaving the glass dry between the beads. The water can now be readily
removed.
This principle is used on some aircraft for removing rain from windscreens.
The chemical is stored in pressurised, disposable cans and is discharged on to
the windscreen through propelling nozzles.
Examples of rain repellent systems are shown.
The following system shows a combined rain repellent and windscreen washing
system.
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ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
The system shown below is a rain repellent only system and uses a disposable
pressurised canister.
If the system is inadvertently operated, the windscreen wipers must not be used
as this will increase the smearing. The screen should be washed with clean
water immediately. The windscreen wash system, if fitted, may be used.
Rain repellent residues can cause staining or minor corrosion of the aircraft skin.
Mod 11.12 issue 1
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12.22
MODULE 11.12
ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
On many large aircraft, the water supply and water drain lines are electrically
heated to prevent ice formation. Power is normally supplied via the AC bus line
and is available both on the ground and in flight.
12.23
Heater tapes and blankets are wrapped around some water supply and drain
lines, the temperature being controlled by thermostats. In a typical aircraft
(Boeing 757), the thermostats control the heating, to open when the temperature
exceeds 15.5C and closes when the temperature drops to 7.2C. Heating
gaskets may be installed on the ends of toilet drain pipes.
12.24
DRAIN MASTS
Drain masts are heated to allow in-flight drainage without freezing. Drain mast
heating is controlled by an air/ground relay. Low heat is supplied on the ground
and high heat in flight.
Figure 37 overleaf illustrates some of the heating methods used.
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ICE AND RAIN
PROTECTION
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
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LANDING GEAR
engineering
CONTENTS
13 LANDING GEAR .......................................................................... 13-1
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10
13.11
13.12
13.13
13.14
13.15
13.16
13.17
13.18
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13 LANDING GEAR
13.1 INTRODUCTION
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LANDING GEAR
13.2 GENERAL
Early landing gear designs consisted of two main legs set just in front of the
centre of gravity (C of G) of the aircraft and a small tailwheel at the rear end of
the fuselage. Putting the C of G just aft of the main gear, ensured the aircraft very
quickly attained flying attitude during take off.
All aircraft at that time, were propeller-driven types and the inclined fuselage gave
ample clearance between the propeller and the ground during taxiing, take-off
and landing.
However the main disadvantage of this configuration was the risk that the aircraft
was likely to nose over when heavy braking was applied and poor vision for the
crew during taxiing and the initial part of the take off run.
This problem was overcome by the development of the Tricycle configuration,
which is now used almost exclusively. This places the main landing gear aft of the
C of G and a supporting nose gear at the forward end of the fuselage. As aircraft
became larger and heavier, landing gear design included multi-leg and multiwheel configurations.
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engineering
13.3 CONSTRUCTION
All landing gears have to be attached to strong points on either the fuselage or
the wing structure, so that the landing loads can be absorbed and transferred
safely to the aircraft structure.
Smaller light aircraft use a steel leaf or tubular steel spring to act as an
undercarriage (figure 3). One end is attached to a strong point on the airframe
while located on the other end is the wheel and axle. The deflection of the spring
tube on landing absorbs the landing loads and transmit them to the airframe. A
properly conducted landing will not cause any undercarriage rebound.
BUNGEE SHOCK
CORD
Bungee Cord Type Landing Gear
Figure 4
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Larger more modern aircraft, require more complex and heavier retractable
systems (Figure 5). The larger the aircraft the larger the system. The components
remain similar just the size and quantities change (Figure 6). Each landing gear
unit is basically a wheeled shock absorber (oleo). A forged cylinder body is
attached to the airframe on trunnions to allow it to pivot when lowered and raised.
Articulated side stays are located between the cylinder body and airframe strong
points to give the landing gear strength and rigidity and allow the landing gearleg
to fold. Drag or bracing struts may also be fitted. These absorb the high
acceleration loads during take off and deceleration loads during braking.
MAIN SUPPORT FRAMES
TRUNNION
MAIN ACTUATOR
DOWNLOCK ACTUATOR
BRACING STRUT
DOWNLOCK LINKAGE
(TOGGLE LEVERS)
SIDE STAY
MAIN OLEO
PISTON
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MAIN ACTUATOR
DOWNLOCK
ACTUATOR
CYLINDER
BRACING STRUT
PISTON
SCISSOR
(TORQUE) LINK
WHEEL
DOUBLE
TANDEM
BOGIE
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LANDING GEAR
They provide greater safety. As the loads are spread over several wheels a
burst tyre is not so critical as the remaining wheels accept the extra loads.
Due to the large footprint the turning circle is increased to prevent the tyres
from crabbing and increasing wear.
The strut uses a compressed gas (normally nitrogen) combined with a specific
quantity of hydraulic oil to absorb and dissipate the shock loads. It is essentially
an outer cylinder into which an inner hollow piston is inserted.
When the aircraft is airborne, the landing gear is no longer supporting the aircraft
weight, consequently the piston fully extends under the influence of the nitrogen
pressure. The nitrogen gas being lighter than oil, will settle in the upper portion of
the cylinder with the heavier oil at the bottom. Since in this particular type of strut
there is no separator between the oil and gas, there will be some aeration (froth)
as the oil and gas mix together at the demarcation line.
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On landing, the inner piston is forced up into the outer cylinder, reducing the
internal volume. A tapered metering pin and snubber knob which are an integral
part of the piston, are forced into a snubber tube carried by the outer cylinder.
(See Figure 8).
OIL BLEED VALVE
NITROGEN/OIL
CHARGING VALVE
CYLINDER
FLAPPER
VALVE
(CLOSED
)
INNER
CYLINDER
SNUBBER KNOB
CYLINDER
SNUBBER
TUBE
METERING PIN
SNUBBER
KNOB
PISTON
(Strut Compressed)
Figure 8
PISTON
(Strut Extended)
Figure 9
Oil is forced into the upper chamber through a series of holes in the snubber tube
and through the open flapper valve. The tapered shape of the metering pin
steadily reduces the available orifice area as it compresses.
The landing energy is therefore absorbed by the oil, as it is forced through the
ever-decreasing sized orifice and by the compression of the nitrogen gas, as the
oil is forced into the reduced volume of the upper chamber.
The problem now is to absorb the recoil, to prevent the aircraft from bouncing
back up from the runway.
As the piston starts to extend, the oil is now forced downwards into the hollow
piston. The rate at which this transfer takes place is greatly restricted by the
flapper valve slamming shut, leaving only a reduced number of holes in the
snubber tube to permit transfer the oil. This restriction in flow and the associated
increase in internal volume, prevents rapid strut extension and thus dampens the
recoil energy. (See Figure 9).
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LANDING GEAR
In this design, the principle is exactly the same as the oleo-pneumatic without
separator type previously described. The main difference is the inclusion of a
floating piston, to separate the oil chamber from the nitrogen chamber and
therefore prevent oil and gas mixing together. It also means that the nitrogen
chamber does not have to be positioned at the top of the leg, or indeed be limited
to one chamber. This makes shock absorbing more efficient, less severe jolting
during taxiing and will simplify servicing (see later).
13.5.3 Liquid Spring
This type does not have a gas compartment. Instead, it relies on the fact that if a
piston is forced into a cylinder completely filled with oil under a static pressure,
energy absorption will take place due to oil compression.
Oil is generally considered to be incompressible, however it is a fluid and will
obey the same rules as for a gas. At normal hydraulic system pressures (typically
3000 psi), the amount of compression is negligible. However, in liquid spring
shock absorbers, pressures in excess of 60,000 psi will often be generated and in
this case the oil will be compressed.
During touchdown, the inner piston is forced up into the upper cylinder as before,
compressing the oil as the volume progressively reduces by what is known as,
jack ram displacement. A restrictor valve inserted as before, will absorb the
recoil in a similar manner to the previous two types.
13.6 SERVICING FILLING AND CHARGING
To guarantee the correct operation of the shock absorber, the strut must be
serviced in order to fill the leg with the proper quantity of oil. Additionally, the oil
must be completely free of air. The nitrogen chamber must also be charged to the
correct value in order to maintain the correct oil/gas ratio.
When correctly filled and charged, the strut will adopt the correct extension when
supporting the aircraft on the ground and the risk of the inner piston coming into
contact with the outer cylinder (bottoming) during touchdown will be eliminated.
Filling and charging procedures will vary between aircraft type, will be detailed in
the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) and must be strictly adhered to. A
general sequence of events to fill and charge a typical oleo-pneumatic without
separator type of strut (conforming to relevant health and safety regulations), is
detailed as follows:
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Normally the aircraft will be positioned on jacks with the wheels clear of the
ground.
Using an approved adapter, completely release the nitrogen pressure via the
charging valve and ensure the valve remains open after all pressure has been
dissipated.
Place a bottle jack under the strut and carefully compress the leg, pushing the
inner piston into the outer cylinder until it bottoms and the leg is fully
compressed.
Open the hydraulic bleed valve and pump oil into the oil filling connection until
fresh clean oil, completely free of air bubbles, emerges from the bleed valve.
The leg is now completely filled with oil to the correct quantity.
Close and tighten the oil charging valve and oil bleed valve.
Remove the bottle jack, connect a nitrogen rig to the nitrogen charging valve.
Slowly and carefully inflate the leg with nitrogen until the leg is fully extended
and the inflation adapter gauge shows the correct gas pressure obtained from
the AMM.
Close and tighten the nitrogen charging valve and remove the charging rig.
Repeat if required on the other main leg.
Lower the aircraft off jacks.
The legs are now properly filled and charged.
OIL BLEED POINT
OIL CHARGING
VALVE
OIL
OIL BLEED
SEPARATOR
SEPARATOR
CHARGING
VALVE
GAS
OLEO - PNEUMATIC WITH
SEPARATOR
Figure 10
LEG EXTENDED
Figure 11
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LANDING GEAR
GAS PRESSURE
(PSI)
(GAUGE PSI)
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When the selector lever is selected to GEAR DOWN a micro-switch on the lever
is made which powers up the hydraulic pump, the hydraulic pressure is then fed
to the uplock actuator valves to unlock the uplocks. Once operated, the uplock
hooks remain mechanically open under spring pressure. Movement of the
undercarriage legs break the uplock limit switches which indicates on the
instrumentation panel that the landing gears are in transit.(red triangles) and that
the undercarriage is unlocked.
The landing gear selector valve operates, and the down lines to the actuators and
the return lines to the reservoir are opened. The fluid pressure flows through the
selector valve to the actuators and extends the actuators. Once the main
actuators are fully extended and the undercarriage legs have mechanically
locked, excess pressure is bled back through the low pressure control valve to
the reservoir.
When all 3 wheels are down and locked, proximity switches send signals to a
control unit which turns the hydraulic pump off, closes the selector valve lines and
sends signals to the instrument panel indicating that the undercarriage is locked
down, (green triangles).
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LANDING GEAR
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SPOOL VALVE
SOLENOID
SOLENOID
MECHANICAL OVER-RIDE
LINKAGE
Selector Valve
Figure 13
13.9 UPLOCK MECHANISM
On large modern aircraft when the landing gear is being retracted the uplocks will
operate mechanically. A roller on the landing gear leg will locate and engage into
the uplock hook. Limit switches will sense when the landing gear leg has
engaged in the lock hook and will turn off the hydraulic pressure. The gear will
then be held retracted in place purely mechanically. (Figure 14)
LOCK LEVER ASSEMBLY
LIMIT SWITCH
Locked Uplock
Figure 14
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PLUNGER
UNLOCK ACTUATOR VALVE
UPLOCK HOOK
Unlocked Uplock
Figure 15
13.10
DOWNLOCK MECHANISM
The downlock actuator can have either a single or double direction operation
depending on the aircraft. A single direction operation would unlock the downlock
mechanism (upper and lower toggles) prior to retraction, the leg relying on its own
extension to provide the over centre lock. The double direction actuator will lock
the downlock mechanism on extension and unlock it prior to retraction.
Once the landing gear has been fully extended and is sensed by a limit switch
hydraulic pressure is directed to the downlock actuator which extends the
actuator piston. The piston acts against a toggle lever which move both toggle
levers to an over centre position. This over centreing of the toggle levers forms a
mechanical lock which prevents the landing gear leg from collapsing. (Figure 16)
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MAIN LEG
DOWNLOCK ACTUATOR
PROXIMITY SWITCH
SIDE BRACE
UPPER TOGGLE
LEVER
LOWER TOGGLE
LEVER
PROXIMITY SWITCH
CENTRE LINE
Linkage Downlocked
Figure 16
Once the aircraft has landed and parked up, a red flagged safety pin is inserted
through alignment holes in the toggle levers to prevent inadvertent collapse or
retraction of the landing gear on the ground. This safety pin is removed before
flight.
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On selecting the landing gear up, the hydraulic pressure is directed initially to the
downlock actuator and retracts the piston. As the piston retracts it moves the
lower toggle overcoming the mechanical lock, moving both toggle levers from the
over centre position to an under centre position, so that the landing gear can now
fold. (Figure 17)
MAIN LEG
DOWNLOCK ACTUATOR
PROXIMITY SWITCH
SIDE STAY
UPPER TOGGLE
LEVER
UNDER CENTRE POSIITION
LOWER TOGGLE
LEVER
PROXIMITY SWITCH
CENTRE LINE
Linkage Unlocked
Figure 17
13.11
The uplocks can be released manually if the actuator or hydraulic system fails. An
emergency landing gear lever, operated from the cockpit will act on and rotate the
hook locks, releasing the landing gear legs from the uplock hooks. The
emergency mechanism lever will also operate a lever on the landing gear selector
valve which will open all hydraulic lines to return. This allows the hydraulic fluid to
free flow through the system, to allow the landing gear to extend.
Once the uplocks are released the landing gear legs will extend under gravity and
aerodynamic forces. Spring or gas operated free fall assistors may be used to
help the gear extend. The proximity and limit switches will operate as normal
giving a cockpit indication of the gear in transit and down locked.
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LIMIT SWITCH
UPLOCK HOOK
UNLOCK ACTUATOR VALVE
CABLE
EMERGENCY
OPERATING HANDLE
To keep the aircraft as streamlined as possible and to reduce drag, the landing
gear is normally retracted into bays within the aircraft structure. However some
aircrafts landing gear do not fully retract into the structure and some access doors
do not fully enclose the landing gear.
The bays have access doors which open and close in relation to the movement of
the landing gear. Some doors are mechanically linked to the landing gear, by a
system of connecting rods, bellcranks and links, whilst other doors open and
close under operation from a hydraulic sequencing valve, signalled by microswitches or proximity switches via a control unit.
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To further reduce the drag some doors will close when the landing gear has been
extended. The landing gear doors may have a manual unlocking mechanism to
allow the door to be opened on the ground for access in carrying out
maintenance tasks and inspections.
Anything that jeopardises the sequence can cause considerable damage to the
aircraft structure and could lead to an unsafe landing condition. Door sequencing
relies on the movement of valves operated by the doors and the movement of the
legs. The sequencing valve can be therefore be either door operated or gear
operated.
13.12.1 Door Operated Sequencing System
Only when the door is fully open is pressure allowed to flow to the main actuator.
If the door is not fully open the main actuator remains isolated. Hydraulic
pressure is initially fed to the landing gear door actuator which operates to open
the door. When the door reaches its maximum travel it abuts against. and
depresses a plunger. (Figure 19) The movement of the plunger unseats a valve in
the sequence valve, which opens a gallery to allow fluid pressure to the main
actuator and extends the landing gear down.
TO DOOR ACTUATOR
PRESSURE IN
VALVE SEAT
PLUNGER
TO MAIN ACTUATOR
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Retraction of the landing gear is reversed. Pressure is fed to the main actuator
which retracts the landing gear leg. When the landing gear leg is fully retracted it
abuts against and depresses a sequence valve plunger. The movement of the
plunger unseats a valve in the sequence valve, which opens a gallery to allow
fluid pressure to the door actuator which closes the door. (Figure 20)
TO DOOR ACTUATOR
PRESSURE IN
VALVE SEAT
PLUNGER
TO MAIN ACTUATOR
SAFETY BARS
On some aircraft with hydraulically sequenced doors if the hydraulics system was
to fail, to allow the landing gear to lower, the wheels will forcibly open the doors.
This is done by the landing gear legs pushing against safety bars which are fitted
to the doors. The doors will open without being damaged and once operated the
doors will remain open.
13.14
All modern aircraft fitted with retractable landing gear will have a means of
indicating on the flight deck whether the legs are locked down, in transit or
correctly locked up. Additionally, a separate warning system may be included to
show faults, or to indicate that the legs are not in the position selected (nips).
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LANDING GEAR
RED TRANSIT
GREEN
LOCKED
DOWN
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ADDITIONAL NOSE
LOCKED DOWN GREEN
GREEN
LOCKED
DOWN
LIGHTS
AMBER FAULT
LIGHTS
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LANDING GEAR
Other methods can be mechanical indicators outside the aircraft, visible from the
cockpit. There may be painted indicator lines on the landing gear legs toggle
levers which align when the gear is down and locked. (Figure 24)
UNLOCKED
LOCKED
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Some aircraft have pop up indicators which stand proud on the upper wing
surface when the gear is down and locked (Figure 25). These are plunger
operated through a cable linkage attached to the toggle levers. When the landing
gear extends and is locked down a plate attached to the toggle lever operates a
spring loaded plunger which by cable connection moves the indicator from its
housing, proud of the airframe skin. The indicator returns under spring pressure
into its housing when the landing gear is retracted
POP UP INDICATOR
AIRFRAME SKIN
UNLOCK ACTUATOR
PLUNGER
TOGGLE
LEVERS
SIDE STRUT
POP UP INDICATOR
AIRFRAME SKIN
UNLOCK ACTUATOR
PLUNGER
TOGGLE
LEVERS
SIDE STRUT
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
To prevent the pilot from landing with his under carriage retracted there may be a
warning system connected to the centralised warning panel with associated
warning lights and audio warnings. The warning system may be activated when
the aircraft descends to a certain height above the ground detected by the radio
altimeter, or when the landing configuration is incorrect ie, when the engine
power levers or flaps are set incorrectly.
SAFETY LATCH PIN
UP
LANDING GEAR
SELECTOR LEVER
DOWN
SAFETY
LANDING
SOLENOID
GEAR LEG
DE-ENERGISED
EXTENSION
CONTROL UNIT
LIMIT
SWITCHES
LANDING GEAR
SELECTOR LEVER
DOWN
SAFETY
SOLENOID
LANDING
ENERGISED
GEAR LEG
EXTENSION
CONTROL UNIT
LIMIT
SWITCHES
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
engineering
The landing gear may have an electro-mechanical safety device, which prevents
operation of the selector lever on the ground. When all the landing gear legs are
compressed a safety solenoid is de-energised which moves a latch pin under the
landing gear selector lever. So long as the solenoid remains de-energised the
latch pin prevents the selector lever from operating.
As soon as each landing gear leg is fully extended the limit switch is made which
sends a signal to the control unit. When the control unit receives signals from all
the landing gear legs an earth is made and the safety solenoid is energised. The
latch pin is withdrawn from beneath the selector lever allowing gear up when
selected. (Figures 26 and 27)
13.15
SAFETY SWITCHES
Proximity switches on each landing gear leg will indicate that the landing gear leg
is either downlocked or is in transit. The switch will be made when the target on
the landing gear leg comes into alignment with the switch probe indicating that
the landing gear is downlocked. The gap between the probe and target is set in
accordance with the maintenance manual for the aircraft. When the proximity
switche probes are out of alignment with their targets, the switches are broken
and it is sensed that the landing gear leg is in transit.
The signals will be sent to an electronic control unit or computer where they are
processed and will illuminate an associated green triangle on the landing gear
panel when locked down and a red triangle when the landing gear is in transit.
Limit micro-switches on the uplocks will sense when the landing gear is locked up
and limit switches on the oleos will sense when the oleo leg is fully extended. The
signals will be sent to an electronic control unit or a computer where they are
processed. When the landing gear is locked up the limit switch will change the
red triangles to black. When the oleos are fully extended the limit switches will
allow the landing gear to be retracted.
The proximity switches and limit switches form part of the weight on wheels,
weight off wheels squat switch system and will prevent inadvertent retraction of
landing gear on the ground and will only allow retraction when certain
circumstances are met. This mainly being that all 3 landing gear legs are weight
off wheels and are fully extended, and the downlocks have been unlocked.
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13.16
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
13.16.1 wheels
The wheels on the landing gear leg provides some form of suspension and
adhesion between the aircraft and the ground. Early wheels and tyres were of the
bicycle type with spoke rims and with the tyres fitted using tyre levers. Most light
aircraft have fixed flange one piece forged or cast wheels (Figure 28).
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
engineering
13.16.2 Types of Wheels
This type is limited to smaller light aircraft and is similar to those found on a
typical family car.
13.16.2.2 DIVIDED (OR SPLIT)
This type is used on most modern commercial airliners. It consists two half
assemblies matched up and bolted together to form the complete wheel. Each
half is more or less identical and has its own tapered bearing assembly.
A sealing ring is incorporated between the two halves, to provide an airtight joint
when the wheel is used with a tubeless tyre. Additionally, the inner half will carry
the brake rotor drive blocks and the outer half may be fitted with fusible plugs.
Half Hub Assembly
Outer Bearing
Inner Bearing
Sealing Ring
Drive Block Mounting
Divided (Split) Wheel
Figure 29
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
engineering
This type of wheel has a main hub, which carries both bearings, brake rotor drive
blocks and fusible plugs. To facilitate tyre replacement, one of the two wheel
flanges can be removed. The flange when refitted to the wheel hub is retained by
a locking ring (loose flange) or by means of a series of nuts and bolts (detachable
flange). As with the divided wheel a sealing ring is incorporated in the flange
recess to provide the airtight joint when used with tubeless tyres.
Locking Ring
Loose Flange
Spigot Joint
Inner Bearing
Outer Bearing
Drive Blocks
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
engineering
13.17
TYRES
Tyres with patterned tread became important when aircraft got effective brakes
that could be used for slowing the aircraft during landing. At first the treads were
a diamond pattern that provided good braking on wet grass but the ribbed tread
proved to be more suitable for operation on hard surface runways. Today almost
all aircraft tyres have a ribbed tread that consists of straight grooves, which run
around the tyres circumference.
13.17.1 Tyre inflation and deflation
The tyres are inflated with nitrogen from a ground cart. The required pressure will
be laid down in the AMM and a tyre inflation box is used to regulate the charge
rate and pressure. A deflation tool is used to release the pressure and any ice
that forms must be allowed to thaw before the valve core is removed.
13.17.2 Tyre Construction
The Bead
The bead gives the tyre its strength and stiffness to assure a firm mounting on the
wheel. The bead is made up of bundles of high strength carbon steel wire with
two or three bead bundles on each side of the tyre. Rubber strips streamline the
round bead bundles to allow the fabric to fit smoothly around them without any
gaps. The bead bundles are enclosed in layers of rubberised fabric, to insulate
the carcass plies from the heat absorbed in the bead wires.
The Carcass
The carcass (or chord body) is the body of the tyre that is made up of layers of
rubberised fabric cut in strips with the threads running at an angle of about 45
degrees to the length of the strip. These strips extend completely across the tyre
around the bead and partially up the side. Each ply is put on in such a way that
the threads cross each other at about 90 degrees to that of the adjacent ply. This
type of construction is known as bias ply.
The cords of the ply fabric were originally cotton, then nylon and now aramid
fibres (kevlar) are used. This is stronger than nylon, polyester or fibreglass and
even strong pound for pound than steel.
Chafing strips are rubberised strips of fabric that wrap around the edges of the
carcass plies and enclose the bead area. The chafing strips provide a smooth
chafe resistant surface between the tyre and the bead seat of the wheel.
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
engineering
The undertread is a layer of compound rubber between the plies and the tread
rubber that provides good adhesion between the tread and the carcass. On top of
the undertread are more plies of strong fabric that strengthen the tread and
oppose centrifugal forces that try to pull the tread from the carcass during high
speed rotation.
The inner liner is a thin coating of rubber over the inside plies. For tubeless tyres
it is made from a compound which is less permeable than other rubbers used. It
seals the tyre and reduces the amount of leakage. On tyres with inner tubes the
liner is very smooth to help prevent chafing.
TREAD
PLIES
SIDEWALL
CHAFING STRIPS
CARCASS
BEAD BUNDLE
BEAD WIRES
The Tread
The tread is the thick layered rubber around the outer circumference of the tyre
that serves as a wearing surface. The tread has a series of moulded grooves
moulded into its surface to give optimum traction with the runway surface.
13.17.3 Tyre Wear Assessment
The manner in which tread wear of a tyre is established, is dependent upon which
of a number of methods of indicating wear has been incorporated into the tyre by
the manufacturer.
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LANDING GEAR
engineering
Tie Bars
Tie Bars
Figure 34
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
These are dedicated grooves set in the tread pattern and have a depth graduated
by the manufacturer, but typically 2mm shallower than the water-displacing
grooves.
Limits tyre worn to the bottom of the indicator groove anywhere on the
circumference of the tyre.
Certain tyres, normally those having a zigzag tread pattern have an axial slit in
the tread rubber at some of the zigzag corners. The slit does not extend into the
depth of the tread and is called a sipe.
Limits Tyre worn to the bottom of the sipe.
Sipes
Sipes
Figure 36
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13.17.4 Tyre Damage
The amount of tyre damage a tyre can suffer without becoming unserviceable is
very small. Damage in the vicinity of the bead is rarely tolerated, while cuts in the
casing plies must be assessed very carefully in accordance with the
manufacturers requirements before deciding on the degree of serviceability.
Normally if the chords are exposed due any form of damage, including splits or
crazing, then the tyre will be classed as unserviceable.
NOTE: Always consult the Aircraft/Component Maintenance Manual.
13.17.5 Leak Holes (Awl Holes)
During inflation of a tyre/tube assembly, air may become trapped between the
tube and the inside surface of the tyre, giving an incorrectly inflated assembly.
The risk is reduced by allowing the air to escape through Leak Holes, pierced
completely through the sidewall of the tyre, during manufacture. The holes are
often made with a pointed tool called an Awl. Because of this, the holes are
sometimes referred to as Awl Holes. The position of these holes is indicated by a
series of 6mm diameter spots of grey or green litho ink, usually grey.
13.17.6 Vent Holes
During the manufacture of tubeless tyres, air that gets trapped between layers in
the casing is permitted to escape to atmosphere through vent holes pierced in the
sidewall. The vent holes do not penetrate right through the sidewall in this case
and are identified, as with leak holes, by 6mm diameter spots of grey or green
litho ink, usually green.
13.17.7 Balance Marks
A red spot (sometimes triangular) on either side of the tyre indicates its lightest
point around the circumference as ascertained during the manufacturers
balancing procedure.
During assembly with the wheel the red spot should be aligned with the inflation
valve on a tubeless assembly. On a tubed assembly, the spot should be aligned
with a red line (heavy point) on the tube. If it has no red line, align with the
inflation valve of the tube.
13.17.8 Electrically Conducting Tyres
Some wheel assemblies are fitted with tyres that are designed to conduct
electrical charges to earth as the aircraft touches down. Such tyres are identified
with the word CONDUCTIVE or the letters ECTA (electrically conducting tyre
assembly) on the sidewall.
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
13.17.9 Aquaplaning
13.18
BRAKES
Aircraft brake systems convert kinetic energy from the motion of the aircraft into
heat energy, which is generated by the fiction between the brake linings and the
brake drum or disc.
There are two types of brakes in use energising (servo) and none energising.
Energising brakes use the friction developed between the rotating and stationary
parts to produce a wedging action that uses the momentum of the aircraft to
increase the braking force which reduces the pilots effort needed in producing the
required braking action. None energising brakes do not use this wedging action.
13.18.1 Energising Brakes
Energising brakes used on some smaller light aircraft have a single servo action
and only operate with forward motion. Energising brakes have their shoes and
linings mounted on a torque plate in such a way that they are free to move out
against the rotating drum. When the brakes are applied two pistons move out and
push the linings against the drum that rotates with the wheel. Rotation of the
brake drum wedges the linings against it. When the hydraulic pressure is
released, a retracting spring pulls the linings form the drum and releases the
brakes.
13.18.2 None Energising Brakes
This is the most common type of brake used on aircraft. These brakes are
actuated by hydraulic pressure and the amount of braking action depends on the
pressure applied. Expander tube, single disc and multiple disc brakes are the
main types of none energising brakes used.
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
engineering
13.18.3 Expander Tube Brakes
Expander brakes utilise a heavy neoprene tube, but are rarely use on modern
aircraft. Hydraulic fluid from the master cylinder is directed into the expander tube
which is located on the circumference of a torque flange. When this tube is
expanded it pushes the brake block linings out against the brake drum and the
friction between the linings and the drum slows the aircraft.
The heat generated in the linings is kept from damaging the expander tube by
stainless steel heat shields placed between each of the lining blocks. As soon as
the brake pedal is released, the return springs between the brake lining blocks
collapse the expander tube and force the fluid back into the cylinder reservoir.
13.18.4 Single Disc Brakes
This is most common on light aircraft. The brakes are actuated by hydraulic
pressure from a master cylinder and friction is produced when the rotating disc is
squeezed between the brake linings in the brake caliper.
There are two types of single disc brakes, one has the disc keyed into the wheel
and it is free to move in and out as the brake is applied. This type is called
floating disc fixed caliper. The second type of brake disc is rigidly attached to the
wheel and the caliper moves in and out on anchor bolts. This type is called fixed
disc floating caliper.
Some single disc brakes have automatic adjusters and wear indicators. The
automatic adjusting pin is pulled through the grip when brakes are applied. When
the brakes are released the piston and the linings move back only under pressure
of the return spring. The protrusion on the adjuster pin indicates lining wear. In
general, when the pin is flush with the housing the linings are replaced.
13.18.5 Multi Disc Brakes
The gross weight of the aircraft and the speed at the time of brake application
determines what size brakes are required. As the aircrafts size, weight and
landing speed increases there is a need for greater braking surfaces and heat
dissipation.
Segmented rotor, multiple disc brakes are standard on most modern high
performance aircraft. The segmented disc brake has three rotating discs keyed
on to the wheel. The rotors are segmented to allow for cooling and for expansion
caused by the high temperatures generated during braking.
Between each disc is a stator plate or brake-lining disc, keyed on to the axle
shaft. Riveted on to each side of the stator plates are the brake linings. A
pressure plate is located on the inboard side of the axle shaft and a backing plate
is located on the outboard side.
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LANDING GEAR
engineering
Automatic adjusting pins are pulled through the grip when brakes are applied.
When the brakes are released the pressure plate moves back under pressure of
their return springs. The protrusion on the adjuster pins indicates lining wear. In
general, when the pin is flush with the housing the linings are replaced.
PRESSURE PLATE
PISTON
BRAKE
LINER
SEGMENTED
ROTOR
CYLINDERS
PADS
STATOR
PLATE
BACKING
PLATE
WEAR PINS
Light aircraft will generally use hydraulic pressure generated by the pilots feet.
When the pilot depresses the rudder pedals, pressurised fluid is moved from the
master cylinder, to a slave cylinder operating the brakes. Larger aircraft will use
the aircrafts main hydraulic systems to provide the pressure to operate the
brakes.
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LANDING GEAR
engineering
The pressure applied to the brakes must be proportional to the force exerted on
the brake pedals; the pilot must be able to hold the brakes partially applied
without a build up in pressure. The hydraulic pressure to the brakes is much
higher but remains proportional to the input. This is achieved with a brake control
valve also known as a metering valve.
The rudder pedals are connected to the brake control valve by various methods
including hydraulically by use of a master cylinder (also known as foot motors),
rods or cables.
The hydraulic systems will operate simultaneously and usually a different system
will feed the inboard wheels to the outboard. In the event of a system hydraulic
failure, braking is still maintained to at least one set of wheels.
PILOTS FOOT
MOTORS
1ST
PILOTS FOOT
MOTORS
1ST
2ND
SYSTEM
PRESSURE
2ND
RETURN
BRAKE CONTROL
VALVE
1 2
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LANDING GEAR
engineering
13.18.7 Brake control valve
The schematic drawings of the brake control valve (figures 39, 40 and 41) shows
a simplified version of how the proportional application is achieved. The centre
slide moves to the left as the pilot applies the brakes, opening the pressure line
and closing the return line. This allows pressure to the brakes and they are
applied. At the same time pressure is directed to the metering chamber were
pressure builds up until it equals the pedal input pressure. When the pressures
are equal the slide moves to the right, until it is in the central position, with both
the pressure and return lines blocked. This holds the brake pressure constant
until the pressure is either increased or decreased by a change in the pilots
input. If the pedals are released the slider will move to the right opening a line
from the brakes to return, dissipating the pressure.
RETURN
PRESSURE
BRAKE
Figure 39
Brakes released -The return line is open for the pressure to dissipate.
RETURN
PRESSURE
BRAKE
Applied
brake
pressure
Monitoring
chamber
pressure
Figure 40
As brake pressure is applied the slider moves to the left blocking the return line
and opening the brake line to the pressure. Pressure is fed to the monitoring
chamber were it starts to move the slide to the right as it equals the input force.
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LANDING GEAR
engineering
PRESSURE
RETURN
BRAKE
Applied
brake
pressure
Monitoring
chamber
pressure
Figure 41
With the pressure equal to the input force the slide moves to the central position
with both the pressure and return lines blocked off. In this position a constant
brake pressure is held to the brakes.
13.19
13.19.1 Introduction
The anti skid system is designed to provide maximum effective braking for any
runway condition without skidding and is often used in conjunction with an
autobrake system.
It operates by automatically overriding or modifying the metered input brake
pressure from the flight deck, or braking commands from the autobrake system.
Hydraulic pressure is automatically controlled at each brake unit, maintaining the
optimum wheel braking requirement, regardless of prevailing weather conditions
(ie: ice/heavy rain/crosswind etc). Aircraft stopping distances are minimised and
directional control is maintained. Maximum braking efficiency occurs when all
main wheels are at the maximum rate of deceleration just before an impending
wheel skid.
The system continuously modulates the hydraulic pressure at each individual
brake unit in response to actual wheel speed, thus preventing blown tyres, flat
spots or the risk of aquaplaning caused by a locked wheel.
On a normal landing sequence, there is no need for a corrective signal as long as
the rate of wheel deceleration is within limits. However, if the rate is above these
limits, this is sensed as an approaching skid. A corrective signal is applied to
momentarily reduce the applied brake pressure at the relevant wheel. The
corrective signal is removed when the wheel speed increases again and the
process repeated as required, until the deceleration rate remains within limits
once more.
The anti skid system can be either electronically or mechanically controlled. Most
modern systems are electronic, since mechanically controlled systems are only
fitted to older aircraft types.
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LANDING GEAR
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13.19.2 Electronic Anti Skid System
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
engineering
WHEELSPEED
SENSOR
RING NUT
GENERATOR
CARRIER
DRIVE CAP
V-CLAMP
Wheel speed Transducers
Figure 43
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
This contains all the electrical circuits necessary for full anti skid control and
circuits for BITE and monitoring of control valves and transducers. Circuits for a
typical aircraft having four mainwheels ( Boeing 737) are normally arranged into
two separate channels, for inboard and outboard pairs of wheels.
As we have seen, skid control for each individual wheel requires a self-generated
signal from its wheelspeed transducer.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE NO 11.13
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This is normally located on the front panel of the flight deck and is often combined
with the auto brake selector, if applicable to the particular aircraft type. It usually
consists of a simple on/off switch to power up the anti skid circuitry. It also
contains a warning light to give a warning of system malfunction.
Following illumination of this warning light, it is possible to interrogate the Anti
Skid Control Unit and pinpoint the cause for example a particular transducer,
valve or the control unit itself.
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LANDING GEAR
engineering
13.19.3 Mechanical Anti Skid System
This older type system modulates brake pressure as with the electronic type, but
the modulation is achieved mechanically by a single self-contained device, one
for each wheel.
The device, often referred to as a maxaret (maximum arresting) unit, detects a
rapid deceleration of the wheel and momentarily releases the brake pressure as
before. It will normally be mounted externally on the brake unit torque plate and
driven by a small rubber tyred wheel in contact with the aircraft mainwheel.
Alternatively, it can be mounted inside the axle and driven by the aircraft
mainwheel via a splined drive shaft in the hub cap.
Both types, wheel or axle mounted, incorporate an internally mounted heavy
flywheel, sensitive to the angular deceleration that occurs when braking. When
the braking is severe or just before the wheel is about to lock up, the flywheel is
permitted to continue rotating at the higher speed due to its inertia. It will advance
through an arc until it contacts a set of limit stops.
The flywheel, is connected mechanically to two hydraulic system metering valves
within the maxaret unit. Using a pair of thrust balls and push rods the valves
change their position from the normal pressure to brakes position, to the no
pressure in and brakes to return position.
With brake pressure removed, the wheel regains speed and the flywheel returns
to its original position assisted by a return spring. The brakes are re-applied and
the brakes on/ brakes off sequence will continue until the deceleration returns to
normal limits.
BRAKE UNIT
MAXARET
DRIVE WHEEL
MAIN WHEEL
SPRING TO PUSH
DRIVE WHEEL
ON TO MAIN WHEEL
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LANDING GEAR
engineering
To
brake
Base of
Cam
Pressure
supply
Thrust
plate
Thrust
rod
A. - Normal Braking
Condition
From
return
brake
profile
Wheel
rim
Base of
Cam
profile
60
Pressure
supply
B. - Anti-Skid
Condition
Operation of Rim-Driven Unit
Figure 49
Main shaft
Valve spring
Flywheel
Drive ring
Thrust bearing
Input shaft
Clutch cover
Clutch plate
spring
Sun gear RingClutch
gear
Drive spring
Planet gear
Valve
Main spring
Valve thrust rod
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13.20
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
AUTOBRAKING
The selector panel consists of a solenoid latched switch which will hold a selected
position only if all the arming conditions for that setting are met. If the system
cannot be armed the switch will automatically return to the DISARM position and
a warning will illuminate on the local panel and centralised warning panel. The
panel will have a number of settings that the pilot can select depending on the
rate of deceleration that is required.
13.20.2 Auto-Brake Control Unit
Selection on the auto brake selector panel will send an electrical signal to the
auto-brake control unit. The signal is processed by the control unit, which
commands the solenoid valve to direct pressure to the brake units.
The brake pressure must be gradually built up and released to prevent brake
snatch and jerking. To prevent this a time delay and an electrical ramp are used.
The time delay ensures that the aircraft is firmly on the ground before the system
activates. The terminology used to indicate the auto-brake operation is:
Autobrake On-Ramp
Figure 51
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These valves are electrically controlled, hydraulic valves that allow pressure to
the brake units at a specific setting. The greater the deceleration rate the higher
the setting. These valves are fitted just upstream of the anti-skid valves.
The solenoid will open when all the arming conditions are met and the aircraft is
weight on wheels. It is also the solenoid valves that immediately shuts on Drop
Out.
A solenoid servo valve modulates the brake pressure to regulate the deceleration
rate. A pressure switch is connected to the DISARM warning light to monitor zero
pressure when auto-brakes are armed.
13.20.4 System Operation
Once the aircraft lands and is weight on wheels the anti skid transducers send
signals to the control unit. When the wheels have achieved a certain speed or
after a pre-determined time delay the brakes will be applied Up The Ramp.
Once the selected rate of deceleration is reached the auto-brake pressure is
modulated to hold that rate.
As the wheel speed slows down to more than the deceleration rate, the servo
valve will close slightly reducing the brake pressure causing the wheel to speed
up. Once the aircraft has come to a stop or the aircraft is below a certain speed
the auto-brakes will switch off to enable the aircraft to taxi.
13.20.5 Auto Brake Termination
Auto-Brake can be cancelled at any time. Depending on the aircraft, the system
can be over-ridden by:
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13.21
STEERING
To improve the ground operation of aircraft nose wheel systems are used. These
improve tyre life through less scrub, reduce brake wear, save fuel and engine life
as brakes and engine thrust are no longer required to turn the aircraft.
Most nose wheel steering systems use servo jack operated scissor links attached
to a collar on the landing gear leg, the collar being driven by the servo jacks
which rotates the nose wheel leg via the scissor links. Steering inputs to the servo
jacks come from a tiller on the pilots side of the cockpit. Inputs can also come
from the rudder pedals.
Apart from mechanical steering systems there are three basic methods of
operation:
This system is used on smaller light aircraft (Figure 52). Both ends of the jack
ram are attached to the landing gear leg. Fluid is directed to move the jack body
along its ram. A cam and link assembly is attached to the jack body. Movement of
the jack body operates the link which rotates the cam and turns the wheel. Action
of the shock absorber is unaffected as the shock absorber is splined on to the
steering shaft to allow the compression and extension of the absorber.
JACK BODY
PISTON
LINK
CAM
SPLINED SHAFT
STRUT
AXLE
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Larger aircraft use a two servo jack system (Figure 53). The two jacks are fixed to
a steering collar, which is free to rotate around the landing gear leg. The steering
collar is attached to the upper scissor link. When the servo jacks are actuated
they rotate the wheels and axle through the scissor link. assembly
Some aircraft use a rack and pinion steering system. Hydraulically operated racks
rotate a pinion which rotates the wheel and axle. A mechanical linkage from the
cockpit tiller operates a servo valve in a hydraulic metering valve. The servo valve
when operated directs fluid to one side or the other of the rack piston. The rack
then moves and rotates the pinion and turns the aircraft nose wheel in the
required direction.
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13.21.1 Steering Mechanisms
On some small aircraft the nose wheel is steered by direct linkages from the
rudder pedals, or on small retractable landing gear aircraft, from the rudder
pedals to a steering bar which locates against a steering arm on the landing gear
leg. (Figure 54) Once the wheel is stowed the mechanism is ineffective.
STEERING BAR
STEERING ARMS
STEERING LUGS
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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR
engineering
It is important that when a steerable nose wheel is being retracted that the wheel
is centred so that it fits into the wheel well to prevent any damage to the aircraft
structure as well as the landing gear. This can be done by a centring cam inside
the oleo strut. When the strut is compressed the piston cam disengages from the
cylinder cam receptacle to allow the wheel to be steered. On take off when the
strut extends the piston cam is forced into the cylinder receptacle to hold the
wheel in the desired position for stowing. Double servo jacks can centralise the
wheel by supplying pressure to a centralising jack. This is normally initiated by
the weight-on-wheels micro-switches as the aircraft takes off.
01/02/11
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LANDING GEAR
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OXYGEN
CONTENTS
15 OXYGEN ....................................................................................... 15-1
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
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15 OXYGEN
15.1 OXYGEN SYSTEMS GENERAL
If an aircraft is designed to fly at heights above, say, 8,000 feet, there must be
some way in which we can maintain a comfortable environment for the crew and
passengers to breathe normally. This is normally done by cabin pressurisation. If
for whatever reason the pressurisation failed above this altitude an alternate but
emergency source of breathable air must be supplied. This is normally by
individual oxygen supplies from gaseous, liquid and chemical sources. Civil
aircraft use the gaseous and chemical type, with the military using liquid.
Some small, unpressurised aircraft only require oxygen occasionally and use a
system that meters a continuous flow of oxygen; the amount based on the
altitude flown.
Aircraft that fly at altitudes above 18000 feet have a diluter demand system that
also meters oxygen based on the altitude flown but directs it to the mask only
when the user inhales. Aircraft flying at very high altitude where the outside air
pressure is too low to force the oxygen into the lungs use pressure demand
systems. These systems send oxygen to the mask under a slight positive
pressure that forces the oxygen into the lungs.
15.2 OXYGEN SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The safety precautions associated with the use of oxygen are laid down in the
aircraft maintenance manuals. Although oxygen is none flammable it will support
combustion. If oil grease dust or metal particles are present a spontaneous
explosion may occur. The following safety precautions must be adhered to:
1.
Keep oil and grease away. Oxygen equipment, hoses and fittings must not
be handled with greasy hands or wearing greasy overalls.
2.
Keep oxygen away from fire. A small fire or spark will rapidly grow in an
oxygen-enriched atmosphere.
3.
No smoking.
4.
5.
6.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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Crew Mask
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Passenger Mask
The passenger masks will be found within the Passenger Service Unit (PSU) and
will be deployed by gravity on actuation of the drop out mechanism. Each seating
position both in the cabin must have an easily fitted mask, which will be used by
each occupant. Some aircraft do not have a mask for each person but have
strategically placed masks in the PSU for the passengers to share. Some aircraft
do not have drop out systems and the masks may have to be deployed
manually by the cabin crew.
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OXYGEN
These are normally simple cup shaped mouldings with an elasticated strap. The
cup is designed to fit all sizes from babies to adults. A reservoir bag is fitted to the
mask to store an immediate supply of oxygen.
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OXYGEN
A pressure relief valve is incorporated into the system to prevent damage in the
event of a failure of the pressure-reducing valve. If the pressure is relieved
through this valve a green blow out disc on the outside skin of the aircraft will
blow giving a visual indication. As well as a visible blow out disc some aircraft
also deploy a red streamer in an over pressure condition.
Continuous flow oxygen systems use re-breather type masks. These masks may
be a simple transparent plastic re-breather bag. The mask is held loosely over the
mouth and nose with an elastic band and oxygen continually flows into the bag
through a plastic tube that is plugged into the mask outlet.
When the user exhales the air that was in the lungs for the shortest period is the
first out and fills the re-breather bag. The remaining air in the lungs is exhausted
from the mast. Inhaling again the exhaled air in the bag is enriched with the
oxygen supply and is re-breathed.
More sophisticated continuous flow masks are used in pressurised aircraft. In the
event of the loss of cabin pressure an automatic valve is turned on to send
oxygen to into the passenger oxygen system. The oxygen pressure actuates the
door actuator valve, which opens the overhead mask compartments. A mask
drops down. When the passenger pulls the mask tube a lanyard operated rotary
valve opens and starts the oxygen flow. The passenger places the mask over his
mouth and nose and breathes normally.
Valves mounted in the base plate of the mask allow some cabin air to enter the
mask and allow exhaled air to leave. During inhalation the pure oxygen in the bag
is taken into the lungs. When the bag is empty cabin air is taken in through the
mask and mixes with the oxygen flowing through the tube. During exhale the air
from the lungs leaves the mask through one of the valves while pure oxygen is
flowing from the regulator into the bag ready for the next inhale.
15.3.4 Demand Type Oxygen System
The cockpit crews of most commercial aircraft are supplied with oxygen through a
diluter demand system. The system meters oxygen only when the user inhales
and the amount of oxygen metered depends on the altitude of the aircraft.
Almost all pressurised aircraft have a diluter demand type system for the aircrew
and a continuous flow type system for the passengers.
At altitudes above 40000 feet the oxygen in the air has such a low pressure that
even the pure oxygen supply must be forced into the lungs. The low pressure
from the users lungs are insufficient to draw in the oxygen. This is done under a
slight positive pressure from the regulator.
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When the aircrew selects oxygen. Drop out could be actuated electrically,
pneumatically or mechanically.
In the case of a chemically generated supply the PSU flap is opened either
electrically or mechanically.
15.4.1 Pneumatically Operated PSU Flap
On the pneumatic door opening method a small plunger is fitted above each PSU
flap. The doors are held closed by a spring loaded latch assembly. When oxygen
is required and selected, oxygen pressure is directed to the over centre leaf
spring and to the plunger. The pressure extends the plunger that pushes against
and overcomes the latch assembly. The PSU flap opens under gravity deploying
the oxygen masks in the process.
Giving a sharp pull on the mask the flow control pin is withdrawn from its locating
hole. The oxygen pressure overcomes the over centre leaf spring and directs
oxygen to the mask.
Should the cabin crew require to turn off the oxygen at each PSU a manual
closing toggle is rotated which acts against the over centre leaf spring and cuts
off the flow to the mask.
If the PSU flap fails to open a manual actuation pin can be pushed to allow the
flap to open.
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HEAT
SHIELD
PERCUSSION
CARTRIDGE
PRESSURE
RELIEF VALVE
FILTER
FIRING
PIN
DISTRIBUTION
BLOCK
IRON AND SODIUM
CHLORATE CORE
ACTIVATION PIN
OUTLETS TO
MASKS
LANYARD
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The distribution lines for the aircrew go from the storage bottle to the cockpit
pressure regulator and the passenger lines go from the storage bottle, up the side
walls and then along the roof. Each passenger service unit (PSU) where the
masks are stowed are connected to the roof piping. Test connections are
installed in the system to allow pressure gauges to be fitted during system
testing.
15.6 SUPPLY REGULATION
15.6.1 Diluter Demand Type Regulator
Oxygen flows into the regulator through the supply valve and when the user
inhales the pressure inside the regulator decreases and the demand valve opens
under action from the demand valve diaphragm allowing oxygen to flow to the
mask.
The aneroid capsule operated metering valve mixes cabin air with the oxygen.
When the aircraft is flying at low altitudes the user gets mostly cabin air and a
small amount of oxygen. As the altitude increases the aneroid capsule metering
valve progressively reduces the amount of cabin air and increases the amount of
oxygen supplied. At about 34000 feet the cabin air is shut off completely and pure
oxygen is supplied.
If there is smoke in the cockpit or if the pilot feels the need for pure oxygen the
oxygen lever can be moved to the 100% position. The cabin air is shut off and the
aneroid metering valve fully opens and only pure oxygen is supplied to the mask
when the user inhales.
If the regulator malfunctions the emergency lever can be operated. This opens
the demand valve allowing a continuous flow of pure oxygen to the mask.
15.6.2 Continuous Flow Regulators.
There are automatic and manual continuous flow regulators. The automatic
regulator contains and aneroid capsule that senses the aircraft altitude and
meters the correct amount of oxygen for that altitude. The manual regulator has a
control valve that allows the pilot to adjust the flow rate based on the altitude. A
calibrated orifice in the mask outlet determines the amount of oxygen delivered to
the mask.
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15.7
The systems are provided with an overpressure relief facility. This is normally a
green coloured rupture disc. The disc will be located at the overboard discharge
fitting which is flush with the aircrafts skin. When the maximum cylinder pressure
is exceeded the cylinder safety valve operates discharging the excess pressure
into the overboard discharge line. The green disc ruptures, as the excess
pressure escapes to atmosphere and a red (or yellow) indicator becomes visible.
Some aircraft also deploy a red streamer from the fitting to make it instantly
visible.
On aircraft with oxygen generators fitted, once the generator has been activated,
dolls eye indicators on the end casing turn from orange (or purple) to black. Some
have heat sensitive tape wrapped around the outer casing. The tape changing
colour when the generator has been activated.
There will be various indications given on the oxygen panel and centralised
warning panel (CWP) indicating faults within the system.
A pressure gauge will be fitted which shows the pressures in the storage bottles.
The gauge will have a green segment and a red segment. The green segment
indicates the actual pressure in the system. The red segment will indicate that the
bottle is empty or maybe that the shut off valve is closed.
A low pressure switch is fitted in the system downstream of the storage bottle and
will give an indication (LO PR) on the local panel if the pressure reduces below a
pre-set figure. An associated (OXY) caution light will illuminate on the CWP and a
single chime warning will also sound.
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MODULE 11.16
PNEUMATIC AND VACUUM
CONTENTS
16 PNEUMATIC AND VACUUM ....................................................... 16-3
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
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PNEUMATIC AND VACUUM
GENERAL
Pneumatic systems are fluid power systems that use a compressible fluid, air.
These systems are dependable and lightweight and because the fluid is air there
is no need for a return system
Some aircraft have only a low pressure pneumatic system to operate the gyro
instruments, others use compressed air as an emergency backup for lowering
the landing gear and operating the brakes in the case of hydraulic failure. Other
aircraft have a complete pneumatic system thats actuates the landing gear
retraction, nose wheel steering, passenger doors and propeller brakes.
16.2 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
When working on bleed air systems, it is important to follow the precautions
below:
All duct supports and struts must not put any strain on to the duct.
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PNEUMATIC AND VACUUM
Figure 1 shows a typical high pressure pneumatic system, that uses air
compressors driven from the engines accessory drive. The compressed air is
discharged through a bleed valve to a pressure relief (unloading) valve. The
bleed valve is held closed by oil pressure. In the event of oil pressure failure the
bleed valve opens to offload the compressor. The pressure relief valve maintains
system pressure at around 3000 psi.
A shuttle valve in the line between the compressor and the main system makes it
possible to charge the system from a ground source. When the engine is not
running the shuttle valve slides over to isolate the compressor.
SHUTTLE VALVE
PRV
BLEED VALVE
WATER
SEPARATOR
BLOW
OUT
DISC
AIR PUMP
DESICCANT
NRV
FILTER
ISOLATING VALVE
EMERGENCY LANDING GEAR
TO NORMAL
SERVICES
OFF
GAUGE
PRV
AIR BOTTLE
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PNEUMATIC AND VACUUM
The air is then fed to each of the storage bottles, which provide the emergency air
for several systems. A manually operated isolation valve allows the air supply to
be shut off to so that maintenance can be carried out on the systems without
having to discharge the storage bottles.
The air is stored at maximum system pressure around 3000 psi to supply the
landing gear and brakes in an emergency. A pressure reducing valve is fitted to
reduce the air pressure down to the operating pressure that the majority of the
components work at 9around 1000psi) ie landing gear normal operation, the
passenger door, the propeller brake and the nose wheel steering.
16.4
VACUUM SYSTEMS
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Wet pumps have steel vanes that are lubricated and sealed with engine oil which
is drawn in through the pump mounting pad and exhausted with the discharge air.
This oil is removed from the discharge air with an oil separator before it is used
for de-icing or driving the instruments.
Dry air pumps were developed so that there was no oil in the discharge air and
therefore there were no requirements for an oil separator. The pump vanes are
made from carbon and are self lubricating. The main problem with this kind of
pump is that the vanes are easily breakable by any contaminants that enters the
pump. To prevent this form occurring the inlet air is filtered.
16.6 AIR SUPPLY SOURCES
The source of air supply and arrangement of the system components depend on
the aircraft type and system employed but in general one of the following
methods may be used:
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Turbo Compressor
Figure 4
16.6.3 Auxillary Power Unit (APU)
This provides an independent source of pressurised air. It is basically a small gas
turbine engine that provides air and other service whilst the aircraft is on the
ground with its main engines stopped. It is usually a self contained unit located in
the tail section of the aircraft where it can be run safely (Figure 5). On some
aircraft the APU can be started in flight and act as a back up source of air,
hydraulics services in the event of a loss of an engine.
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Instructions for operating the ground cart will be found on a panel on the carts
control panel. Figure 6 shows a typical ground cart control panel.
16.7
PRESSURE CONTROL
In many bleed air systems the pressure is regulated only by the operation of the
high pressure shut off valve. The range of pressure may be from 10psi at ground
idle to 65 psi at take off power. Many modern aircraft use bleed air for many
systems that are sensitive to pressure variations and therefore some form of
regulation is required.
The pressure regulator is a pneumatically operated valve which will give a predetermined output pressure form the engine bleed air system. The regulator may
also perform as the shut off valve. This is then called a pressure regulating and
shut off valve.
16.7.1 Pressure Regulator
This valve operates on the principle of a balance between air pressure and spring
pressures. Referring to Figure 7. Assuming the piston has an area of 1 square
inch and is held in its seat by a spring that pushes with a 100 pounds force. The
piston has a shoulder of 0.5 square inches and this area is acted on by a system
air pressure of 1500psi. The cone shaped seat of the valve has an area of 0.5
square inches and is acted on by a reduced pressure of 200psi.
A bleed orifice in the piston allows air pressure into the piston chamber. A relief
valve being acted on by the reduced 200psi pressure and relief valve spring
pressure, maintains the air pressure in the piston chamber at 750psi.
PRESSURE RELIEF
VALVE
BLEED ORIFICE
PISTON
PRESSURE IN
PISTON
CONE
TO SERVICES
Pressure Regulator
Figure 7
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When the air supply is used by a pneumatic service, the reduced downline
pressure of 200psi reduces further. This reduced pressure is now insufficient to
keep the relief valve closed. The 750psi piston chamber pressure unseats the
relief valve and reduces the piston chamber pressure.
The reduced piston chamber pressure unseats the piston cone piston which
allows the system pressure to bleed into the down lines. Once the downline
pressure rises to 200psi, the piston cone and the relief valve re-seat and the
system is once again in balance.
16.8
DISTRIBUTION
Distribution is achieved by ducting and pipelines that carry the charge air from the
engine compressors to the various services that require air for their operation.
Due to the heat of the bleed air any leakage of the ducts will cause an extreme
temperature rise in the area of the leak with the possibility of fire or damage to the
surrounding structure and equipment. Leak detection systems are therefore
incorporated. Figure 9 shows a typical distribution layout.
Ducts Supports
Figure 8
The ducting is made up of many sections for ease of maintenance and
cheapness of replacement. They are constructed of thin wall material and
clamped together with joints that allow for thermal expansion.
Engine bleed air system ducts are manufactured from stainless steel and the
ducts and pipelines are usually manufactured from titanium as they are able to
withstand higher temperatures and are lighter in weight. The duct sections are
supported throughout their length by clamps and tie rod attachments to the
aircraft structure as shown in Figure 8.
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Pre-Stressed Joint
One method is to have the duct sections installed slightly shorter in length and
allow them to expand with the heat to fit correctly. The ducts will be pre-stressed
by the clamps when cold (Figure 10).
Pre-Stressed Joint
Figure 10
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Another method is with a flexible ball joint fitting at the duct ends. The joint is
designed to allow for slight flexing and misalignment as well as expansion. A
flange on one end of the duct is connected to a bearing nut on the other and
screwed together to form the joint (Figure 11). Shims are used to ensure
adequate clearance is maintained for the expansion and flexing and a crush type
metal seal is used to prevent air leakage at the joints.
Ball Joint
Figure 11
The cable attachment type joint is used where large temperature changes exist,
ie from cold soak at high altitudes to maximum working temperatures when the
pneumatic system is selected on. This joint has bosses attached at each end of
the duct.
There are usually 3 short cables equally spaced around the duct (Figure 12). The
cables have a swaged ball end fittings at one end and a swaged threaded fitting
at the other. Each end is located in a bracket on the ducting. A seal is fitted
around the duct before the ducts are connected. A nut is fitted on the threaded
end and tightened. This pulls tightens the cables and seals the duct. A small gap
is left at the seal ends to allow for expansion.
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Cable Joint
Figure 12
16.9
Safety devices are fitted into pneumatic systems to prevent a possible overheat
or overpressure which could cause severe damage to the air ducting or systems.
16.9.1 Overpressure
Overpressure is usually caused by a malfunction of the high pressure shut off
valve that remains open when the engine is operating at its maximum rpm. In
most systems a pressure relief valve is fitted in the engine bleed air ducting which
relieves excess pressures. The pressure relief valve may also work in conjunction
with a pressure switch will close the high pressure shut off valve at a pre
determined pressure.
16.9.2 Overheat
Over temperature of the bleed air is prevented, by an electrical temperature
sensor, downstream of the engine bleed air valve. When a pre determined
temperature is reached the electrical sensor will signal the high pressure shut off
valve to close. An overheat will be indicated to the aircrew on the CWP and
associated control panel.
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SYSTEM INTERFACES
The pneumatic system interfaces with various other aircraft systems. Once the
bleed air has been reduced in pressure to around 40 to 50 psi, most services
have their own pressure and temperature controls, as well as generating their
own warnings and indications to the CWP or system control panels in the cockpit.
16.10.1 Pneumatic Gyro Power systems
The gyroscopes in pneumatic gyro instruments are driven by air impinging on
cups cut in the periphery of the wheel. There are two methods of obtaining air to
drive the instruments:
The air pump suction evacuates the instrument case and draws air in through a
filter. The filtered air id directed through a nozzle and it strikes the driving cups to
drive the gyro instrument. A suction relief valve regulates the suction to the
correct value to drive the instrument and a suction gauge reads the pressure drop
across the instrument.
Since many aircraft fly at high altitudes where there is insufficient air pressure to
drive the instruments another method must be used. The gyro instruments are
driven by the air from the pressure side of a dry air pump. The air is filtered
before it is taken into the air pump and is regulated before it flows through an in
line filter to the instruments. After driving the instruments it is evacuated
overboard.
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PISTON
PISTON
EMERGENCY AIR
HYDRAULIC FAILURE
AIR
HYDRAULIC PRESSURE
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Bleed air is also used for cabin pressurisation. The air drives a compressor which
pressurises the air before it is fed to the cabin. Some aircraft use a jet pump to
pressurise the air. Th air passes through an inter cooler to reduce its temperature
before entering the cabin.
Air-conditioning systems are often protected by flow control valves, which double
as shut-off valves in the case of a fault.
16.10.5 Air Driven Hydraulic Pumps.
Some aircraft use hydraulic pumps operated by air turbines. These are driven by
bleed air from the engines and the flow is controlled and modulated by a solenoid
operated pressure regulator and shut off valve to maintain the turbine speed
within set limits. The turbine is connected to the pump via a shaft and the air is
exhausted to atmosphere from the turbine outlet.
16.10.6 Pressurising Of Hydraulic Reservoirs.
Aircraft flying at altitudes in excess of 20000 feet require the hydraulic reservoir to
be pressurised to prevent foaming of the fluid, due to the low ambient air
pressure and to prevent pump cavitation. The bleed air is fed to a
regulator/reducing valve which regulates the pressure supplied to the reservoir. A
pressure relief valve is fitted to the system which vents any excess air pressure to
atmosphere.
16.10.7 Waste And Water Systems
The toilet systems fitted to larger aircraft use a vacuum to empty a number of
toilets into a single collector tank. This saves having a self-contained tank, full of
de-odorising fluid and the associated pumping mechanisms attached to each
toilet assembly.
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The flush operation consists of fresh water from the potable supply and, most
importantly, the vacuum, which draws the waste into the collector tank. This is
obtained by having the tank connected to the outside of the aircraft. Only at low
levels, when the outside air pressure is insufficient, is a small vacuum pump
called into operation. Figure 14 shows a typical vacuum toilet system.
16.10.8 Pneumatic Stall Warning
These systems are common on light aircraft. A slotted plate is mounted on the
wing leading edge and its slot coincide with the stagnation point of the wing
during normal flight. The slot is connected to a horn via a tube. When the angle of
attack is sufficient to induce a stall the low air pressure is drawn into the tube and
sounds the horn giving the pilot warning of an impending stall.
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WASTE WATER
CONTENTS
17 WATER AND WASTE SYSTEMS ................................................ 17-3
17.1
17.2
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A storage tank.
Air pressure system to force water from the storage tank to the services.
Distribution lines
Filling system
Quantity indication system
Valves to drain the system
The tank is usually stored under the cabin floor in a cradle structure and is
constructed from either fibreglass with metal bonded bands or stainless steel.
The quantity and volume will be dictated by the number of passengers carried
and the length of the time the aircraft is airborne. Aircraft that are expected to
operate in cold climates may have heater blankets built in to the design to keep
the tank and the replenishing panel free of ice.
The tank assembly will incorporate a drain, filler connection, overflow connection
an air pressure connection and outlet pipelines to the galley and toilets.
17.1.1 Pressure Control
The supply of air for the movement of water is, tapped from the bleed air supply
of the engine compressor or the APU. Some aircraft, which require the ability to
draw water when there is no air pressure (on the ramp), have an electrically
powered air compressor that will provide a head of pressure to enable water to be
drawn off at any time. The compressor may automatically start when the bleed air
pressure drops below a pre-determined value.
On aircraft using a compressor, a riser loop is incorporated to prevent water
entering the compressor, the top of the loop being higher than the distribution
ducting ensuring that the water goes to the distribution lines first. A pressure
switch will control the compressor starting and stopping as the bleed air pressure
varies.
The distribution lines are connected to the tank drain, fill connection, overflow
connection, air pressure connection and the supply lines to all of the galleys and
lavatories.
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WASTE WATER
COMPRESSOR
PRESSURE SWITCH
WATER TANK
PRV
NRV`S
FILTER
PRESSURE
MANIFOLD
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WASTE WATER
The flexible hose is normally insulated to prevent it from freezing. The outer
sheath prevents any leakage from entering the cabin. Any leaking water will be
directed to the lower fuselage through drain tubes where it can then be drained
overboard. A quick release connection is located above each toilet and galley to
enable the supply line to be disconnected for removal of the toilet or galley.
On smaller aircraft the water tank may be located above the wash basin and
galley areas and provides water to the systems under gravity.
17.1.3 Water Heating
A water heater with a small capacity is installed in the supply piping under each
lavatory sink and provides hot water to the hot water tap. The heater contains
electrical elements in the base of the heater unit. On the side of the tank is a
warning light, a control switch, an overheat re-set switch and a pressure relief
valve.
Normally the heater switch will be on and the light will be illuminated. A switch
controller will regulate the water temperature to around 125 degrees F. If a
malfunction occurs and the temperature increases to 190 degrees F the overheat
switch will operate and switch off power to the heater unit. The power light will go
out. After a cooling down period the heater will have to be manually reset by
pressing the re-set button on the heater unit.
A pressure relief valve will relieve pressures in excess of around 140 psi. the
primary function of the relief valve is to relieve pressures caused by the water
overheating. A typical water heating system is shown in Figures 2 and Figure 3.
ON/OFF SWITCH
OVERHEAT RESET
SWITCH
OVERHEAT SWITCH
POWER SUPPLY
HEATING
ELEMENTS
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTOR
CYCLIC
SWITCH
NEON
INDICATOR
Page 17-5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11.17
WASTE WATER
Heating System
Figure 3
17.1.4 Waste Water Collection And Drainage
Waste water collection and drainage depends on the aircraft. On some aircraft
the water from the washbasins drains directly overboard while on others it drains
into a soil tank and is used to flush the toilet system. Water drained overboard are
drained through drain masts under the fuselage. These masts are normally
electrically heated to prevent freezing and the forward motion of the aircraft
ensures that the water is finely atomised as it leaves the aircraft. To test the drain
mast heaters on the ground the hand is carefully used feeling for warmth.
17.1.5 Quantity Indication
Some aircraft use a simple sight gauge by the side of the tank to indicate the
level of the waste tank contents. On larger aircraft the tank will be fitted with a
sensor to remotely signal the tank levels to the cabin crew. One method of
indication is to use a gauge on the attendants panel and a corresponding gauge
which is fed from the same float and electrical transmitter on the water service
panel.
Page 17-6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11.17
WASTE WATER
OPEN DRAIN
CONNECTION
WATER MAIN
CONNECTOR
WATER
DRAIN
HANDLE
WATER VENT
VALVE
OPEN
CLOSE
D
WATER SYSTEM
MAIN VALVE
WATER FILL
CONNECTOR
CLOSE
D
FILL CONNECTION
WITH COVER
Servicing Panel
Figure 4
The filling point on the panel will allow the replenishing rig/ truck to fill the tank
during a turnaround servicing, whilst the drain/overflow will show when the tank is
full. When full any excess water overflows out of the overflow line. Once the water
is seen from the overflow valve the fill/vent valve is closed to the vent position.
The quantity indicator will allow the tank to be filled to a 'less-than-full' quantity,
where the aircraft is, perhaps, on very short flight legs and the excess weight of
the water that will not be used, is traded-off against fuel. The external air
connection allows a ground air air source to be connected to allow the water to be
moved, within the system, whenever there is no internal air pressure available.
Figure 5 shows a typical potable water system.
Page 17-7
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11.17
WASTE WATER
FILL LINE
FILL/VENT VALVE
STACK
PIPE
WATER
TANK
WATER DRAIN
VALVE
OVERFILL LINE
FILL POINT
QTY
GAUGE
Replenishment System
Figure 5
The water drain valve is manually operated and allows the tank contents to drain
under gravity. When the tank is emptied the drain valve is manually re-set. The
fill/vent valve can be manually or electrically operated and rotates the valve to the
fill or vent position. Its operation may also electrically isolate the air compressor, if
fitted during filling.
The purpose of the vent valve is to prevent an air lock occurring in the wash basin
taps by opening the tap lines to atmosphere. Modern aircraft have self venting
taps which automatically relieve any air locks.
17.2 WASTE SYSTEMS
The provision of aircraft toilets is an essential requirement for any aircraft carrying
passengers over long distances. These toilets must be maintained and serviced
with care, as the comfort and health of the passenger must be protected. They
should be clean and odour free at all times.
There are three main types of toilet fitted to aircraft. The type used will depend
upon the number of passengers the aircraft can carry, and also the age of the
aircraft. In all cases it is essential that all the relevant health precautions are
observed during all forms of servicing carried out on these units.
Due to the nature of the fluids carried in many toilets, protection must also be
given to the structure of the aircraft to protect it from corrosion caused by these
fluids.
Page 17-8
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11.17
WASTE WATER
Filter.
Drain Valve
Rinse Ring.
Flush Line.
Air vent.
Page 17-9
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11.17
WASTE WATER
System Operation
When the flush button is pressed, the motor runs for a fixed time, usually around
10 seconds, which pumps the fluid through the bowl spray pipe in a swirling
action. This action flushes the bowl contents into the tank, via a lightly sprung
(loaded into the closed position) hinged separator. At the end of the 10-second
cycle, the motor re-arms to run again, in the reverse direction, to ensure the filter
does not become blocked with solid waste.
Page 17-10
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11.17
WASTE WATER
Page 17-11
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11.17
WASTE WATER
Emptying
Large aircraft usually hold waste in a storage tank that is emptied after the aircraft
has landed. The task of emptying the tanks at the end of the flight usually rests
with the specialist companies, sub-contracted to the airlines, they empty all waste
tanks at particular airports.
The tanks are emptied in one of two methods, gravity or suction. The gravity
method empties the tank, after the hose of the toilet emptying vehicle has been
connected, by simply operating the shut-off valve. Once the tank is emptied, it is
flushed out and, depending on the type of tank, replenished with deodorising
fluid.
Suction requires both that the emptying vehicle has the correct equipment, (set at
the correct suction value), and that the aircraft has ducting that is cleared for use
with suction equipment. If the aircraft only has 'gravity' emptying ducting and
piping, severe damage will be caused to much of the toilet equipment, if used
with vacuum emptying equipment.
Page 17-12
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11.17
WASTE WATER
Page 17-13
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11.17
WASTE WATER
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
Page 17-14
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PART ONE
CONTENTS
1
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
Part 1 Page 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.18
1.19
1.20
1.21
1.22
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.29
1.30
1.31
1.32
1.33
1.34
1.35
1.36
Part 1 - Page 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.37
1.38
1.39
1.40
1.41
1.42
1.43
1.44
1.45
1.46
Part 1 Page 3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
Part 1 - Page 4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2. Gyroscopic instruments
3. Compasses.
4. Mechanical indicators
5. Electronic instruments
AT 8,000ft
240mb
HEIGHT X 1000ft
50
45
40
35
30
AT 8,000ft
750mb
25
AT SEA
LEVEL
1013mb
20
15
10
5
0
0
.100
.200
.300
.400
.500
.600
.700
.800
.900
1.000
Height/Pressure Graph
Figure 1
Page 1-1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The Troposphere.
2.
The Stratosphere.
3.
The Chemosphere.
135
+22.473
140,000ft
125
115
STRATOPAUSE 104,987ft
105
-56.5
95
ALTITUDE FEET X 1000
85
75
STRATOPHERE - TEMPERATURE
AT -56.5C
65
55
45
TROPOPAUSE 36,090ft
35
-56.5
25
TROPOSPHERE - TEMPERATURE
DECREASES 1.98C FOR AN
INCREASE IN HEIGHT OF 1000ft
15
5
+15
0
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
TEMPERATURE (DEGREES C)
Atmosphere Bands
Figure 2
Page 1-2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The height of these layers varies considerably with latitude and the season. It is
assumed that the troposphere extends to a height of 36,090ft and has a
temperature gradient falling at a linear rate to 56.5C at 36,090ft. The
stratosphere is assumed to range from 36,090ft to 104,987ft and to have a
constant temperature of 56.5C. Above this is the Chemosphere, extending to
the limits of the atmosphere and which is assumed to have a temperature
gradient, which initially rises approximately 2C for each 1000ft of altitude. For
the purpose of aircraft pressure instruments, these higher levels are not
important.
1.1.1 STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
To be able to produce an instrument capable of accurately measuring aircraft
height (and speed) using only the prevailing atmospheric pressure, requires that
the instrument be calibrated and tested against a set of standard conditions.
Standard atmospheres have been in use since 1800s. the early ones being
based on very simple temperature laws. During WW1, these were found to be
inadequate, this led to the development and the international acceptance in 1924
of the International Committee on Air Navigation (ICAN) standard. This standard
was adopted by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) in 1952.
Advances in aircraft performance and the introduction of missiles highlighted the
need for an increase in the altitude range of the standard atmosphere, the ICAO
limit being 65,000ft. This introduced two further standards to supplement the
ICAO standard, these being the Wright Air Development Centre (WADC) and the
Air Research Development Command (ARDC). Table 1 shows the comparison of
the standard atmospheres.
Height in feet
x 1000
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
ICAN
1013.25
696.91
465.63
301.89
187.61
115.81
71.79
44.36
-
ARDC
1013.25
696.91
465.63
300.89
188.23
115.97
71.716
44.438
27.425
17.067
10.820
6.981
4.5779
3.0476
2.0575
1.4650
0.9727
Page 1-3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 3 shows a Pressure head as fitted to aircraft to allow Pitot and Static
pressures to the relevant indicators.
PITOT LINE
STATIC LINE
HEATER
CONNECTION
FORWARD
PITOT PROBE
STATIC VENTS
Page 1-5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FUSELAGE
STATIC
VENT
STATIC
PIPE
Page 1-6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-7
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Methods of draining the pipelines varies between aircraft types and are designed
to have a capacity sufficient to allow for the accumulation of the maximum
amount of water that could enter the system between maintenance periods.
Figure 6 shows a typical water drain valve.
ORANGE
FLOAT
INDICATOR
TRANSPARENT
PLASTIC PIPE
DRAIN
VALVE
BAYONET
FITTING
CAP
(SELF SEALING)
Page 1-8
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 7 shows the connection and equations for the primary Air Data
instruments.
Page 1-9
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.3 ALTIMETERS
1.3.1 ANEROID BAROMETER
In its simplest form, if a membrane or pressure sensitive capsule is to be used to
measure pressure, it usually forms part of a sealed capsule. If the capsule is
evacuated, the atmospheric pressure on the outside of the capsule will force the
capsule into the chamber until its resistance is sufficient to support the
atmospheric pressure. The greater the atmospheric pressure the greater the
movement of the capsule, before a balance is attained, and vice versa.
If a linkage mechanism is attached to the membrane, this movement can be
transmitted to a pointer to reflect the movement of the capsule. This then is the
principle upon which the aneroid barometer is based for the measurement of
atmospheric pressure. Figure 8 shows a simplified aneroid barometer.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
PIVOT
CAPSULE STACK
Page 1-10
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
POINTER
AIRTIGHT
INSTRUMENT
CASE
EXTERNAL STILL
AIR PRESSURE
(STATIC)
CAPSULE STACK
Simplified Altimeter
Figure 9
It consists of an airtight instrument case containing an evacuated capsule stack.
The capsule stack is connected by a system of levers and gears to a pointer
which, moves over a scale calibrated in feet. External still air (static) pressure is
fed in to the instrument case so that as the aircraft climbs the pressure in the
case falls, allowing the capsule to expand. This motion is then used by the
system of levers and gears to drive the pointer over the dial. When the aircraft
loses altitude, the reverse happens.
Page 1-11
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3 - POINTER ALTIMETER
SINGLEPOINTER ALTIMETER
Barometric Altimeter
Figure 10
Page 1-12
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CASULE
STACK
BIMETAL
U SPRING
Page 1-13
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CAPSULE
BIMETAL
COMPENSATING
LINK
Page 1-14
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PRESSURE
DROP
PRESSURE
RISE
+100ft
ERROR
Ht 5,000ft
843.21
-100ft
ERROR
SEA LEVEL
1013.25
SEA LEVEL
1010.00
SEA LEVEL
1016.55
A1
A2
A3
Pressure Compensation
Figure 13
MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11
Page 1-15
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The ICAO standard atmosphere also assumes a temperature of 15C at sea level
and a temperature drop (lapse rate)of 1.98C per 1000ft up to 36,090ft, it then
remains at a constant temperature of 56.5C. If the lapse rate differs from this
assumption then even a correctly set altimeter will indicate an error when an
aircraft flies into an area where air temperature is higher or lower than that
expected.
Assuming the same sea-level pressures, the pressure at a certain height over a
column of cold air is less than the pressure over a column of warm air at the
same height. This is because cold air is denser than warm air. Therefore, in
these conditions, an altimeter will over-read in air colder than standard conditions
and under-read in air warmer than standard conditions.
To help overcome these problems, the altimeter is fitted with a mechanism which
enables the instrument datum can be adjusted to the prevailing barometric
pressure. This mechanism consists of a system of gears within the instrument,
which is controlled by a knob on the face of the instrument. This knob, called the
Ground Pressure Setting Knob, allows the instrument datum and therefore the
indicator pointers be repositioned without affecting the capsule stack. At the
same time, an indicator, usually calibrated in millibars, will rotate to display the
instrument datum setting. This indicator, known as the Baroscale, can be
displayed as a linear scale but more commonly displayed using a veeder counter
viewed through an aperture in the indicator face.
The altimeter may be adjusted by the ground engineers to the prevailing
atmospheric pressure before take-off, but is more commonly adjusted by the flight
crew, who will obtain information regarding the prevailing atmospheric pressure
from flight maps and from the local Air Traffic Control (ATC) via the aircrafts VHF
communication system. The information obtained in this way is given in the form
of radio Q codes, the most important of which are:
QFE Airfield barometric pressure. Altimeters with the baroscale set to this
will read zero feet when landing or taking-off at the airport for which the QFE was
given.
QNH Actual sea-level barometric pressure. Altimeters with the baroscale set
to this will indicate height above mean sea-level (MSL).
QNE Standard sea-level barometric pressure (1013.25). Altimeters with the
baroscale set to 1013.25 will indicate Standard Pressure Altitude.
QFE is normally set into the altimeter before take-off and on approach before
landing at any particular airport. QNH is normally set into the altimeter when the
aircraft is below 3,000. QNE set into the altimeter when the aircraft is above
3,000ft.
Page 1-16
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
STANDARD SETTING
1013.25 MILLIBARS
SEA LEVEL
HEIGHT ABOVE
AIRFIELD
QFE
HEIGHT ABOVE
SEA LEVEL
QNH
FLIGHT LEVEL
QNE
Radio Q Codes
Figure 14
MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11
Page 1-17
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Direct Servo-Control.
2.
Page 1-18
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-19
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
POINTER
Page 1-20
MILLIBAR
COUNTERS
GROUND
PRESSURE
SETTING KNOB
WORM GEAR
SHAFT
MILLIBAR
ADJUSTING BAR
LEVER
CAM
FOLLOWER
OVERRUN
SWITCH
HEIGHT
COUNTERS
WARNING
FLAG
SOLENOID
MOTOR
SERVO
AMP
TRANSFORMER
CAPSULES
115V
400Hz
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Providing the I bar is equidistant from the E bar limbs, the resultant output
from the secondary coils will be zero. However, when a change of altitude
occurs, the I bar will pivot to follow the capsule movement and consequently the
air gaps between the outer limbs of the E bar and the I bar will become
unequal. The magnetic flux in the outer limb with the smaller gap will increase
and the induced voltage on that limb will also increase. The opposite effect
occurs in the other outer limb. This results in an output voltage, the magnitude
and phase of which depends upon the amount and direction of the movement of
the I bar. This output voltage is fed via an amplifier to the control winding of a
two-phase AC servo-motor. Figure 17 shows the operation of the E & I
transducer for increases and decrease of height.
A LT I TU D E
C O N ST A NT
(L O W L E V E L )
A LT I TU D E
R IS IN G
(L O W L E V E L )
A .C .
EX CI T AT I ON
SU PP L Y
A .C .
EX CI T AT I ON
SU PP L Y
R E S U LT AN T
W A V E FO RM
A LT I TU D E
C O N ST A NT
(H IG H L E V E L)
R E S U LT AN T
W A V E FO RM
A LT I TU D E
F A L L IN G
(H IG H L E V E L)
A .C .
EX CI T AT I ON
SU PP L Y
A .C .
EX CI T AT I ON
SU PP L Y
R E S U LT AN T
W A V E FO RM
R E S U LT AN T
W A V E FO RM
Page 1-21
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The two-phase AC motor has its main winding supplied with a constant reference
voltage from the transformer. When the I bar is displaced by the movement of
the capsules, the resultant voltage output to the servo-motor control winding
either lags or leads the reference voltage. This sets up a rotating field in the
motor, which causes it to rotate in a direction such that the pointer and digital
counter moves in the correct sense to indicate the increase or decrease in
altitude. At the same time the servo-motor drives the cam and cam follower
which re-positions the E bar to equalise the air gaps between the E bar cores
and the I bar, thus reducing the transducer output to zero when the aircrafts
height stabilises.
As the motor only drives the indicator, any power failure will result in the
indication remaining at the height shown when the power failed. For this reason
a Power Failure Warning Indicator (PFWI) is fitted to the instrument. The PFWI
takes the form of a spring-loaded flag, which is held out of view by solenoid action
while the power is connected. Any power failure removes the supply from the
solenoid, allowing the flag to be returned into view by the spring action.
To prevent the servomotor overrunning and damaging the altimeter mechanism,
an overrun limit switch is incorporated. When the cam reaches a predetermined
position, a stud on the side of the cam makes contact with the limit switch, opens
its contacts and disconnects the electrical supply from the altimeter. The
servomotor stops and the PFWI comes into view.
1.5.1 DATUM PRESSURE SETTING
As with the basic altimeter, a Ground Pressure Setting Knob (GPSK) is provided
to allow the various Q codes to be set into the instrument. When this knob is
rotated, the veeder counter is turned by the associated gear train to show the
millibars set. Rotation of the knob also alters the setting of the millibar
adjustment rod; this moves the millibar lever about its pivot causing the worm
gear to move laterally. Movement of the worm gear shaft in this way rotates the
differential gear, cam and cam follower, displacing the E bar relative to the I
bar. An error signal is therefore generated and fed via the amplifier to the servomotor, driving the indicator gear train, the worm gear cam and cam follower and
the E bar back to the zero output position. The altimeter now shows aircraft
altitude with respect to the ground pressure set onto the baroscale.
Page 1-22
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-23
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MILLIBAR
SETTING
KNOB
SIGNAL
CAPSULE
MECHANISM
ALTITUDE SIGNAL
FROM ADC
CX
SYNCHRO
CONTROL
TRANSFORMER
SERVO
AMP
DRAG
CUP
MOTOR
ANTI
BACKLASH
GEAR
HEIGHT
COUNTERS
MILLIBAR
COUNTER
POINTER
Page 1-24
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AC power failure.
2.
3.
Amplifier failure.
4.
Difference at sea-level between the input signal and standby altimeter of more
than 4,000ft (difference increases with an increase of altitude).
Under these conditions, the main AC supply is isolated, the standby flag drops
into view and the vibrator is energised.
In addition to the circumstances listed above, the standby mode can be selected
by momentarily setting the mode selector switch to STANDBY. This interrupts
the supply and allows the self-maintaining relay to de-energise thus isolating the
main supply. This action completes the DC supply circuit for the vibrator and
returns the standby flag into view.
Page 1-25
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-26
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
EN D
P L A TE
T E M P E R A TU R E
C OM PEN SA TOR
F IL T E R
C IR C L IP
M E C H AN IS M
P L A TE
H A N D S T A FF &
P I N IO N A S S E M B L Y
R O C K IN G S H A F T
P O IN T E R
& S E C TO R A S S E M B L Y
Cabin Altimeter
Figure 20
Page 1-27
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-28
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A IRS P E E D
PI VOT
A T MO SPH ER IC
PR ES SU R E
PI T OT
PR ES SU R E
C A PSU L E S T AC K
A T MO SPH ER IC
PR ES SU R E
S T AT IC
P R E S S U RE
G E A R ING
P IT O T
P R E S S U RE
P O IN T E R
C AP S UL E
Page 1-29
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The Airspeed Indicator in its most simple form consists of a sealed instrument
case with a capsule which has pitot pressure applied to its inside while static
pressure is fed to the case. The movement of the capsule is due only to the
effects of the dynamic pressure, which results directly from the aircrafts speed
through the air. Figure 22 shows two types of simple airspeed indicators.
Airspeed Indicators
Figure 22
Page 1-30
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
P = V2 + S
Where
P = Pitot Pressure.
= air density.
V = aircraft velocity.
S = Static Pressure.
It can be seen from the above formula that the actual dynamic pressure build-up
increases as the square of the aircrafts speed increases whereas the movement
of the capsule has a linear response to pressure change. If therefore, as is
normally required, the instrument scale is to be linear with respect to speed, and
not compressed or cramped at low speeds, the square law pressure rise must be
compensated for within the indicator. This is normally achieved using a ranging
spring assembly as shown in figure 23.
RANGING
SCREWS
RANGING
PLATE
RANGING
SPRING
CASULE
Page 1-31
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Mach Number =
TRUE AIRSPEED
LOCAL SPEED OF SOUND
When referring to aircraft flying speeds with respect to the speed of sound, there
are three distinct speed bands:
Page 1-32
1.
2.
3.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.8.4 MACHMETER
Figure 24 shows a typical Machmeter.
Machmeter
Figure 24
To enable the Machmeter to indicate aircraft speed as a factor of local or ambient
speed of sound, the airspeed as measured by the instrument is modified by
altitude. This is accomplished by using a different airspeed capsule operating in
conjunction with an aneroid altitude capsule. These two being housed within a
single instrument and coupled together in such a way that the Mach number
indicated is increased with an increase in the aircrafts airspeed and further
increased with an increase in the aircrafts altitude.
Page 1-33
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ALTITUDE
CAPSULE
RETAINING
SPRING
PUSH
ROD
SECTOR
ROCKING
ARM
POINTER
VERTICAL
LINK
HIGH
PITOT
ENTRY
PIVOT
LOW
AIRSPEED
CAPSULE
Machmeter Schematic
Figure 25
As can be seen from the diagram in figure 25, an increase of aircraft speed
causes the dynamic pressure P-S to increase and the airspeed capsule to
expand. This motion is then transmitted via the vertical link, rocking arm and
sector arm to the pointer; causing it to move up the Mach number scale. A rise in
altitude causes the altitude capsule to expand, this motion is transmitted to the
rocking arm, via the rocking arm pivot, moving the rocking arm towards the centre
line of the sector arm pivot. The rocking arm therefore moves closer to the pivot
of the sector arm. This action modifies and increases the effect of the airspeed
capsule causing the indicated Mach speed to be increased.
Page 1-34
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-35
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
HAIRSPRING
BI-METALIC LINK
TUNING BLOCK
STATIC
SECTOR
AIRSPEED
CAPSULE
POINTER
PITOT
MACH
DISC
ALTITUDE
CAPSULE
HAIRSPRING
SECTOR
AIRSPEED
DIAL
HAIRSPRING
BI-METALIC LINK
ALTITUDE ROCKING SHAFT
Page 1-36
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The altitude capsule is connected to a disc located behind the ASI pointer and
inside the ASI scale. The Mach scale is printed on this disc. An increase in
altitude, causes the altitude capsule to expand driving the Mach scale disc
counter clockwise, whilst an increase in airspeed causes the pointer to move
clockwise. The result of this is that an increase of airspeed and/or altitude
produces an increase in the Mach number reading on the innerscale against the
ASI pointer.
1.8.7 SERVO OPERATED CSI
This instrument has a conventional ASI mechanism combined with a servocontrolled digital Mach speed counter providing the dual display. The
servomechanism usually receives its control signals from the ADC. Because the
Machmeter part of the instrument is power operated the instrument is provided
with a power failure warning indicator. This normally takes the form of a power
failure warning flag, or shutters which obscure the Mach digital counters in the
failed mode.
There is also a second pointer on this type of CSI and is known as the Velocity
Maximum Operating (Vmo) pointer. This is provided for the purpose of indicating
the maximum safe speed of an aircraft over its operating altitude range; in other
words, it is an indication of the critical Mach number.
This instrument also has a command bug and associated setting know in the
bottom left hand corner of the instrument. This is used to set a required airspeed
value, which can be used as the datum for an autothrottle control system, or as a
fast/slow speed indicator. There are also five external index pointers around the
bezel, which are manually set to any desired reference speed, i.e. take off speeds
V1 and V2.
Page 1-37
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CALIBRATED
CHOKE
STATIC
PRESSURE
STATIC
TUBE
CAPSULE
Page 1-38
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Referring to figure 28, the pressure flow into and out of the case is restricted by a
calibrated choke, when the aircraft climbs, the pressure in the capsule falls,
maintaining a balance with external (to the aircraft) air pressure. The pressure
within the instrument case also falls, but is unable to escape at the same rate as
that from the capsule, causing a pressure differential to occur. The pressure
within the instrument case being the greater when compared to the capsule. This
causes the capsule to contract, and by a series of linkages the indicator pointer to
indicate the rate of climb.
The faster the change of altitude the greater the differential pressure, which
results in a greater contraction of the capsule and a further deflection of the
instrument pointer to indicate a greater rate of climb. Upon descent, the capsule
pressure becomes greater than that of the instrument case and the capsule
expands, causing the pointer to indicate a descent. In level flight the two
pressures are in balance and the pointer indicates zero
Figure 29 shows a typical vertical speed indicator.
Page 1-39
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.9.2 CALIBRATION
Calibration is set during manufacture and cannot be adjusted during servicing
and testing. Calibration of the instrument is achieved by two calibration springs,
which act on the centre of the capsule via a calibration stem. The forces exerted
by the calibration springs are modified during calibration by two rows of screws,
one row bearing onto the top spring and the other the bottom spring.
Adjustment of the screws varies the effective length of the spring, which
dependant upon capsule position will control the capsules response to pressure
change and will therefore modify the indications produced. The upper spring
controls the expansion of the capsule (rate of descent) and lower spring controls
the compression of the capsule (rate of ascent). Figure 30 shows the inside of a
vertical speed indicator showing the calibration springs.
CALIBRATION
SPRINGS
ROCKING
SHAFT
MECHANISM
CALIBRATION
SCREWS
BALANCE
WEIGHT
LINK
CALIBRATION
SCREWS
METERING
UNIT
CALIBRATION
BRACKET
STATIC
CAPILIARY
TUBE
CAPSULE
Page 1-40
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Altitude Compensation
Temperature Compensation
The viscosity of the air is proportional to temperature; viscosity falling with a drop
in temperature. The effects of this is that the pressure difference across an orifice
for a given rate of altitude change increases with a decrease in temperature.
Conversely, the pressure differential across a capillary tube for a given rate of
altitude change decreases as temperature decreases. Thus, during design, a
correct combination of orifice and capillary tubes can be chosen which will
provide a stable pressure differential over a wide range of altitude and
temperature changes. Figure 31 shows the internal working of a metering unit.
GASKETS
AIR
FILTER
CAPILLARY
STATIC
INPUT
ORIFICE
CONNECTING TUBE
TO CAPSULE
Metering Unit
Figure 31
Page 1-41
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Tilting Freedom:
Veering Freedom:
The three degrees of freedom are obtained by mounting the rotor in two
concentrically pivoted rings, called inner and outer rings. The whole assembly is
known as the gimbal system of a free or space gyroscope. The gimbal system is
mounted in a frame so that in its normal operating position, all the axes are
mutually at right angles to one another and intersect at the center of gravity of the
rotor.
The system will not exhibit gyroscopic properties unless the rotor is spinning.
When the rotor is spinning at high speed the device becomes a true gyroscope
possessing two important fundamental properties:
1. Gyroscopic Inertia (Rigidity).
2. Precession.
1.10.2 RIGIDITY
The property, which resists any, force tending to change the plane of rotor
rotation. It is dependent on:
1. The mass of the rotor.
2. The speed of rotation.
Page 1-42
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.10.3 PRECESSION
The angular change in direction of the plane of rotation under the influence of an
applied force. The change in direction takes place, not in line with the force, but
always at a point 90 away in the direction of rotation. The rate of precession
also depends on:
1. The strength and direction of the applied force.
2. The angular velocity of the rotor.
Figure 32 shows a gyroscope.
Z
FRAME
ROTOR
OUTER
RING
X
Y
INNER
RING
Gyroscope.
Figure 32
Page 1-43
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
B
C
Gyro Rigidity
Figure 33
Gyro A has its spin axes parallel with the Earth's spin axes, located at the North
Pole. It could hold this position indefinitely.
Gyro B has its spin axes parallel to the Earth's spin axes, but located at the
Equator. As the Earth rotates, it would appear to continually point North.
Gyro C is also situated at the Equator. As the Earth rotates, it appears to rotate
about its axes, however it is the Earth that is rotating and not the gyro.
This rigidity can be used in a number of gyro instruments including the directional
gyro.
Page 1-44
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.10.4 PRECESSION
If an external force is applied to a spinning gyro, its effect will be felt at 90 0 from
the point of application, in the direction of gyro rotation. This is known as
precession. It can be seen in Figure 34, that if a force is applied to the bottom of
the rotating wheel, it will rotate about its horizontal axis.
This property is not wanted in some instruments, such as directional gyros. The
use of precession is used in turn indicators, which will be covered later.
DIRECTION
OF
ROTATION
PRECESSION RATE
= APPLIED FORCE
90 IN THE
DIRECTION OF SPIN
SPIN AXIS
90
APPLIED
FORCE
DIRECTION
OF
PRECESSION
Gyro Precession
Figure 34
Page 1-45
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-46
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In order for the gyro to be used to indicate the aircraft's attitude, it has to be
corrected to continually be aligned to the vertical. These corrections are very
slow and gentle, since the amount of correction needed, for example, in a tenminute period is small. Figure 36 shows a vertical gyro corrected to the local
vertical.
Page 1-47
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Instruments that use either the rigidity or the precession of gyros are:
1. Gyro Horizon Unit.
2. Attitude Director Indicator.
3. Standby Horizon Unit.
4. Direction Indicator.
5. Turn and Slip Indicator.
6. Turn Co-ordinator.
1.11 GYRO HORIZON UNIT
The Gyro Horizon Unit gives a representation of the aircrafts pitch and roll
attitudes relative to its vertical axis. For this it uses a displacement gyroscope
whose spin axis is vertical. Figure 37 shows a displacement gyro and the two
axis of displacement.
ROLL
PITCH
Displacement Gyro
Figure 37
Page 1-48
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Indications of attitude are presented by the relative positions of two elements, one
symbolising the aircraft itself, the other in the form of a bar stabilized by the
gyroscope and symbolising the natural horizon. Figure 38 shows a typical Gyro
Horizon Unit.
SPERRY
Page 1-49
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
X
OUTER
RING
ROTOR
Z1
SYMBOLIC
AIRCRAFT
BALANCE
WEIGHT
PIVOT
POINT
Z
Y1
ROLL
POINTER
& SCALE
X1
HORIZON
BAR
Page 1-50
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The horizon bar is pivoted at the side and to the rear of the outer ring and
engages an actuating pin fixed to the inner ring, thus forming a magnifying lever
system. The pin passes through a curved slit in the outer ring. In a climb attitude
the pivot carries the rear end of the bar upwards so that it pivots about the
stabilized actuating pin. The front end of the bar is therefore moved downwards
through a greater angle than that of the outer ring, and since the movement is
relative to the symbolic aircraft element, the bar will indicate a climb attitude.
Figure 40 shows climb attitude operation.
HORIZON BAR
Page 1-51
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Changes in the lateral attitude of an aircraft, i.e. rolling, displaces the instrument
case about the axis (ZZ1), and the whole stabilized gimbal system. Hence, lateral
attitude changes are indicated by movement of the symbolic aircraft element
relative to the horizon bar, and also by relative movement between the roll angle
scale and pointer. Figure 41 shows roll attitude operation.
BANK TO
PORT
DATUM
X
Page 1-52
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
VIBRATION
ISOLATION
MOUNTS
PITCH ERECTION
CUTOFF SWITCHES
FRAME
DEHYDRATION
PLUG
GYRO
CASE
ROLL ERECTION
CUTOFF SWITCHES
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTION
BONDING
STRAP
GIMBAL
RING
Page 1-53
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-54
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
GSL
FD
2
AT
RW
TEST
Page 1-55
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.13.1 WARNINGS
1. ATT Flag
Indicates an internal failure of the ADI or a Gyro Attitude (VRU) failure.
2. FD Flag
Indicates an internal failure of the command bars for any axis or flight director
failure.
3. LOC Flag
Indicates a loss of the localiser valid signal, or insufficient signal with index off
scale.
4. Glideslope Flag
Indicates loss of the localiser valid (G/S) signal with index off scale.
1.13.2 ATTITUDE DISTRIBUTION
Figure 44 shows a block schematic of the attitude transfer switching circuit and
shows the distribution of the attitude information. The transfer switching is drawn
in the NORMAL position fed from 28V ESS DC.
Switching allows either gyro to supply both ADI attitude displays and the
autopilot. The flight data recorder and weather radar are hard wired to No 1 gyro.
Primary outputs are used exclusively for the ADI attitude displays. Buffered
secondary 3 wire outputs are used for the autopilot, FDR and ADI crossswitching. The latter arrangement prevents a faulty ADI being paralleled with the
other ADI thus causing the loss of both.
The instrument comparator monitor (ICM) provides comparison of the ADI
attitude displays. A two wire roll signal is also fed to the ICM to increase the
heading warning threshold in turns.
Page 1-56
115V
AC No 2
115V
AC ESS
VERT GYRO 2
SECONDARY
SECONDARY
VERT GYRO 1
Attitude Distribution
Figure 44
Page 1-57
26V AC
NO 2
26V AC
ESS
26V AC
NO 2
ALL ON
1
P/R
AUTOPILOT
ADI
No 1
ADI
No 2
AUTOPILOT (RACO)
WX RADAR
APDU
FDR
WX
(ARINC 708)
P/R
P/R
P/R
P/R
ALL ON
2
P/R
ERROR
ROLL THRESHOLD
MONITOR
INSTRUMENT
COMPARATOR
MONITOR
(ICM)
COMPARARATOR
RESOLVER
COMPARARATOR
RESOLVER
26V AC
ESS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
VERT GYRO
No 2
115V AC (No 2)
VERT GYRO
No 1
115V AC (ESS)
N
1
A.I.D.S.
WX RX
2
1
AUTOPILOT
CAPTAIN
FROM HSI
COMPASS (LH)
INST. COMP.
MONITOR
FROM HSI
COMPASS (RH)
FIRST OFFICER
ROLL
ANGLE
CUTOUT
(RACO)
Attitude Switching
Figure 45
Page 1-58
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-59
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.14.2 RUNNING UP
28 V DC is applied to the indicator, which produces a three, phase 19 V, 400 Hz
supply to the stator winding of the gyro. The stator becomes energised and the
gyro rotor begins to run up. When it has reached 18,000 rpm a sensor operates
the gyro flag on the upper right part of the display causing it to disappear from
view. This indicates that the gyro has attained a usable airspeed and there is a
power supply to the unit.
1.14.3 ERECTION CONTROL
Erection control is achieved through a single-pendulum mechanical erector
device, which basically slaves the gyro erector assembly to the local vertical.
Should the gyro axis deviate from the vertical axis, it will be acted upon by the
erector device to cancel out this deviation and return the gyro to the vertical axis.
The erection control consists of a reduction gear, erector bob-weight and a
moving pendulum. Energy from the gyro is taken through a reduction gear to
drive a gearwheel integral with the erector bob-weight. An assembly consisting of
the erector bob-weight and moving pendulum is driven about the same shaft. The
erector bob-weight is also driven about the reduction gear shaft and rotates at a
speed of approximately 40-rpm. The moving pendulum is driven between two
limits called the stop and driving plates. When the shaft is aligned with vertical
axis the pendulum and bob-weight are in the horizontal plane. The pendulum is
then forced against its driving plate by the function torque of its bearings, which
counteracts the driving effect of the bob-weight.
If the shaft deviates from the vertical axis, the pendulum is no longer in the
horizontal plane. It will move erratically, the effect of which will be to bring the
shaft into alignment with the vertical axis.
1.14.4 CAGING
As the gyro runs up to speed, the gyroscopic assembly may occupy any random
position inside its casing. Caging to case datum may be rapidly achieved and
without abruptness, by pulling the fast erection knob approximately thirty seconds
after energising the gyro. This brings the gyroscopic assembly to the vicinity of
the vertical axis and when the knob is released it is free to move and aligns itself
precisely with the vertical axis.
1.14.5 ATTITUDE INDICATION
When the gyro is erected and running at full speed and the aircraft is in a level
flight attitude, then the horizontal line on the datum and the roll pointer (which are
both attached to the gyro mechanism) are aligned with the aeroplane index and
the roll scale datum respectively. Because the gyro axis remains at the local
vertical due to the gravity sensitive erection control system, movement of the
aircraft (and therefore the instrument dial carrying the pitch datum and roll datum)
from the vertical is relative to the gyro. Aircraft movement in the pitch axis causes
Page 1-60
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
a vertical displacement between the horizon line and the aeroplane index;
movement about the roll axis causes a rotational displacement between the
horizon line and the aeroplane index and also between the roll pointer and the
roll scale datum. Figure 47 shows a simplified circuit for the Standby Attitude
Indicator.
0.3 A
1A
28V DC
EMERG/BATT
STATIC
INVERTER
19V AC
400 Hz
GYRO
ROTOR
SPEED
SENSOR
5V AC
INSTRUMENT
LIGHTING
Page 1-61
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-62
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.15.1 DESCRIPTION
The attitude display comprises a two-coloured spherical drum mounted on pivots,
a roll pointer registering against a roll scale, and an aircraft symbol, the horizon is
represented by the intersection of the two colours of the sphere; these are blue
and brown, denoting sky and earth respectively. Attitude is indicated by the
position of the sphere relative to the aircraft symbol. Pitch angle is indicated by a
graduated scale on the sphere, the indication is limited to 65 degrees in dive and
105 degrees in climb. Roll freedom is unlimited and roll angle is indicated by the
position of the roll pointer relative to the roll scale. Power failure or insufficient
gyro rotational speed is indicated by the appearance of a flag in the upper righthand portion of the dial presentation. The flag is coloured fluorescent red, with
four superimposed diagonal black stripes.
After the gyro commences to run up, a fast erection mechanism is used to bring it
to the vertical position. This is brought into operation by pulling the knob on the
front of the instrument and waiting for a few seconds until the horizon line
stabilises at its datum position and the roll index reads zero.
Localiser and glideslope pointers indicate ILS deviation and are driven from No. 1
VHF navigation system. LOC and G/S failure warning flags are driven out of view
by external 28 V DC validity signals also emanating from NAV 1 receiver; the
flags are in view when the validity signals are missing or do not conform. When
power is applied to the NAV 1 receiver but it is not tuned to a localiser frequency,
external bias voltages remove the LOC and G/S pointers and flags from view.
Figure 49 shows the Standby Attitude Indicator internal circuit.
Page 1-63
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1A
28V DC
EMERG/BATT
STATIC
INVERTER
GYRO
G/S
SIGNAL
LOC
SIGNAL
G/S
VALIDITY
LOC
VALIDITY
5V AC
INSTRUMENT
LIGHTING
Page 1-64
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
180
170
Directional Indicator
Figure 50
Page 1-65
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In the directional gyro, the rotor is enclosed in a case, or shroud, and supported
in an inner gimbal which is mounted in an outer gimbal, the bearings of which are
located top and bottom on the indicator case. The front of the case contains a
cut-out through which the card is visible, and also a lubber line reference.
The caging/setting knob is provided at the front of the case to set the indicator
onto the correct heading (magnetic). When the setting the heading, the inner
gimbal has to be caged to prevent it from precessing as the outer gimbal is
rotated. Figure 51 shows the construction of a directional gyro.
Directional Gyro
Figure 51
Page 1-66
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2 MIN
Page 1-67
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
For the detection of rates of turn, a rate gyroscope is used and is arranged in the
manner shown in figure 53.
INPUT
AXIS
FWD
Y1
F
Y
X1
Page 1-68
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
When the aircraft turns to the left about the vertical input axis the rigidity of the
rotor will resist the turning movement, which it detects as an equivalent force
being applied to its rim at point F. The gimbal ring and rotor will therefore be
tilted about the longitudinal axis as a result of precession at point P.
As the gimbal ring tilts, it stretches the calibrated spring until the force it exerts
prevents further deflection of the gimbal ring. Since precession of a rate gyro is
equal to its angular momentum and the rate of turn, then the spring force is a
measure of the rate of turn.
Actual movement of the gimbal ring from its zero position can, therefore, be taken
as the required measure of turn rate.
1.17.1 BANK INDICATION
In addition to the primary indication of turn rate, it is also necessary to have an
indication that an aircraft is correctly banked for the particular turn. A secondary
indicating mechanism is therefore provided, which, depends for its operation on
the effect of gravitational and centrifugal forces. A method commonly used for
bank indication is one utilising a ball in a curved liquid-filled glass tube as shown
in Figure 26.
In the normal level flight the ball is held at the center of the tube by the force of
gravity. Let us assume the aircraft turns left at a certain airspeed and bank angle.
The indicator case and the tube move with the aircraft and centrifugal force (CF)
in addition to that of gravity acts upon the ball and tends to displace it outwards
from the center of the tube. However, when the turn is executed at the correct
bank angle and matched with airspeed, then there is a balanced condition
between the two forces and so the resultant force (R) hold the ball in the center of
the tube.
If the airspeed were to be increased during the turn, then the bank angle and
centrifugal force would also be increased. As long as the bank angle is correct
for the appropriate conditions, the new resultant force will still hold the ball
central.
If the bank angle for a particular rate of turn is not correct (under-banked/overbanked), then the aircraft will tend to either skid or slip. In the skid condition the
centrifugal force will be the greatest, whereas in the slip condition the force of
gravity is greatest.
Page 1-69
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Bank Indications
Figure 54
Page 1-70
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TURN COORDINATION
R
2 MIN
NO PITCH
INFORMATION
Page 1-71
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
One radio bearing pointer displays the bearing to the next WPT. The bearing
pointer is a pink arrow.
A window to the left of the heading dial displays an ALERT annunciator flag to
indicate the proximity of a navigation reference point.
On the top left and top right hand corners of the instrument are to windows
labeled DIST (distance to waypoint) and GND SPD (ground speed) respectively.
Three windows located in the lower left hand corner of the instrument are blank
until one of the auxiliary servo monitors detects a persistent excessive null, at
which time the ISM causes the appropriate servo symbol to come into view.
A cursor consisting of two trapezoids indicates the selected heading on the
heading dial. The heading select indicator is remotely positioned by the heading
(HDG) knob on the navigation selector. A heading (HDG) flag will be displayed,
Page 1-72
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
and will cover the heading index at the 12 oclock position if the heading source
fails, or if there is interrupted supply.
Selected course is displayed on the heading dial by an orange dagger-shaped
indicator, rotating in the centre of the heading dial. A similarly coloured pointer
opposite the dagger-shaped indicator provides the reciprocal of selected course.
The dagger and pointer, together with the airplane symbol, serve as the index for
the course deviation indicator. The course select indicator is remotely positioned
by means of the course setting knobs on the navigation selector. Figure 56
shows a Sperry RD700D HSI.
SELECTED
COURSE
CAPTURED
SELECTED
HEADING
CAPTURED
SELECTED
WAYPOINT
BEARING
CAPTURED
VERTICAL
FAIL FLAG
GLIDESLOPE
COURSE MASK
ANNUNCIATION'S
Page 1-73
VERTICAL
NAVIGATION
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-74
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-75
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-76
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELCTRICAL
CONNECTION
FWD
HINGED
VANE
SYNCHRO
FUSELAGE
SKIN
INDEX
PINS
Page 1-77
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In normal level flight conditions, the airstream maintains the vane in a parallel
position. If the aircrafts attitude changes such that the AOA increases, then by
definition, the airflow will meet the leading edge at an increasing angle, and so
cause the vane to be deflected. Figure 59 shows the detection of the AOA.
A330
ANGLE
OF
ATTACK
VANE ARM
ANGLE OF ATTACK
TRANSDUCER
AIRCRAFT
LONGITUDINAL
AXIS
FLIGHT PATH
AIRFLOW
Detecting AOA
Figure 59
When the AOA reaches that which the warning unit has been pre-set, the vane
activates a circuit to activate the stick shaker on the control column (Indicating the
aircraft is approaching a stall).
Page 1-78
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
VANE SENSOR
SYNCHRO SUPP
HTR
SUPP
K1
GND
FLT
115V
400Hz
28V
DC
WOW
SW
STICK
SHAKER
M
SS1
FLAP
POSITION
TRANSMITTER
AOA SIGNAL
BIAS OFF
DEMODULATOR
Page 1-79
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MOUNTING
BRACKET
STICK-SHAKER
MOTOR
Stick-Shaker Installation
Figure 61
Page 1-80
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
COMBINED
AIRSPEED
INDICATOR
EADI
ALTIMETER
RADIO
MAGNETIC
INDICATOR
EHSI
EFIS
PFD
EFIS
ND
VERTICAL
SPEED
INDICATOR
ECAM
ENGINE
WARNINGS
EFIS
ND
EFIS
PFD
ECAM
SYSTEMS
Page 1-81
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The Electronic Instrument System (EIS) also allows the flight crew to configure
the instrument layout by allowing manual transfer of the Primary Flight Display
(PFD) with the Navigation Display (ND) and the secondary Electronic Centralized
Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM) display with the ND. Figure 63 shows the switching
panel from Airbus A320.
ATT HDG
AIR DATA
NORM
CAPT
3
E/S DMC
NORM
F/O
3
CAPT
3
ECAM / ND XFR
NORM
F/O
3
CAPT
3
NORM
F/O
3
CAPT
F/O
Page 1-82
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
As well as a manual transfer, the system will automatically transfer displays when
either the PFD or the primary ECAM display fails. The PFD is automatically
transferred onto the corresponding ND, with the ECAM secondary display used
for the primary ECAM display.
The system will also automatically transfer the primary ECAM information onto
the ND if a double failure of the ECAM display system occurs. Figure 64 shows a
block schematic of the EIS for the Airbus 320.
DISPLAY
MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
DMS No 1
DISPLAY
MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
DMS No 3
DISPLAY
MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
DMS No 2
Page 1-83
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-84
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-85
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Pitch Attitude:
Roll Attitude:
Aircraft Symbol:
Fast/Slow Display:
Inclinometer:
Page 1-86
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Attitude Source
Annunciation:
Decision Height:
Note; when the Radio Altimeter height is 100 feet above the DH, a white box
appears adjacent to the radio altimeter display. When at or below the DH, an
Amber DH will appear inside the white box.
Flight Director
Mode Annunciators:
Page 1-87
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Marker Beacon:
Outer Marker.
Amber
Middle Marker.
White
Inner Marker.
Rising Runway:
Rate-of-Turn:
Glide Slope:
Expanded Localizer:
Vertical Navigation
Display:
Page 1-88
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-89
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Heading Dial:
Course Deviation
Indicator:
Page 1-90
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Distance Display:
Navigation Source
Annunciators:
Time-to-Go/Ground
Speed:
Desired Track:
Heading Source
Annunciation:
Page 1-91
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Heading SYNC
Annunciator:
Bearing Pointer
Source Annunciators:
Elapsed Time
Annunciation:
Page 1-92
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-93
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Range Rings:
NAVAID Position:
Weather Information:
Page 1-94
1.
Black
No storm.
2.
Green
Moderate storm.
3.
Yellow
4.
Red
Severe storm.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-95
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-96
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-97
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Source Select:
FULL
ARC
GS
TTG
WX
CRS
DIM
ET
DH
MAP
BOT
SC
CP
REV
HDG
TOP
TEST
RASTER DIM
DISPLAY CONTROLLER
NAV
VLF
FMS
INS 1
INS 2
HDG
ATT
VOR 2
ADF 2
ADF 1
VOR 1
ADF 2
AUTO
ADF 1
OFF
OFF
BRG
BRG
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
WX (Weather):
GS/TTG:
ET:
MAP:
SC/CP:
Page 1-99
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
REV:
DIM:
DH:
TEST:
RASTER DIM TOP/BOT: Rotation of the outer (Bottom display) and inner (Top
display) concentric knobs adjusts the raster scan
display (Weather Radar and Attitude Sphere).
HDG:
Page 1-100
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
LRN:
ATT:
BRG:
Page 1-101
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ATT 2
AOA
F
20
20
10
10
10
10
G
GS
WX
TTG
DIM
CRS
DH
SC
MAP
BOT
REV
CP
TOP
S
CMD
M .99
200DH
HDG
TEST
RASTER DIM
AIR
DATA
COMP
NAV
VLF
FMS
INS 1
INS 2
ADF 2
AUTO
ATT
HDG
140RA
Honeywell
VOR 2
CRS
+0
OFF
N
33
H 2.1 NM
3
30
BRG
BRG
NAV 1
345
ADF 1
OFF
DH
VOR 1
ADF 1
E 1
2
INERTIAL
REF
SYSTEM
20
EFIS SG No 1
VOR 1
ADF 2
ADF 1
20
W
24
ARC
ET
21
HDG
NAV AID
ILS/VOR
15
FULL
GSPD
013
130 KTS
EFIS SG No 3
RAD ALT
Honeywell
GS
ATT 2
WEATHER
RADAR
AOA
F
20
20
10
10
10
10
G
S
CMD
M .99
200DH
DME
FULL
ARC
DIM
CRS
FMS
GS
TTG
WX
ET
DH
MAP
BOT
SC
CP
REV
TOP
20
20
DH
140RA
HDG
TEST
RASTER DIM
EFIS SG No 2
AFCS
Honeywell
FMS
INS 1
INS 2
CRS
ATT
HDG
NAV 1
345
+0
AUTO
VOR 1
BRG
ADF 1
HDG
E 1
2
OFF
BRG
013
Page 1-102
H 2.1 NM
3
30
ADF 1
OFF
N
33
VOR 2
VOR 1
ADF 2
W
24
ADF 2
ADF 1
21
VLF
15
GPWS
NAV
GSPD
130 KTS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-103
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
INDICATOR
N
S
TANK
RESISTOR
+ DC
POWER
FUEL TANK
Resistance Gauge
Figure 73
1.30.2 CAPACITANCE QUANTITY INDICATORS
This has the advantage over other quantity systems in that it can give accurate
readings in very large or unusually shaped tanks. The probes within the fuel tank
are actually capacitors. The two plates of the capacitor will be separated by fuel
on the lower end and air on the upper end. Since fuel and air have different
dielectric constant values, the amount of capacitance will change as the fuel level
rises and falls. The probes will then send signals to the flight deck gauges to
indicate fuel contents. This system usually includes a totalizer, which will give a
reading of the total fuel on board. Some fuel systems will also include indications
of fuel used since take-off.
Page 1-104
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TANK UNIT
EMPTY
IS
LOOP
A
IB
LOOP
B
REF C
FULL
2 - PHASE
MOTOR
DISCRIMINATION
STAGE
AMPLIFIER
STAGE
INDICATOR
REF
PHASE
AMPLIFIER UNIT
Page 1-105
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-106
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-107
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CALIBRATED
RESTRAINING
SPRINGS
TURBINE
DECOUPLING
DISK
IMPELLER
FUEL FLOW
IMPELLER
MOTOR
FLUID
PASSAGE
FLUID
PASSAGE
115V
400Hz
TRANSMITTER
MOTOR
CIRCUIT
INDICATOR
Page 1-108
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Referring to figure 77, fuel enters the transmitter impeller, which is rotated at a
constant 60rpm by the synchronous impeller motor. The temperature of the fuel
will determine its volume and the amount of force to be created by the action of
the impeller. The turbine is twisted against its retaining springs by the mass flow
force created by impeller movement. The mass flow electrical transmitter
arrangement works on the principle of a torque synchro.
1.31.3 MOTORLESS MASS FLOW METER SYSTEM
The motorless flow meter represents the latest in electronic solid-state fuel
measuring systems. It is small in size and accounts for variables such as fuel
temperatures and specific gravity with an accuracy of 1% as opposed to 2% for
motor driven flow meters. Almost all the large turbine powered aircraft are
configured with the motorless type, pound per hour fuel flow meter system.
Figure 78 shows a schematic of the Motorless Mass Flow Meter.
DRUM
PICK-OFF
COIL 1
PICK-OFF
COIL 2
DRIVE
FUEL
FLOW
IMPELLER
MAGNET
ONE
SPRING
MAGNET
TWO
Page 1-109
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Referring to figure 78, The flow meter transmitter converts the rate into two
electronic signals. The signals are created as the flowing fuel gives an angular
displacement to two continuously rotating magnets. The magnets induce
electronic impulses into stationary coils and the time difference is used as a
measure of the mass flow rate.
The fuel enters from the drive end and rotates the drum containing magnet 1 and
the drive shaft. The spring connects the drive shaft to the impeller containing
magnet 2. As the magnets rotate, the pick-off coils receive current pulses, the
first pulse occurring at pick-off coil 1. Then as the spring deflects in proportion to
fuel flow, magnet 2 turns with the impeller and induces a current pulse with a time
lag into pick-off coil 2.
The greater the mass flow, the greater the spring deflection and angular
difference between the magnets. The time displacement which, results is directly
proportional to mass flow rate in this motorless transmitter design. The indicator
contains electronic circuits, which convert the time difference to a pound per hour
readout.
Page 1-110
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-111
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DIAPHRAGM
Page 1-112
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
POINTER
STAFF
BOURDON
TUBE
ANCHOR
POINT
GEARING
Page 1-113
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PRESSURE
INPUT
26 V AC
ENGINE
FIREWALL
BOURDON
TUBE
FLIGHTDECK
PRESSURE
INDICATOR
PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER
Page 1-114
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
28V DC
TEMPERATURE
BULB
(RESISTIVE TYPE)
OIL TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR
CONNECTOR
PINS
MICA
INSULATOR
MICA
CORE
NICKEL WINDING
ON MICA CORE
COMPENSATING
COIL
Page 1-115
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The indicator contains a Wheatstone Bridge circuit with the temperature sensor
as the variable resistance. A change rise in temperature causes a rise in the
resistance value and, consequently, unbalances the bridge network with a
corresponding flow of current at the indicator. The indicator pointer is deflected
by an amount equivalent to the temperature change and this is recorded on an
indicator calibrated in degrees centigrade.
1.33.2 THERMOCOUPLE SENSOR
The advantage of the thermocouple sensor over the resistive bulb type is that it
requires no power from the aircraft electrical system to operate, It is selfcontained and self-generating circuit. It derives its power from a pair of dissimilar
metals, iron and constantan, which when heated at the hot junction, produces a
millivoltage and causes a current flow through the meter. Figure 83 shows the
thermocouple sensor and indicator,
CONSTANTAN (-)
(YELLOW)
IRON (+)
(BLACK)
THERMOCOUPLE
HOT JUNCTION
OIL TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR
Page 1-116
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
INTERMEDIATE
PRESSURE
INTERMEDIATE
SPEED
N2 COMPRESSOR
LOW PRESSURE
LOW SPEED
N1 COMPRESSOR
HIGH PRESSURE
HIGH SPEED
N3 COMPRESSOR
Page 1-117
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ENGINE RPM
INDICATOR
N1 PERCENTAGE
INDICATOR
Page 1-118
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR FIELD
POINTER
YOKE
SPOOL
DRIVE
FLUX
COUPLING
SPRING
INDICATOR
GENERATOR
GENERATOR
FIELD
GENERATOR
OUTPUT
Page 1-119
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SPEED SIGNAL
TO AMPLIFIER
COMPRESSOR
CASE
DRIVE
SHAFT
SPEED
PROBE
PHONIC
WHEEL
Page 1-120
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
OVER TEMP
LIMIT BUG
OVERTEMP
WARNING
LIGHT
EGT Indicator
Figure 88
MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11
Page 1-121
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
NICKEL
ALUMINIUM
WIRE
NICKEL
CHROMIUM
WIRE
TRANSFER HOLES
Thermocouple
Figure 89
Page 1-122
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
TO GAS TEMPERATURE
CONTROL SYSTEM
AIR INTAKE
THERMOCOUPLE
JUNCTION
BOX
JET PIPE
THERMOCOUPLES
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Thermocouple Harness
Figure 90
Page 1-123
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
EPR Indicator
Figure 91
Page 1-124
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
= 1.3
19.11
14.70
EPR =
Pt2 PROBE
PRESSURE RATIO
TRANSMITTER
EPR
INDICATOR
Pt7 MANIFOLD
The following example is of a Pratt & Whitney JT12 engine EPR cockpit
indications. When turbine discharge pressure is 19.11 pounds per square inch
absolute and the compressor inlet pressure is 14.7 pounds per square inch
absolute, the EPR will be 1.3. Figure 92 shows the EPR system and the
calculation of the example in this paragraph.
EPR System
Figure 92
Page 1-125
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ENGINE VIBRATION
MEASURED IN
MILS (THOUSANDTHS)
OF INCHES
VIBRATION
TRANSMITTER
Page 1-126
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The vibration level recorded on the indicator is the sum total of vibration felt at the
pick-up. A more accurate method differentiates between in the frequency ranges
of each rotating assembly and so enables the source of vibration to be isolated.
This is particularly important on m multi-spool engines. A crystal-type vibration
transmitter, giving a more reliable indication of vibration, has been developed for
multi-spool engines. A system of filters in the electronic circuit to the indicator
makes it possible to compare the vibration source. A multiple selector switch
enables the pilot to select a specific area to obtain a reading of the level of
vibration. Figure 94 shows a multiple-selector vibration indicator.
Page 1-127
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FUEL PRESSURE
OIL
TEMPERATURE
OIL
PRESSURE
ENGINE
PRESSURE
RATIO
ENGINE VIBRATION
COMPRESSOR
SPEED
MONITOR
FUEL FLOW
EXHAUST GAS
TEMPERATURE
CORE SPEED
Page 1-128
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 96 shows a typical LED type electronic engine instrumentation group for a
four engine aircraft.
Page 1-129
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-130
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Colour
White
Red
Green
Blue
Yellow
Magenta
Cyan
Description
All scales, normal operating range of pointers, digital readouts.
Warning messages, maximum operating limit marks on scales,
and digital readouts.
Thrust mode readout and selected EPR/N1 speed marks or
target cursors.
Testing of system only.
Caution and advisory messages, caution limit marks on scale,
digital readouts
During in-flight engine starting, and for cross bleed messages.
Names of all parameters being measured (e.g. N1, oil pressure,
TAT, etc.) and status marks or cues.
Table 1
Page 1-131
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CAUTION
RESET CANCEL
0
1
SBY
1013 2
8
X 100 ft
UPPER
DISPLAY
(PRIMARY)
3 5 0 00
5
LOWER
DISPLAY
(SECONDARY)
-
COMPUTER BRT
DISPLAY
ENGINE STATUSEVENT
RECORD
L AUTO R
MAX IND
RESET
Page 1-132
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 98 and 99 show display formats for primary and secondary displays.
CAUTION
TAT 15c
0.0
0.0
10
CANCEL RECALL
10
2
N1
0
EGT
VVVVVVV
Page 1-133
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
50
50
OIL
PRESS
120
120
OIL
TEMP
18
18
OIL
88
88.00
N2
86
86
N3
4.4
4.4
QTY
N1
FAN
3.1
1.9
FF
VIB
Page 1-134
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-135
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
HYD QTY
L
0.99
C
1.00
HYD PRESS
2975
3010 3000
APU
EGT 440
OXY PRESS
RPM 103
0.0
R
0.98
FF
0.0
OIL 0.75
1750
RUD
Page 1-136
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
COMPUTER
DISPLAY
BRT
BRT
ENGINE
STATUS
EVENT
RECORD
BAL
L AUTO R
L BOTH R
MAX IND
RESET
Page 1-137
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Computer Select Switch: In the AUTO position it selects the left or primary
computer and automatically switches to the other in
the event of a failure. The other positions are for
manually selecting either the right or left computers.
Display Brightness:
Page 1-138
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
LEVEL B - Caution:
LEVEL C - Advisory:
Page 1-139
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 102 shows a display with the three different types of alert messages
Displayed.
LEVEL A
WARNING
LEVEL B
CAUTION
LEVEL C
ADVISORY
TAT 15c
APU FIRE
R ENGINE FIRE
CABIN ALTITUDE
C SYS HYD PRESS
R ENG OVHT
AUTOPILOT
C HYD QTY
R YAW DAMPER
L UTIL BUS OFF
70.0
110.0
10
6
10
2
N1
999
775
EGT
VVVVVVV
Page 1-140
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PERFORMANCE AND
AUXILLIARY POWER
UNIT FORMATS
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
SYSTEM AND MAINTENANCE
MESSAGE FORMATS
EVENT
READ
EICAS MAINT
DISPLAY SELECT
ECS
ELEC
PERF
MSG
HYD
APU
CONF
MCDP
CONFIGURATION AND
MAINTENANCE
CONTROL/DISPLAY
PANEL
AUTO
MAN
REC
ERASE
ENG
EXCD
ENGINE
EXCEEDANCES
TEST
Page 1-141
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
350
400
8 4
300
MACH
60
1
0
9
80
250
120
IAS
KNOTS
240
220
200
140
180
LDG GEAR
GRVTY EXTN
RESET
OFF
DOWN
Page 1-142
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
E N G IN E
10
8 7. 0
10
F .US E D
6 5. 0
N1
1530
F O B : 1 4 0 0 0 KG
KG
10
6 50
EG T
QT Y
10
4 80
F LA P
80
1500
%
FF
K G /H
N O S M O K IN G :
S E A T B E LT S :
1 1 .5
V IB
1 .2
(N 2 )
1 .3
1 1 .5
A IR
C
N2
(N 1 )
0 .9
1530
O IL
5
V IB
0 .8
L DG E LE V A U TO
500F T
F UL L
8 0 .2
C AB V /S
1 5 00
C K PT 2 0
FWD 2 2
A FT 23
24
22
24
C AB A LT FT
4150
ON
ON
S P LR S :
F UL L
F LA P S :
F UL L
F T/M IN
250
L D G I N H I B IT
A PU B LEED
T AT +1 9 C
S A T + 17 C
E C A M U P P E R D IS P L A Y
G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
2 3 H 56
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
E C A M L O W E R D IS P L A Y - C R U IS E
Page 1-143
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
10
87.0
650
ADVISORY
MESSAGES
80
1500
65.0
N1
%
10
10
FOB : 14000KG
10
EGT
C
480
N2
%
80.2
FF
KG/H
1500
FULL
FAILURE
MESSAGES
FLAP
FLT CTL
SPOILERS SLOW
Page 1-144
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-145
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 107 111 shows the 12-system pages and status page available.
C ON D
TE M P C
C AB P R E S S
L DG E LE V
AP
PS I
V/ S F T /M IN
A LTN M O DE
F AN
8
0
F W D 22
24
22
A FT 2 3
4 .1
10
1150
0
4150
DN
24
H
50 0 F T
C A B AL T
FT
UP
F AN
C KP T 2 0
MAN
M AN
SY ST 1
SY ST 2
SA F ET Y
VE NT
HOT
IN L ET
EX T RA C T
A IR
PA C K 1
T AT +1 9 C
S A T + 17 C
2 3 H 56
G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
T AT +1 9 C
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
S A T + 17 C
A IR C O N D IT IO N IN G S Y S T E M P A G E
PA C K 2
G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
2 3 H 56
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
P R E S S U R IS A T IO N S Y S T E M P A G E
Page 1-146
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
BAT 1
28 V
15 0A
E LE C
DC
D C B AT
F/ CT R
BAT 2
28 V
15 0A
DC
G B Y
D C ES S
TR 1
28 V
15 0A
AC 1
GE N 1
26 %
11 6V
40 0H Z
ES S TR
28 V
13 0A
EM ER G GEN
11 6V
40 0H Z
A C ESS
A PU
26 %
11 6V
40 0H Z
T AT +1 9 C
S A T + 17 C
2 3 H 56
SP D BR K
TR 2
28 V
15 0A
L
A IL
B G
P IT CH TR IM
R
A IL
G B
G Y
3 .2 UP
AC 2
EX T PW R
11 6V
40 0H Z
R UD
G B Y
L
EL EV
B G
GE N 2
26 %
11 6V
40 0H Z
G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
T AT +1 9 C
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
S A T + 17 C
E L E C T R IC A L S Y S T E M P A G E
R
EL EV
Y B
G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
2 3 H 56
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
F L IG H T C O N T R O L S Y S T E M P A G E
Page 1-147
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FU E L K G
F .U SE D 1
1550
F .U SE D 2
A PU
H YD
1550
F OB
GR EE N
3000
L E FT
1 07 5 0
5 60 0
T AT +1 9 C
S A T + 17 C
Y E LL O W
2 3 H 56
PSI
3000
PSI
3000
R IG H T
C TR
5 50
B LU E
2 87 5 0
1 07 5 0
5 50
G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
T AT +1 9 C
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
S A T + 17 C
FUE L SYSTE M P AG E
G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
2 3 H 56
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
H Y D R A U L IC S Y S T E M P A G E
Page 1-148
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
B LE E D
WHEEL
2 0 C
2 4 C
C
H
R AM A IR
5 0 C
170
1
C
REL
140
140
C
REL
LO
HI
140
4
2
GN D
A PU
AUTO BRK
23 H 56
2 3 0 C
LO
HI
TAT +19 C
SAT +17 C
LP
G.W. 60300 KG
T AT +1 9 C
C.G. 28.1 %
S A T + 17 C
HP
HP
LP
G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
2 3 H 56
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
A IR B LE ED SY STE M PA GE
Page 1-149
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A PU
O X Y 1 85 0 P S I
D OOR
A PU
ARM
ARM
A V I O N IC
26%
B LE E D
116 V
C A BIN
35 PSI
400 HZ
FW D C OM PT
C A RG O
N
10
ARM
EM ER
ARM
E X IT
80
F LA P O P E N
C A RG O
EG T
B U LK
ARM
ARM
C A BIN
3
T AT +1 9 C
S A T + 17 C
580
T AT +1 9 C
2 3 H 56
S A T + 17 C
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
D O O R /O X Y S Y S T E M P A G E
2 3 H 56
C .G . 2 8 .1 %
AP U SY STEM PAG E
Page 1-150
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DISPLAY ON &
BRIGHTNESS
CONTROL
DISPLAY ON &
BRIGHTNESS
CONTROL
SGW SELECT
SWITCHES
TOP DISPLAY
OFF
ECAM
SGU
FAULT
FAULT
OFF
OFF
BOTTOM DISPLAY
BRT
OFF
BRT
MESSAGE
CLEARANCE
SWITCH
CLR
STS
RCL
STATUS
MESSAGE
SWITCH
RECALL
SWITCH
ENG
HYD
AC
DC
BLEED
COND
PRESS
FUEL
APU
F/CTL
DOOR
WHEEL
SYSTEM SYNOPTIC
DISPLAY SWITCHES
Page 1-151
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 1-152
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PART TWO
CONTENTS
2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.19
2.20
2.21
2.22
2.23
2.24
2.25
2.26
Part 2 - Page 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.27
2.28
2.29
2.30
2.31
2.32
2.33
2.34
2.35
2.36
2.37
2.38
2.39
2.40
2.41
2.42
2.43
2.44
2.45
2.46
2.47
Page 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.48
2.49
2.50
2.51
2.52
Part 2 - Page 3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.53
2.54
2.55
2.56
2.57
2.58
Page 4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.58.7
2.58.8
Part 2 - Page 5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
Page 6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AVIONICS SYSTEMS
Page 2-1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Error Sensing
Determines when the flight condition of the aircraft is differing from that
commanded by the pilot. Almost all-modern aircraft use a gyro of some type for
this purpose, and there are two ways that the error signal can be generated,
either by attitude gyros or rate gyros. The attitude gyros only detect how far the
aircraft is away from the settings; the rate gyros detect the rate at which it is
deviating and, hence, are more accurate.
2.2.2
Correction
This is the correcting input, sent to the actuators connected into the flying control
systems. This input is simply the command from the autopilot to reverse the
movement of the aircraft away from its set course. It does not have any idea of
when to stop the correction; this is the job of the follow-up mechanism.
2.2.3
Follow-Up
Is the detection mechanism, which senses that the aircraft is righting itself, under
the commands from the correction part of the autopilot. The mechanism reduces
the correction input as it nears the original selected position and, by the time the
aircraft is level, there will be no correcting input to the actuators.
2.2.4
Command
The command system is incorporated to allow the pilot to dictate which heading,
height, speed or rate of climb he wants the aircraft to follow. This can be a
simple 'Heading Hold' system which is controlled by a "bug" on the compass,
which the pilot sets with a knob on the instrument. Alternatively, the system
'Mode Control Panel' can have many different parameters commanded by the
pilot, such as autopilot modes, altitude, and vertical speed and airspeed/mach
number modes.
Page 2-2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PITCH SERVO
VERTICAL
GYROSCOPE
AUTOPILOT
COMPUTER
AIRCRAFT
TRIM SYSTEM
COMPASS
GYROSCOPE
AUTOPILOT
CONTROLLER
ROLL SERVO
AIR DATA
COMPUTER
YAW SERVO
Basic Autopilot
Figure 1
The sensors take the place of our pilot's "senses" to detect various changes in
aircraft attitude. This information is fed to the computer, which calculates the size
of its output signal and which axis to send it on. The controller turns the autopilot
on and off and provides other system inputs not discussed here. Finally we come
to the loads which are the muscle of our system and move the aircraft's flight
control surfaces in response to the output signal of the computer. As the aircraft
responds to these signals, the sensors, through aerodynamic feedback, detect
the attitude change and tell the computer when the aircraft is back where it
should be.
Page 2-3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A/P DISCONNECT
CAPT
A.C - D.C.
MACH TRIM
PITCH TRIM
ATT REF
F/O
K1
ENGAGE
RELAY
YAW
DAMP
MAN
AUTO
OFF
AUTO
PILOT
ENGAGE
RELAY
K2
OFF
SERVO
RUDDER
CLUTCH
SERVOS
ELEVATOR
AILERON
CLUTCHES
OFF
28V DC
Interlock Circuit
Figure 2
Page 2-4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.4 SERVOMOTORS
The power output element of any automatic flight control system consists of
servomotors, or servo-actuators as they are sometimes called, connected into the
aircraft's primary flight control system circuits; the number of servomotors
employed is governed by the number of control loops required. In addition to the
actuation of primary flight controls, servomotors may also be used, in some
cases, for the actuation of the secondary flight controls provided for trimming
purposes and for yaw damping.
In general, servomotors operate on either electro-pneumatic, electromechanical,
or electro-hydraulic principles, the choice, and constructional features adopted in
applying such principles being dependent on the type of automatic control
system, and on the methods adopted for actuation of the primary flight control
surfaces. Servomotors may be connected either in series or in parallel with the
normal flight control system of an aircraft. A series-connected servomotor is one,
which moves the flight control surfaces without moving the pilot's controls, while a
parallel-connected servomotor moves both the control surfaces and the pilot's
controls.
Servomotors may utilise either direct current or alternating current, depending on
the individual systems. Motor type ranges from dc permanent magnet to ac twophase or hysteresis type.
The closed loop servo technique can be applied as a means of achieving
automatic flight control of an aircraft. A functional diagram is at Figure 3. This
forms the basic control system for all classes of automatic flight control systems.
This system controls what is termed Inner Loop stabilization.
Page 2-6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AUTOPILOT
MODE SELECT
FEEDBACK
SIGNAL
PROCESSING
ATTITUDE
SENSING
ERROR
SENSING
PILOTS DEMANDS
MANUAL
FLIGHT
CONTROLS
AERODYNAMICS
SERVOMOTORS
(ACTUATORS)
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-7
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-8
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DIRECTION
OF PRECESSION
PITCH
AXIS
ROLL RATE
GYRO
DIRECTION
OF PRECESSION
YAW
AXIS
YAW RATE
GYRO
PITCH RATE
GYRO
DIRECTION
OF PRECESSION
ROLL
AXIS
Figure 4 shows the gyro configuration for a three-axis automatic control system.
Page 2-9
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AERODYNAMIC RESPONSE
FLIGHT
DIRECTOR
COMMAND BAR
FLIGHT
DIRECTOR
ENGAGED
GYRO INPUT
MODE SELECT
NAV AIDS INPUT
HEADING INPUT
PILOTS
INPUT
AUTOPILOT
COMPUTER
FEEDBACK
ALTITUDE INPUT
SERVO
AUTOPILOT
ENGAGED
Page 2-10
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ANEROID
CAPSULE
STATIC
CONTROL
MOTOR
ERROR
AMP
CHASER
MOTOR
ALT HOLD
SELECT
REF
TO PITCH
CONTROL
CHANNEL
Page 2-11
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1000 feet
EXIT ALERT
ON
ENTRY ALERT
ON
C CHORD
ENTRY ALERT
OFF
250 feet
SELECTED HEIGHT
250 feet
EXIT ALERT
ON
C CHIME
1000 feet
Alert Levels
Figure 7
Page 2-12
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
S P L IT
A /P
M
O
D
E
GSL
A LT
A /P
VS
M A CH
N AV 1
V - NA V
N AV 2
IA S
0 6 8
2 4 6
C O U RS E
S
E
L
C O U RS E
T UR B
V /L
B -L O C
L -N AV
H DG
H DG
M OD E SELE CTO R
N A V IG A T IO N S E L E C T O R
R UD
EL EV
T EST
P IT CH
R OL L
L
A
L
T
A LT AR M
D OW N
A LT S E L
2 5 9.0 0
F EET
YD
S
E
L
YD 1
YD 2
A L T IT U D E S E L E C T O R
A /P
IN
UP
A U T O P IL O T S E L E C T O R
b)
Page 2-13
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The autopilot and flight directors use the information that is displayed on
the captain's HSI. With SPLIT selected NAV 1 supplies HSI 1 and NAV 2
supplies HSI 2. If NAV 1 is selected then both HSIs are supplied from
NAV 1 and a NAV 2 selection supplies both HSIs from NAV 2.
The COURSE selector knobs allow rotation of the course pointer on the
HSIs. A HDG knob provides remote selection of the heading cursor on
both HSIs. Two ratios are available, coarse and fine.
c)
ALTITUDE SELECTOR : Mounted on the glare-shield this contains a fivefigure readout; the last two figures are fixed zeros. A mode select button
labeled ALT ARM allows arming of the selected altitude. The 'armed' state
is indicated by a white triangle.
A press to TEST switch allows warning altitudes to be checked against the
altitude set on the captain's altimeter.
e)
Page 2-14
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
HOLD
LNAV
VNAV
LOC
G/S
5100
5200
200
A/P
180
160
20
20
10
10
4800
14 2
120
5000
6
2
10
10
20
20
4600
2
6
100
4400
Page 2-15
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
HOLD
VS/FPA
UP
DOWN
+3288
V/S
FPA
V/S
HOLD
SEL
(b)
AUTO
A/P DISENGAGE
A/T
OFF
F/D ON
A/P
OFF
F/D ON
A/P
HOLD
25
BANK
LIMIT
238
(a)
HDG
TRK
HDG
FLCH
V-NAV
OFF
A/T ARM
R
L
CLB
ON
IAS
288
FLCH
A/T
OFF
CLB
ON
IAS
IAS
MACH
L-NAV
A/P DISENGAGE
V-NAV
L-NAV
288
MACH
IAS
R
L
A/T ARM
AUTO
ALTITUDE
17000
1000
(c)
OFF
APP
HOLD
UP
BANK
LIMIT
SEL
AUTO
HDG
HDG
238
TRK
25
DOWN
V/S
V/S
FPA
+3288
VS/FPA
AUTO
ALTITUDE
17000
LOC
1000
APP
LOC
A/P
F/D ON
OFF
A/P
F/D ON
The mode select panel is the primary interface between the flight crew and
AFDS. Other flight crew inputs to the AFDS are; the disconnect switches and the
Go-around (GA) switches. Figure 10 shows the Auto Flight Director System
(AFDS) mode control panel for the Boeing 777 aircraft.
Page 2-16
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-17
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DISENGAGE BAR UP
(ALL THREE AFDS ENGAGED)
DISENGAGE BAR UP
RIGHT AFDS SWITCH DOWN
(ONLY LEFT AND CENTER AFDS ENGAGED)
Page 2-18
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Light Sensor A photo light sensor on the MCP front panel monitors ambient
lighting. It controls the brightness of the LCDs on the mode panel.
HDG/TRK Switch This switch controls the reference for the Heading/Track
window.
HDG/TRK Window The window shows heading or track angle in increments of
one degree. The window range is from 001 to 360. At AFDS power-up, the
window shows 360.
Heading/Track Selector Switch This control has two concentric selectors and
one push-button. The outer selector controls the bank angle, the inner selector
controls the value of heading/track required. The inner selector (push-button)
selects between Heading, or Track select modes.
HOLD Push Button Engages the AFDS into Heading/Track hold mode.
Vertical Speed/Flight Path Angle (V/S/FPA) reference Switch This switch
controls the reference for the vertical speed/flight path angle window.
Vertical Speed/Flight Path Angle Window - The window shows vertical speed
value (range is +6000 fpm to 8000 fpm). The flight path angle is +9.9 to 9.9.
Vertical Speed/Flight Path Angle selector Rotate the selector up to decrease
the value and down to increase the value.
VS/FPA Push Button Engages the VS/FPA mode.
Altitude Window Has a range from 0 to 50,000ft. The increment is variable.
The set altitude is also the altitude alert value for the caution and warning system.
At AFDS power-up the display is set at 1,000ft.
Altitude Selector The control has two concentric selectors. The inner selector
changes the reference altitude in the window. If the selector is pushed while in VNAV, this will activate the altitude intervention.
The outer selector changes the window increment. With it selected to 1000
position, the inner selector changes the window at 1000 feet/detent. With the
outer selector in the AUTO position, the window change rate is 100 feet/detent.
HOLD Push Button Engages the Altitude hold mode.
Page 2-19
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
POWER SUPPLY
A
INPUT/OUTPUT
SIGNAL
PROCESSING
MICROPROCESSOR A
A/T
HDG
5
AUTO
LIGHTS
F/D ON
238
SEL
25
BANK
LIMIT
LCD
DIPLAY
& KNOBS
OFF
V-NAV
PUSH
SW
AFDC
L
ARINC
429 TX
AFDC
L/C
&
AIMS
ARINC
429 RX
AFDC
C
ARINC
429 TX
AFDC
R
&
AIMS
ARINC
429 RX
AFDC
R
A/T ARM
L
OFF
ON-OFF
SWITCHES
MICROPROCESSOR B
POWER SUPPLY
A
ARINC
429 RX
INPUT/OUTPUT
SIGNAL
PROCESSING
Page 2-20
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-21
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FLUORESCENT
TUBE
LCD (TYPE)
DISPLAY
LCD Illumination
Figure 13
Page 2-22
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELEVATOR
TRIM SWITCHES
AUTOPILOT
DISCONNECT
BUTTON
Page 2-23
Page 2-24
DISC
TO/GA
SECONDARY
ATTITUDE &
AIR DATA
REFERENCE UNIT
A/C SENSORS
AIMS
ON
CLB
A/T
OFF
IAS
IAS
288
MACH
FLCH
V-NAV
L-NAV
ACTUATOR
CONTROL
ELECTRONICS
PRIMARY
FLIGHT
COMPUTER
AUTOMATIC FLIGHT
DIRECTOR
COMPUTER
(AFDC)
Collins
MODE CONTROL
OFF
F/D ON
A/P
A/T ARM
AUTO
HOLD
SEL
238
25
TRK
LIMIT
BANK
V/S
PCU
FPA
+3288
V/S
POSITION
TRANSDUCERS
UP
DOWN
BACKDRIVE
ACTUATORS
NAVIGATION
SENSORS
A/P DISENGAGE
HDG
HDG
VS/FPA
APP
LOC
OFF
F/D ON
A/P
FLIGHT DECK
CONTROLS
HOLD
1000
ELEVATOR
AILERON &
RUDDER
AUTO
ALTITUDE
17000
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-25
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ANALOG
ANALOG
POWER
CONTROL
UNIT
POSITION
TRANSDUCER
BACKDRIVE
ACTUATORS
PRIMARY
FLIGHT
COMPUTER
ACTUATOR
CONTROL
ELECTRONICS
CONTROL
SURFACE
ANALOG
AFDC
AIMS
ADIRU
SAARU
Page 2-26
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.18 COMMUNICATIONS
The word "Communication" is defined as the exchange of information of any kind,
by any means and involves the transfer of meaningful information from one
location (the sender or transmitter), to another location (the destination or
receiver).
Radio Communication equipment in aircraft is primarily for the purpose of
communicating with Air Traffic Control (ATC), and other ground stations. It can
also be used for communicating with other aircraft and internally to speak with
cabin crew and passengers.
2.19 RADIO WAVES
Radio signals emanate from the antenna of a transmitter partly in the form of
Electromagnetic waves. During radio transmission, the antenna in addition to
the electromagnetic field also generates an electric field. The two fields radiate
from the antenna at the speed of light, which is approximately 186,300 Mls/sec
(300,000,000 mtr/sec). Since radio waves travel at the speed of light, as soon as
the transmitter starts to transmit, its signal may be detected instantly hundreds or
thousands of miles away, depending on the power of the transmitter and the
nature of the wave being transmitted.
The transmitter typically radiates an electromagnetic signal in a 360 pattern from
the antenna. Figure 17 shows the effect of a radio wave being transmitted from
an Omni-directional aerial.
AERIAL
Page 2-27
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
RADIO WAVE
CYCLE
FREQUECNY = NUMBER OF CYCLES PER SECOND
WAVELENGTH =
VELOCITY
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY =
VELOCITY
WAVELENGTH
Page 2-28
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Frequency range
3 30 KHz
30 300 KHz
300 3000 KHz
3 30 MHz
30 300 MHz
300 3000 MHz
3 30 GHz
Wavelength
1000,000 10,000 Mtr
10,000 1,000 Mtr
1,000 100 Mtr
100 10 Mtr
10 1 Mtr
1 Mtr 10 cm
10 cm 1 cm
Frequency Bands
Table 1
Above these radio frequencies lie the various light frequencies. Infrared and
white light are currently being used for some information transmission at
frequencies between 109 1011 KHz. Below the radio frequencies are the
audible sound waves, ranging from 20 Hz to 15 KHz. The audio frequency range
for radio transmission is between 300 Hz 3 KHz and is known as Commercial
Quality Speech. Without special techniques, the transmission of these low
frequencies would cause two major problems:
1. High power would be required to transmit them.
2. All radio transmissions would interfere with each other.
2.21 CARRIER WAVE
The energy that carries the intelligence of a radio signal is called the Carrier
Wave. The frequency of this carrier wave may be only a few hundred kilohertz
(VLF) or several thousand megahertz (UHF). Carrier waves are usually in the
Radio Frequency (RF) range, which is in excess of 20 KHz. Frequencies below
20 KHz are in the Audio Frequency (AF) range.
Page 2-29
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CARRIER FREQUENCY
AUDIO FREQUENCY
TRANSMITTED AMPLITUDE
MODULATED SIGNAL
Amplitude modulation
Figure 19
Page 2-30
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AUDIO WAVE
Page 2-31
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1KHz AUDIO
HALF MAX
AMPLITUDE
MAX
AMPLITUDE
10.5KHz
9.5KHz
11KHz
9KHz
10KHz CARRIER
FM Modulation
Figure 21
Page 2-32
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
VE
IONOSPHERE
SK
C
PA
AC
A
EW
VE
GR
OU
ND
AV
SP
V
WA
Page 2-33
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-34
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ANTENNA
CAP
ANTENNA
EROSION
BOOT
AIRCRAFT
SKIN
MOUNTING
SCREWS
TUNING
CABLE
ANTENNA
CABLE
VHF Antenna
Figure 23
Page 2-35
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
RECEIVER
ANTENNA
COUPLER
ANTENNA
Page 2-36
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CERAMIC
CUP
CARBON
GRANULES
CONDUCTING
SURFACE
DIAPHRAGM
INSULATED
PLUNGER
Carbon Microphone
Figure 25
Page 2-37
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DIAPHRAGM
ELECTRODES
CRYSTAL
Page 2-38
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MAGNET
COIL
Page 2-39
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DIAPHRAGM
AIRGAP
MOVEABLE
PLATE
FIXED
PLATE
Page 2-40
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.27 EARPHONES
The earphone is a transducer that converts electrical waves into sound (pressure)
waves. The waveform of the sound wave should be identical to the electrical
wave in all factors but amplitude. Earphones therefore, merely perform the
reverse process of a microphone. The same principles apply to earphones as
they did for microphones.
Figures 29 - 31 show the different types of earphones and microphones found on
modern aircraft.
HEADBAND
PRESS-TO-TALK
SWITCH
MOUTHPIECE
EARPIECE
ONLY USED TO
MONITOR AUDIO
NO TALK FACILITY
Page 2-41
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
HEADBAND
EAR PIECE
TRANSDUCERS
AUDIO TUBES
AMPLIFIER
BOOM MIC
JACK PLUG
COMMUNICATION
JACK PLUG
OXYGEN
CONNECTION
Page 2-42
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DETECTOR &
DEMODULATOR
RADIO
FREQUENCY
OSCILLATOR
MICROPHONE
RADIO
FRQUENCY
AMPLIFIER
AUDIO
FREQUEUNCY
AMPLIFIER
LOUDSPEAKER
AUDIO
FREQUEUNCY
AMPLIFIER
MODULATOR
MODULATED
RADIO
FREQUENCY
AMPLIFIER
RADIO
FREQUENCY
AMPLIFIER
Page 2-43
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.
Aircraft to aircraft.
All modern aircraft have at least two VHF systems, on the larger aircraft, there is
also a third system fitted.
Each VHF communication system receives RF energy via its antenna, processes
the RF signal and sends the resulting AF to the digital audio control system, and
the SELCAL (see later). During transmission, microphone audio from the flight
compartment is processed by the VHF communication system and the RF energy
is transmitted via the antenna. Control of the frequency selection is provided on a
VHF Communication control panel. Figure 33 shows a VHF Radio system block
schematic.
AUDIO OUT TO
INTERPHONE
VHF
AERIAL
RF IN & OUT
MICROPHONE
INTERPHONE
VHF
COMMUNICATION
TRANSCEIVER
1ST OFF
VHF
CONTROL
PANEL
CAPT
Page 2-44
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
VHF COMM
120.60
118.30
TFR
COMM
TEST
Page 2-45
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MIC SELECTOR
1 - VHF - 2
HF - 1
1 - NAV - 2
SERV
INT
INOP
1 - ADF
MASK
R/T
FLT
INT
PA
INOP
MKR
I/C
BOOM
Page 2-46
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ON WHEN
TRANSCEIVER
POWER > 10W
TESTS THE
RECEIVER
SECTION OF
THE TRANSCEIVER
SQUELCH
DISABLE
TRANSMIT
POWER
PHONE
MIC
MONITORING
OF AUDIO
OUTPUT
OPERATION OF
TRANSMITTER
VHF Transceiver
Figure 36
Page 2-47
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-48
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
BOOM
MASKS
1 - ADF
ON
FORWARD
ATTENDANTS
STATION
I/C
LIGHT
NORM
CALL
NOT
IN USE
ON
SERVICE
NOSE
WHEELWELL
FLIGHT
PILOT
INTERPHONE
EXTERNAL
POWER
EXTERNAL POWER
PANEL
FLIGHT COMPARTMENT
HEADSET
SPEAKER
MIC
PILOTS
CONTROL
STAND
R/T
1 - NAV - 2
OFF
SERVICE
INTERPHONE
AFT
ATTENDANTS
STATION
MKR
INOP
PA
FLT
INT
SERV
INT
INOP
HF - 1
1 - VHF - 2
MIC SELECTOR
AUDIO
ACCESSORY
UNIT
The service interphone system allows communication between the flight crew,
cabin attendants, ground crew or maintenance personnel. Jacks for plug-in
microphone and headsets are installed at various locations in the aircraft. These
jacks allow ground personnel to communicate with each other. An on/off switch
on the aft overhead panel on the flight deck controls the external jacks. Handsets
are available at the forward and aft attendants panels. Figure 38 shows the
layout of the Boeing 737 interphone system.
Page 2-49
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MUSIC SYSTEM
VOLUME CONTROL
LIGHTS
ATTENDANTS
CALL LIGHT
MUSIC
CAPTAINS
CALL LIGHT
CALL SYSTEM
HANDSET
HANDHELD
MICROPHONE
Page 2-50
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
INTERPHONE
EXTERNAL
POWER
FLIGHT
PILOT
SERVICE
NOSE
WHEELWELL
ON
NORM
NOT
IN USE
CALL
LIGHT
Page 2-51
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PA
AMPLIFIER
PA SPEAKER
PA MIC
PA SPEAKERS
Page 2-52
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
BOOM
MASKS
I/C
OXYGEN
MASK
SPEAKER
HEADSET
& BOOM MIC
HEADSET
CONTROL
SWITCHES
HAND
MIC
R/T
1 - NAV - 2
1 - VHF - 2
INOP
1 - ADF
INOP
HF - 1
MIC SELECTOR
SERV
INT
FLT
INT
MKR
PA
Provides the flight crew with a means of controlling all radio communications,
interphone and PA selection and Navigation receivers audio signals. Both pilots
have their own individual system and control panel. Figure 42 shows a block
schematic of the audio integration system.
Page 2-53
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MIC/INT SWITCH
PRESS-TO-TALK
MICROPHONE
INTERPHONE
Page 2-54
120.60
120.60
118.30
TEST
COMM
TFR
118.30
VHF COMM
TEST
COMM
TFR
VHF COMM
R/T
I/C
I/C
1 - NAV - 2
1 - NAV - 2
R/T
HF - 1
1 - VHF - 2
1 - VHF - 2
SERV
INT
INOP
BOOM
MASK
BOOM
MASK
1 - ADF
1 - ADF
HF - 1
INOP
INOP
PA
B
R
B
MKR
FLT
INT
INOP
FLT
INT
SERV
INT
MIC SELECTOR
MIC SELECTOR
MKR
PA
NO 2
VHF COMM
TRANSCEIVER
NO 1
VHF COMM
TRANSCEIVER
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-55
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.
3.
Page 2-56
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
HF COMM
CONTROL
PANEL
TUNING &
CONTROL
POWER &
CONTROL
RECEIVE
TRANSMIT
HF COMM
ANTENNA
COUPLER
MIC
KEY
AUDIO
OUT
HF COMM
TRANSCEIVER
SELCAL
SYSTEM
HF Communication
Figure 45
Page 2-57
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A HF aerial is of quite a different technology compared with most other aerials for
two reasons. One is the power output of the Transmitter (400 watts) the other
reason is that the quarter wavelength (/4) distance is about 40 metres at 2 MHz
but only 2.5 metres at 30 MHz, so broadband aerials are not possible. Instead all
HF aerials are fed from an aerial coupling unit to attempt to electrically lengthen
or shorten the aerial for optimum matching, especially to the transmitter. Figure
46 shows the location of the HF antenna and coupling unit.
HF ANTENNA
HF COUPLER
UNIT
Page 2-58
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-59
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SELECTED
FREQUENCY
DISPLAY
MEGA HERTZ
SELECTOR
2
LSB
.0
KILO HERTZ
SELECTOR
AM
USB
OFF
RF
SENS
FUNCTION
SELECTOR
SWITCH
10 KILO HERTZ
SELECTOR
RECEIVER
GAIN
CONTROL
Page 2-60
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SE
A
LC
VO
E
OD
IC
E
CO
UN
IC
AT
IO
AIRLINE DISPACH
COMMUNICATION
ARINC
REMOTE
STATION
ARINC
VOICE
STATION
SELCAL Operation
Figure 48
Page 2-61
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
There are a total of 10920 codes available and these codes are assigned to
airline organisations, who in turn assign codes to their individual aircraft either on
a flight number or aircraft registration basis.
2.39.1 SELCAL Control Panel
The SELCAL control panel consists of SELCAL warning lamps annotated to the
associated radio system, i.e. VHF 1, VHF 2, HF 1 and HF 2. It also provides a
means of resetting the SELCAL, thus cancelling the visual and audio indications.
The panel also has a self-test button to allow testing of the SELCAL system.
Normally located along with the control panel is the SELCAL code selection
panel, this is used to set the aircrafts SELCAL code.
Figure 49 shows a SELCAL selector panel.
Page 2-62
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
LAMP DRIVES
5 WIRE
RESET
CODE
SELECT
TEST
AUDIO SYSTEM
CHIME
SWITCH
VHF 1
LAMP
SWITCH
LAMP
SWITCH
VHF 2
DECODER
VHF 3
LAMP
SWITCH
LAMP
SWITCH
VHF 4
VHF 5
INTERRUPTER
CIRCUIT
LAMP
SWITCH
ELECTRICAL
SUPPLY
Page 2-63
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-64
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ERASE
METER
MIC
A/C ON
GROUND
TEST
RECORDING
HEADS
PARKING
BRAKE ON
ERASE
HEAD
TAPE AND
MOTOR
Page 2-65
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TEST
2 4
6 8
10
ERASE
HEADSET
600 OHMS
Page 2-66
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TEST
PHONE
STATUS IND
UNDERWATER
LOCATING
DEVICE
BATTERY
LIFE LABEL
Page 2-67
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-68
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
000
VOR RADIAL = 45
VOR BEARING = 225
090
270
VOR
BEACON
180
VOR Ground Station Operation
Figure 54
Page 2-69
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The radial information is transmitted from the ground station to the aircraft. When
the VOR system in the aircraft detects the phase shift between the reference and
the variable signal it knows on which radial the aircraft flies. For the bearing
information (opposite direction from aircraft to ground station) the VOR system
adds 180 degrees. In this way the bearing to the station depends on the detected
radial from the station.
The phase shift between the reference and the variable signal identifies a radial
with respect to the magnetic north. The bearing, which is a result from the
detected radial, has therefore also a relation with the magnetic north. So the
bearing output from the VOR system is a MAGNETIC bearing output. This
information is displayed on a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI). Figure 55 shows a
schematic of the VOR system.
RECEIVED
VOR SIGNAL
30Hz AM
DETECTOR
INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY
RF
IF
AUDIO
DETECTOR
ROTATION
TO PHASE
DETECTOR
RADIO
FREQUENCY
30Hz FM
DETECTOR
REFERENCE
Page 2-70
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1 1 1 . 25
1 1 1 . 30
STBY
ACT
PRE
VOR/DME
NORM
ON
TEST
HOLD
I
L
S
T
E
S
T
DME
SPILT
NAV 1
NAV 2
068
246
COURSE
COURSE
Page 2-71
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
VOR RADIAL
POSITION WRT
AIRCRAFT
SELECTED VOR
RADIAL
TO FLAG
IN VIEW
SELECTED
COURSE
FROM FLAG
IN VIEW
For lateral guidance in airways, the pilots can select a VOR course on the VOR
control panel. The deviation from the selected course is calculated in the
systems, which show course and deviation (EFIS) or use it for guidance
(AFCAS). Also calculated from the difference between received radial and
selected course is the information if the aircraft flies to or from a VOR station.
The navigation display shows selected course, deviation, and the to-from
information. Figure 58 shows HSI indications for a selected VOR course.
12
15
21
33
30
MILES
0 0 0
24
Page 2-72
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
VOR AERIAL
LOCATED ON TOP
OF VERTICAL
STABILISER
VOR AERIAL
LOCATED ON EITHER
SIDE OF VERTICAL
STABILISER
Page 2-73
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
No 2 SYSTEM
No 1 SYSTEM
No 1 SYSTEM
No 2 SYSTEM
VOR/ILS Aerial
Figure 60
Page 2-74
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
I
L
S
TEST
ON
HOLD
PRE
VOR/DME
W 3
0
24
15
VOR
COURSE
30
MILES
NAV 1
24
000
COURSE
21
33
SPILT
15
246
12
068
NAV 2
NAV
SELECTOR
A
D
21
33
COMPASS HEADING
VOR
CONTROLLER
VOR
RECEIVER
12
VOR
A
D
STBY
DME
NORM
1 1 1 . 25
1 1 1 . 40
ACT
AUDIO
T
E
S
T
VOR
ANTENNA
Page 2-75
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DME Operation
Figure 62
Page 2-76
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The DME system operates in the UHF band and interrogates the ground stations
in the frequency range from 1025 MHz to 1150 MHz. Within this frequency range
the following ground stations are interrogated:
1. DME - Gives a reply on every DME interrogation.
2. VOR/DME - Combination of VOR and DME station and gives VOR bearing
and distance replies.
3. ILS/DME - Combination of ILS and DME station and gives ILS guidance and
distance replies.
4. MLS/DME - Combination of Microwave Landing System (MLS) and DME
station.
5. TACAN - Military station for bearing and distance information for military
aircraft. The civil aircraft use only the distance replies from these stations.
6. VOR/TAC - Combination of VOR and TACAN station and gives VOR bearing
and distance replies.
In addition to the distance reply, identification tones (1350Hz) are received from
the ground station and may be heard as Morse code by the aircrew through
headsets.
Page 2-77
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DME No 1
DME No 2
BROADBAND
L-BAND AERIAL
Page 2-78
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DME TRANSPONDER
AIRCRAFT
RX
TX
TIMING
INTERROGATION
RANGE
CIRCUIT
50 SEC
DELAY
REPLY
TX
RX
DISTANCE
OUTPUT
DME Operation
Figure 64
2.43.1 DME Operation
In the DME system, the airborne unit transmits a 2-pulse group to the ground
station at a random rate of 150 pulse pairs a second. After a 50 second delay,
the ground station retransmits the pulse groups. Pulses are sent at one
frequency and received at a different frequency, using the same antenna.
Since many aircraft are using the DME facility, the aircraft equipment must be
capable of selecting only those pulses that are replies from their own
interrogations. A Search and Track circuit within the airborne equipment
achieves the selection.
Page 2-79
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The Search and Track circuit receives all DME replies and examines them to
determine which ones have a regular time relation with respect to the transmitted
signals. When the search circuit determines which received pulses are due to its
own interrogations, the tracking unit locks onto them. At the same time, the pulse
rate is greatly reduced; this in turn reduces the interrogation/replies at the ground
station.
VHF/NAV
CONTROL
PANEL
SUPPRESSOR
BUS
TRANSMITTER
CONTROLLED
VARIABLE DELAY
RCVR/XMITTR
FREQUENCY SYNTHESISER
NAUTICAL MILES
1 2 3.5
DME
DELAYED
TX
LOCK
ON
DUPLEXER
RECIEVER
AUDIO
IDENTIFICATION
MATCHING
CIRCUITS
FLIGHT
INTERPHONE
SYSTEM
INDICATOR
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
NAV/VHF Controller
Figure 66
All DME frequencies are paired with either VOR or ILS system frequencies.
When these system frequencies are selected, the associated DME facility will be
automatically be selected. DME frequency range is 960 to 1215 MHz.
Page 2-81
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-82
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CAT 1
200
CAT 2
100
CAT 3
800
600
400
200
50
ILS Categories
Figure 67
2.44.1 ILS Operation
The ILS gives horizontal and vertical guidance in the approach to a runway. The
system uses two radio signals:
1. The localizer for lateral guidance.
2. The Glideslope for vertical guidance.
The localizer signal comes from a transmitter located at the end of the runway
that operates in the frequency range from 108.000 - 111.95 MHz. The localizer
transmits two beams one on the right side of the runway centerline and one on
the left side of the runway centerline.
The beam on the right side has a 150 Hz modulation; the one on the left side has
a 90 Hz modulation. When the aircraft flies over the extended centerline to the
runway it receives both signals with an equal strength. When the aircraft deviates
from the centerline there is a difference in signal strength. The system measures
the deviation from the center line by comparing the strength of these 90 Hz and
150 Hz modulation signals.
MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11
Page 2-83
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The Glideslope signal comes from a transmitter at the beginning of the runway
that operates in the frequency range from 329.3 MHz to 335 MHz. The
Glideslope transmits two beams to give vertical guidance over the glidepath. The
glidepath has an angle of approximately 3.
The Glideslope beams are just like the localizer, modulated with 90 Hz and 150
Hz. The 90 Hz modulated beam is above and the 150 Hz modulated beam is
below the 3 glidepath. The system measures the deviation from the difference in
signal strength between the 90 Hz and 150 Hz modulation signals.
Figures 67 and 68 show the localizer and Glideslope principles respectively.
Page 2-84
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
LOC
TX
4 ON LONG RUNWAY
5 ON SHORT RUNWAY
700 ft WIDE
AT THRESHOLD
2 DOT ENVELOPE
(COURSE WIDTH)
DOTS ON HSI
LATERAL
DEVIATION
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Localizer Principle
Figure 67
Page 2-85
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
1,000 ft
1,000 ft
50 ft
100 ft
14 ft
28 ft
2 DOT ENVELOPE
COURSE WIDTH 1.4
3,000 ft
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Glideslope Principle
Figure 68
Page 2-86
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.44.2 Antennas
GLIDESLOPE
VOR/LOC No 2
LOCATED ON THE
OTHER SIDE
VOR/LOC AERIAL
VOR/LOC No 2
LOCATED ON THE
OTHER SIDE
GLIDESLOPE
No 1 & No 2
VOR/LOC AERIAL
Page 2-87
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
RF AMP
WARNING
FLAG
IF AMP
DETECTOR
SUM
90Hz FILTER
250mV OUT
OF VIEW
150Hz FILTER
DIFFERENCE
DEVIATION
BAR
Page 2-88
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
If the aircraft is positioned in the 90Hz signal lobe, then the amplitude of the 90Hz
signal will be strongest. This will give a fly right signal (LOC) or fly down signal
(G/S). If the difference is -75mV, the deviation bar will be located on the first dot
right, if the difference is -150mV or more, then the deviation bar will be located on
the second dot right. If the 150Hz is the stronger signal, then the voltage
produced will be positive. This will give either fly left (LOC) or fly up (G/S).
Because the result of the difference circuit is either a +dc half-cycle or dc halfcycle, the signals are condensed using the capacitor, which will produce a steady
dc signal. These condenser capacitors also damp the deviation bar movement.
Page 2-89
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3000 Hz
WHITE
INDICATOR
1300 Hz
AMBER
INDICATOR
400 Hz
BLUE
INDICATOR
MORSE
MORSE
MORSE
INNER
MARKER
MIDDLE
MARKER
OUTER
MARKER
Page 2-90
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The inner marker is not normally used with ILS, but is now used as an Airways
marker, used for enroute navigation or as holding points above an airport.
Airways markers are identified when the white light comes on and a 3,000Hz tone
is heard.
Outer and Middle markers are associated with the ILS. The outer marker is
usually located directly below the point where an aircraft on a localizer course
should intersect the Glideslope and start descending. An outer marker is
identified when the blue light comes on and a 400 Hz tone is heard. The middle
marker is located near the runway, usually under a point on the glidepath where a
descent could be discontinued. The middle marker is identified when the amber
light comes on and a 1,300 Hz tone is heard. A 75MHz carrier modulates all
marker frequencies. Figure 72 shows the system layout.
75 MHz
FILTER
MARKER BEACON
SYSTEM
AUDIO
AMPLIFIER
AUDIO
(MORSE)
3000 Hz
FILTER AMP
RF AMP &
DETECTOR
MARKER
INNER
1300 Hz
FILTER AMP
MIDDLE
400 Hz
FILTER AMP
OUTER
HIGH
LOW
SENSITIVITY
SWITCH
Page 2-91
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MAGNETIC
NORTH
ADF2
ADF 1
300
HEADING
30
RF
S
AD IGN
F 2 AL
ST S F
AT RO
IO M
N
60
M
RO
F
S
N
AL TIO
N
A
SIG ST
RF DF1
A
RELATIVE
BEARINGS
ADF Operation
Figure 73
Page 2-92
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
NO
CURRENT
INCREASING
CURRENT
NO
CURRENT
INCREASING
CURRENT
NO
CURRENT
RADIO TRANSMITTER
Loop Antenna
Figure 74
Page 2-93
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Station Line
Figure 75
As there are two nulls, 180 apart, the transmitter could be towards A or B in
figure 75, causing ambiguity. To resolve this ambiguity it is necessary to change
the directional properties of the aerial system. This is achieved by introducing a
second aerial which combines its horizontal polar diagram with that of the loop
aerial which produces a new heart shaped polar diagram called a Cardioid.
Figure 76 shows the resultant Cardioid polar diagram from the loop and sense
aerials.
Page 2-94
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
LOOP
POLAR
DIAGRAMS
SENSE
POLAR
DIAGRAM
CARDIOID
POLAR
DIAGRAM
Page 2-95
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
BEARING POINTER
ALONG LOOP AXIS IN
ONE DIRECTION
LEFT CARDIOID
RIGHT CARDIOID
ADF AERIAL
Page 2-96
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ADF
BEACON
ADF
BEACON
RIGHT IS
LOUDEST
LEFT IS
NOT AS
LOUD
POINTING TO
WRONG NULL
TURN TOWARDS
LOUDEST FOR
CORRECT NULL
LOOP OFFSET
BY 15 - 20
Page 2-97
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In modern aircraft, the loop aerials are more streamlined and do not physically
rotate (rotated electronically).
Figure 79 shows the location of the ADF antenna.
NO 2 SENSE
ANTENNA &
COUPLER
NO 2 LOOP
ANTENNA
NO 1 LOOP
ANTENNA
NO 1 SENSE
ANTENNA &
COUPLER
Page 2-98
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SENSE
ANTENNA
FWD
90
SHIFT
BALANCED
MODULATOR
RS
AUDIO
AUDIO
DETECTOR
MIXER
47Hz
OSC
47Hz
FILTER
B
ADF
ANTENNA
TX
PHASE DETECTOR
& MODULATOR
47Hz
or
ADF RECEIVER
RMI
AC SUPPLY
TR
ADF System
Figure 80
The fixed loop antenna is preferred because it is more trouble free, due to fewer
moving parts. The fixed loop consists of two loops orientated at 90 to each
other. Each loop is connected to an individual stator of a receiving resolver within
the ADF receiver.
If the received station is directly ahead of the aircraft, loop A will have maximum
signal and the B loop will have a null signal. In this case the resolver will see a
null signal due to the orientation of the resolver rotor. If the aircraft is positioned
to the right of the station, then the A will see a null and the B will see maximum
signal. Intermediate positions of the received station would result in intermediate
positions of the resultant filed in the stator of the resolver.
Page 2-99
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ADF ANT
ADF 1
OFF
191. 5
TEST
ADF 2
1231.5
ADF 2
BFO
NORM
ADF ANT
OFF
TEST
ADF 1
Page 2-100
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-101
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
GROUND SURVEILLANCE
RADAR
ATC RADAR
ANTENNAS
ATC RADAR
TRANSMITTER/
RECEIVER
ATCRBS Operation
Figure 82
Page 2-102
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODE
STBY
2567
ALT RPTG
ALT
IDENT
2
OFF
SOURCE
Page 2-103
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.47.4 Mode C
Altitude reporting capability of the transponder. The aircraft's Air Data System
will supply altitude information for use in Mode C replies. This allows the ground
controller, to not only identify an aircraft but also to ascertain its altitude, so he
can guide it safely through his allocated airspace. The pulse spacing is 21sec.
Figure 84 shows the interrogation pulses for mode A & C.
8 SEC
P1
P3
P2
P1
P3
P2
Page 2-104
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
P1
OMNI
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA (P2)
P2
NO REPLY
P3
SIDELOBES
P1
ROTATION
P2
REPLY
P3
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA MAIN
BEAM (P1, P2 & P3)
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ATCRBS Suppression
Figure 85
MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11
Page 2-105
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
R EP LY A N D FA U LT LIGH T C ON TR OL
A IR D A TA
C O M P U TE R
NO 1
A LT R PTG ON
N O 1 A TC
T RA N S P O N DE R
N0 1
A TC AE R IAL
N O 1 EN A B LE
A TC R BS
D UA L
C O N TR O L
M OD E, 40 9 6, ID EN T
SU P P
N O 2 EN A B LE
N O 2 A TC
T RA N S P O N DE R
A IR D A TA
C O M P U TE R
NO 2
A LT R PTG ON
N0 2
A TC AE R IAL
R EP LY A N D FA U LT LIGH T C ON TR OL
V ID E O
SU PP
C O M P A RA T O R
P1 - P2
R E CE IV E R
M O D E A or C
D E CO DE R
A TC R BS
T RA N S P O N DE R
D IP LE X E R
1 0 3 0 M Hz
M OD E SW
SEL F T EST
C IRC U ITS
S E L FT E S T
4096
T RA N S M ITT E R
1 0 9 0 M Hz
M O D U LA TO R
1 0 9 0 M Hz
ID E NT
E N CO DE R
E N CO DE D
H E IG H T
Page 2-106
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-107
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TRANSPONDER
REPLY
1090MHz
INTERROGATION
1030MHz
PRIMARY
RADAR
ECHO
PRIMARY
SURVEILLANCE
RADAR (PSR)
SECONDARY
SURVEILLANCE
RADAR (SSR)
ATC
RADAR
SCOPE
ROLL CALL
AIRPLANE 1
AIRPALNE 2
AIRPLANE 3
GROUND LINK
NEIGHBORING
AIRSPACE
CONTROLLER
(MODE S)
Mode S Operation
Figure 87
2.48.3 Operation
As a Mode S aircraft flies into the airspace served by another Mode S
interrogator, the first Mode S interrogator may send position information and the
aircraft's discrete address to the second interrogator by way of ground lines.
Thus the need to remove the lockout may be eliminated, and the second
interrogator may schedule discrete roll-call interrogations for the aircraft.
Because of the discrete addressing feature of Mode S, the interrogators may
work at a lower rate (or handle more aircraft).
Page 2-108
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
NO REPLY
P6
P2
P1
P5
P6
P2
P1
P1
P2
P5
P3
P4
REPLY
NO REPLY
ONLY MODE S
DISCREETLY
ADDRESSED
REPLIES
REPLY MODE S
(UNLESS LOCKED
OUT)
REPLY MODE S
(UNLESS LOCKED
OUT)
NO REPLY
REPLY
P3
P2
P1
P2
P1
INTERROGATION PULSE
P3
P4
REPLY
ATCRBS
TRANSPONDERS
REPLY
ATCRBS
ATCRBS/MODE S
TRANSPONDERS
In areas where Mode S interrogators are not connected by way of ground lines,
the protocol for the transponder is for it to be in the lockout state for only those
interrogators that have the aircraft on the roll-call. If the aircraft enters airspace
served by a different Mode S interrogator, the new interrogator may acquire the
aircraft via the replay to an all-call interrogation. Also, if the aircraft does not
receive an interrogation for 16 seconds, the transponder automatically cancels
the lockout. Figure 88 shows the different types of interrogation pulses for
ATCRBS and Mode S systems
Page 2-109
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-110
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
OWN AIRCRAFT
TCAS II
TCAS III
TA
TA
TA
Mode C
Or Mode S
XPDR
TA
TA
VRA
TA
VRA
HRA
TCAS I
TA
TCAS II
TCAS III
Mode A
XPDR Only
TA
VRA
TA
VRA
HRA
TA
TA
VRA
TTC
TA
VRA
HRA
TTC
TA
TA
VRA
TTC
TA
VRA
HRA
TTC
TA TRAFFIC ADVISORY
VRA - VERTICAL RESOLUTION ADVISORY
HRA - HORIZONTAL RESOLUTION ADVISORY
TTC - TCAS TCAS COORDINATION
Table 1
Page 2-111
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-112
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 89
When a Mode S or Mode C intruder is acquired, TCAS begins tracking the
intruder. Tracking is performed by repetitious TCAS interrogations in Mode S and
Mode C. When interrogated transponders reply after a fixed delay. Measurement
of the time between interrogation transmission and reply reception allows TCAS
to calculate the range of the intruder. If the intruder's transponder is providing
altitude in its reply, TCAS is able to determine the relative altitude of the intruder.
AURAL
ALERT
MODE S/TCAS
CONTROLLER
TA/RA
DATA BUS
TA/RA
OMNI
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA
TCAS
COMPUTER
UNIT
RADAR
ALTIMETER
BAROMETRIC
ALTIMETER
MODE S
TRANSPONDER
UNIT
OMNI
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA
OMNI
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA
Page 2-113
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SURVEILLANCE
OWN
AIRCRAFT
TRACK &
SPEED
TRACKING
TARGET
AIRCRAFT
BEARING &
CLOSING PEED
TRAFFIC
ADVISORY
(TA)
RANGE
TEST
ALTITUDE
TEST
THREAT
DETECTION
(RA)
SENSE
SELECTION
CLIMB
DECENT
RA
TCAS/TCAS
CO-ORDINATION
RATE OF
CLIMB/DECENT
STRENGTH
SELECTION
RA
TA
ADVISORY
ANNUNCIATION
(TA/RA)
AIR GROUND
COMMUNICATION
ATC
Page 2-114
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AIRCRAFT 2
TCAS
AIRCRAFT 2 RECIEVES SQUITTER
AND ADDS AIRCRAFT 1 TO
ITS ROLL CALL, THEN INTERROGATES
AIRCRAFT 1 (TCAS 1030 MHz)
AIRCRAFT 2 TRANSMITS
ATCRBS ALL CALL
(1030 MHz) AIRCRAFT 3
RESPONDS MODE C
(1090 MHz)
AIRCRAFT 3
ATCRBS ONLY
AIRCRAFT 1
MODE S ONLY
AIRCRAFT 1 TRANSMITS
OMNIDIRECTIONAL
SQUITTER SIGNALS
(MODE S 1090 MHz)
ALL 3 AIRCRAFT REPLY
TO INTERROGATIONS FROM
GROUND STATION
(1090 MHz)
GROUND STATION
TRANSMITS
INTERROGATIONS
AT (1030MHz)
NOTE:
Page 2-115
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Honeywell
.5
+03
-05
0
-03
.5
Page 2-116
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
HOLD
LNAV
VNAV
LOC
110.90
142
DME
G/S
VERTICAL
SPEED LINE
DH150
25.3
2400
CMD
5200
180
5000
160
10
6
2
10
14
4800
REF
120
10
10
4600
2
6
MDA
CRS 123
4700
100
FLY OUT
OF AREA
STD
117
MAG
29.86IN
750
RA FLIGHT
BOUNDARY
(RED)
6
2
1
GREEN
SEGMENT
RED
SEGMENT
2
6
VERTICAL SPEED
LINE
Page 2-117
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-118
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
XPDR FAIL
ATC
C
A
S
7777
IDENT
ALT RPTG
1
OFF
XPDR
ON
STBY
TA
/RA
TCAS
TEST
TA
AS
TC
TA DSPLY
AUTO
OFF
ON
XPDR
1
Page 2-119
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
(2)
(3)
ABV-N-BLW Switch
This selects the altitude range for the TCAS traffic displays. In the ABV
mode the range limits are 7,000 feet above and 2,700 feet below the
aircraft. In the BLW mode the limits are 2,700 feet above and 7,000 feet
below. When normal (N) is selected the displayed range is 2,700 feet
above and below the aircraft.
(4)
(5)
Range Switch
This selects different nautical mile traffic advisory horizontal range
displays.
(6)
IDENT Push-button
When pushed causes the transponder to transmit a special identifier pulse
(SPI) in its replies to the ground.
(7)
Page 2-120
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ATC TPR/MODE S
Honeywell
BENDIX/KING
RT-950
TCAS
COMPUTER UNIT
TPR
"SELF TEST"
Replace TCAS CU if ONLY the red TCAS Fail
lamp is on during any status display (following
the lamp test). When additional lamps are on,
correct indicated subsystem PRIOR to
replacement of TCAS CU.
TCAS
PASS
TA
DISP
ALT
TCAS
FAIL
RA
DISP
DATA IN
TOP
ANT
RAD
ALT
TOP
BOT
ANT
XPDR
BUS
BOT
HDG
ATT
DATA LOADER
TCAS
MAINT
PUSH
TO
TEST
RESERVED
RESERVED
BITE
TEST
TCAS COMPUTER
MODE S COMPUTER
Page 2-121
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-122
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Position.
2.
Ground Speed.
3.
Attitude.
4.
Heading.
It can also provide guidance and steering information for the auto pilot and flight
instruments. Figure 97 shows a representation of Inertial Navigation principal.
Navigation Triangle
TRK
CK
RA ED
T
E
S
FT DSP
A
N
R
RC O U
AI G R
&
DRIFT
HDG
PRESENT
POSITION
AI
R
& CRA
AI F
RS T
PE S H
ED EA
(A DIN
DC G
)
Page 2-123
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
With these laws we can mechanise a device which is able to detect minute
changes in acceleration and velocity, ability necessary in the development of
inertial systems. Velocity and distance are computed from sensed acceleration
by the application of basic calculus. The relationship between acceleration,
velocity and displacement are shown in figure 98.
Page 2-124
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
TIME
DISTANCE IN
FEET
VELOCITY FEET
PER SECOND
ACCELERATION
FEET PER SECOND
PER SECOND
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-125
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Ground Speed.
2.
Distance Flown.
If the computer associated with the INS knows the latitude and longitude of the
starting point and calculates the aircraft has travelled a certain distance
north/south and east/west it can calculate the aircrafts present position.
Page 2-126
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PRESENT
POSITION
START
POSITION
ACCELEROMETER
START
POSITION
MASS
RECENTRING (FEEDBACK)
COMPUTER
PRESENT POSITION
1ST
INTERGRATORS
DISTANCE FLOWN
2ND
VELOCITY
GROUNDSPEED
DESTINATION
DISTANCE
INS Operation
Figure 99
Page 2-127
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AZIMUTH
AXIS
ROLL
AXIS
PITCH
AXIS
Inertial Platform
Figure 100
Page 2-128
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
We can also measure the angular distance between the aircraft and the platform
in the three axes, giving us the aircrafts pitch, roll and heading angles. These
can be used in the navigation computations and also give heading and attitude
information to the relative systems.
The gyro and accelerometer are mounted on a common gimbal. When this
gimbal tips off the level position, the spin axis of the gyro remains fixed. The
case of the gyro moves with the gimbal, and the movement is detected by a
signal pick-off within the gyro. This signal is amplified and sent to the gimbal
motor, which restores the gimbal back to the level position. Figure 101 shows the
operation of gyro stabilization.
INPUT AXIS
RATE
GYROSCOPE
OUTPUT
AXIS
PLATFORM
AMPLIFIER
GEARS
MOTOR
TACHO
GEN
Gyro Stabilization
Figure 101
Page 2-129
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
E A R TH R AT E
C O M P E N S A T IO N
= 15 D EG /H R
9 0
A T 0 L A T IT U D E
N O R TH G Y R O
E A R TH R AT E
C O M P E N S A T IO N
4 5
= 0 D E G /HR
A T 9 0 L A T IT U D E
E A R TH R AT E
C O M P E N S A T IO N
= 1 0 . 6 /H R
A T 4 5 L A T IT U D E
E A RT H RA TE = (1 5 /H R ) X S IN L AT ITU D E
E A R TH R AT E
C O M P E N S A T IO N
9 0
= 0 D E G /HR
A T 0 L A T IT U D E
V E RT ICA L G Y R O
E A R TH R AT E
C O M P E N S A T IO N
4 5
= 15 D EG /H R
A T 9 0 L A T IT U D E
E A R TH R AT E
C O M P E N S A T IO N
= 1 0 . 6 /H R
A T 4 5 L A T IT U D E
Page 2-130
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
This will cause the platform to move away from its horizontal attitude. This effect
is corrected by applying a signal to the East gyros torque motor. The strength of
the signal is dependant on the angular rate of change which is found out by the
following formula:
AIRCRAFTS VELOCITY
EARTHS RADIUS
Figure 103 shows the vehicle rate corrections for an aircraft travelling North.
Page 2-131
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
This again causes the platform to move away from its horizontal attitude. This is
corrected by applying a signal to th torque motor of the North gyro. Figure 104
shows the vehicle rate corrections for an aircraft travelling East with the North
axis rotated.
Page 2-132
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
When moving east at any latitude other than the equator, the movement also
causes the platform to move away from pointing north. To correct this, we apply
a signal to the torque motor on the vertical gyro. The size of the signal is
dependant on the latitude and the sped of the aircraft. Figure 105 shows the
vehicle rate corrections for an aircraft travelling East with the vertical axis rotated.
Page 2-133
Page 2-134
P
/
O
P
/
O
P
/
O
E
GYRO
V
GYRO
N
GYRO
T
/
M
T
/
M
T
/
M
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 106 shows the Earth rate & Vehicle rate corrections.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.50.5 Alignment
The accuracy of an INS is dependent on the precise alignment of the inertial
platform to a known reference (True North), with respect to the latitude and
longitude of the ground starting position at the time of Starting Up the system.
The inertial system computer carries out a self-alignment calibration procedure
over a given period of time before the system is ready to navigate the aircraft.
The computer requires the following information prior to alignment so that it can
calculate the position of True North:
1. Aircrafts Latitude Position.
2. Aircrafts Longitude Position.
3. Aircrafts Magnetic Heading (from Mag Heading System).
The alignment procedure can only be carried out on the ground, during which the
aircraft must not be moved. Once started the alignment procedure is automatic
2.50.6 The Navigation Mode
In the navigation mode the pitch, roll attitude and the magnetic heading
information is updated mainly with the attitude changes sensed by gyros.
Because the IRS is aligned to true north a variation angle is used to calculate the
direction to magnetic north. Each location on earth has its own variation angle.
All variation angles between the 73 North and 60 South latitude are stored in the
IRS.
The present position is updated mainly with accelerations sensed by the
accelerometers. The accelerations are corrected for the pitch and roll attitude
and calculated with respect to the true north direction.
Page 2-135
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Given the knowledge of pitch, roll and heading that the gyros provide, the
microprocessor resolves the acceleration signals into earth-related accelerations,
and then performs the horizontal and vertical navigation calculations. Under
normal conditions, all six sensors sense motion simultaneously and continuously,
thereby entailing calculations that are substantially more complex than a normal
INS. Therefore a powerful, high-speed microprocessor is required in the IRS in
order to rapidly and accurately handle the additional complexity.
Page 2-136
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
LONGITUDE
VECTOR
SOLVER
LATITUDE
PITCH
ROLL
YAW
GYROS
B MATRIX
COORDINATE
CONVERTER
ACCELEROMETERS
ALTIMETER
POSITION
COMPUTER
Figure 107 shows the block schematic of the Strap-Down inertial Navigation
system.
Page 2-137
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-138
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FRINGE
PATTERN
CORNER
PRISM
Page 2-139
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.
Triple-Channel MSU.
The six-annunciator MSU provides mode selection, status indication and test
initiation for one Inertial Reference Unit (IRU). Figure 109 shows six-annunciator
MSU and Figure 110 shows a triple-channel MSU.
LASEREF
NAV
ATT
ALIGN
OFF
ALIGN
FAULT
NAV RDY
NO AIR
ON BATT
BATT FAIL
TEST
Page 2-140
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
NAV
NAV
NAV
ATT
ATT
ATT
ALIGN
ALIGN
ALIGN
OFF
OFF
OFF
SYS 1
SYS 2
SYS 3
ALIGN
ALIGN
ALIGN
ON BATT
ON BATT
ON BATT
BATT FAIL
BATT FAIL
BATT FAIL
FAULT
FAULT
FAULT
TEST
IRS Modes or set by setting the MSU mode select switch as follows:
OFF-TO-ALIGN
The IRU enters the power-on/built-in test equipment (BITE) submode. When
BITE is complete after approximately 13 seconds, the IRU enters the alignment
mode. The IRU remains in the alignment mode until the mode select switch is set
to OFF, NAV or ATT. The NAV RDY annunciator illuminates upon completion of
the alignment.
OFF-TO-NAV
The IRU enters the power-on/built-in test equipment (BITE) submode. When
BITE is complete after approximately 13 seconds, the IRU enters the alignment
mode. Upon completion of the alignment mode the system enters the navigation
mode.
Page 2-141
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ALIGN-TO-NAV
The IRU enters navigate mode from alignment mode upon completion of
alignment.
NAV-TO-ALIGN
The IRU enters the align downmode from the navigate mode.
NAV-TO-ALIGN-TO-NAV
The IRU enters the align downmode and after 30 seconds, automatically reenters the navigate mode.
ALIGN-TO-ATT or NAV-TO-ATT
The IRU enters the erect attitude submode for 20 seconds, during which the MSU
ALIGN annunciator illuminates. The IRU then enters the attitude mode.
2.50.11
MSU Annunciators
ALIGN Indicates that the IRU is in the alignment mode. A flashing ALIGN
annunciator indicates in-correct LAT/LONG entry, excessive aircraft movement
during align.
NAV RDY
Indicates that the alignment is complete.
FAULT
Indicates an IRS fault.
ON BATT
Indicates that the back-up battery power is being used.
BATT FAIL
Indicates that the back-up battery power is inadequate to sustain IRS operation
during back-up battery operation (less than 21 volts).
NO AIR
Indicates that cooling airflow is inadequate to cool the IRU.
Page 2-142
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.50.12
The ISDU selects data from any one of three IRUs for display and provides initial
position or heading data to the IRUs. Figure 111 shows an ISDU.
Honeywell
LASEREF
DSPL SEL
P/POS
TK/GS
TEST
WIND
HDG/STS
W
4
1
BRT
SYS DSPL
2
1
7
W
4
ENT
OFF
N
2
H
N
5
2
S
H
8
5
S0
8
3
E
36
E9
6
CLR
Page 2-143
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.50.13
Keyboard
The keyboard is used to enter latitude and longitude in the alignment mode or
magnetic heading in the attitude mode. The ISDU then sends the entered data
simultaneously to all IRUs when ENT pressed.
The keyboard contains 12 keys, five of the 12 keys are dual function: N/2, W/4,
H/5,E/6 AND S/8. A dual function key is used to select either the type of data
(latitude, longitude or heading) or numerical data to be entered. Single function
keys are used to select only numerical data.
The CLR (clear) and ENT (enter) keys contain green cue lights which, when lit
indicate that the operator action is required. CLR is used to remove data
erroneously entered onto the display; ENT is used to send data to the IRU.
2.50.14
Display
The 13-digit alphanumeric spilt display shows two types of navigation data at the
same time. The display is separated into one group of 6 digits (position 1 through
6) and one group of 7 digits (positions 7 through 13). Punctuation marks (located
in positions 3,5,6,10,12,and 13) light when necessary to indicate degrees,
decimal points, and minutes.
2.50.15
The SYS DSPL switch is used to select the IRU (position 1,2 or 3) from which the
displayed data originates. If the switch is set to OFF, the ISDU cannot send or
receive data from any of the 3 IRUs.
2.50.16
The DSPL SEL switch has five positions to select data displayed on the ISDU.
TEST Selects a display test that illuminates all display elements and keyboard
cue lights to allow inspection for possible malfunctions. The DSPL SEL switch is
spring loaded and must be help in this position.
TK/GS Selects track angle in degrees on the left display and ground speed in
knots on the right.
PPOS Selects the aircrafts present position as latitude on the left display and
longitude on the right. Both latitude and longitude are displayed in degrees,
minutes, and tenths of a minute.
WIND Selects wind direction in degrees on the left display and wind speed in
knots on the right display.
Page 2-144
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
HDG/STS Selects heading or alignment status for display, depending upon the
current IRU mode. Heading is displayed in degrees and tenths of degrees, and
time-to-alignment completion is displayed in minutes and tenths of minutes. In
the alignment mode, the ISDU displays alignment status (time to NAV ready) in
the right display. In the NAV mode, the ISDU displays true heading in the left
display. In the attitude mode, the ISDU displays magnetic heading in the left
display and ATT in the right display.
2.50.17
Dimmer Knob
The dimmer knob is mounted on, on operates independently of, the DSPL SEL
switch. As the dimmer knob is rotated clockwise, the display brightens.
2.50.18
The IRU is the main electronic assembly of the IRS. The IRU contains an inertial
sensor assembly, microprocessors, and power supplies and aircraft electronic
interface. Accelerometers and LRG in the inertial sensor assembly measure
acceleration and angular rates of the aircraft.
The IRU microprocessors performs computations required for:
1.Primary Attitude.
2.Present Position.
3.Inertial Velocity Vectors.
4.Magnetic and True North Reference.
5.Sensor Error Compensation.
The power supplies receive a.c. and d.c. power from the aircraft and back-up
battery. It supplies power to the IRS, and provides switching to primary a.c. and
d.c. or backup battery power
The aircraft electronic interface converts ARINC inputs for use by the IRS. The
electronic interface also provides IRS outputs in ARINC formats for use by
associated aircraft equipment.
A fault ball indicator and a manual Interface Test switch are mounted on the
front of the IRU and are visible when the IRU is mounted in an avionics rack.
Page 2-145
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
INTERFACE
TEST
Page 2-146
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.50.19
During alignment the inertial reference system determines the local vertical and
the direction of true north.
2.50.20
Inside the inertial reference unit, the three gyros sense angular rate of the aircraft.
Since the aircraft is stationary during alignment, the angular rate is due to earth
rotation. The IRU computer uses this angular rate to determine the direction of
true north.
2.50.21
Initial Latitude
During the alignment period, the IRU computer has determined true north by
sensing the direction of the earths rotation. The magnitude of the earth rotation
vector allows the IRU computer to estimate latitude of the initial present position.
This calculated latitude is compared with the latitude entered by the operator
during initialization.
2.50.22
Alignment Mode
For the IRU to enter ALIGN mode, the mode select switch is set to either the
ALIGN or NAV position. The systems software performs a vertical levelling and
determines aircraft true heading and latitude.
The levelling operations bring the pitch and roll attitudes to within 1 accuracy
(course levelling), followed by fine levelling and heading determination. Initial
latitude and longitude data must be entered manually either via the IRS CDU or
the Flight Management System CDU.
Upon ALIGN completion, the IRS will enter NAV mode automatically if the mode
select switch was set to NAV during align. If the mode select switch was set to
ALIGN, the system will remain in align until NAV mode is selected. The
alignment time is approximately 10 minutes.
Page 2-147
Page 2-148
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S
A
I
R
C
R
A
F
T
IRU 1
IRU 3
IRU 2
INTERFACE
TEST
INTERFACE
TEST
INTERFACE
TEST
ENT
S
0
8
H
8
5
H
N
5
N
2
FAULT
FAULT
ATT
ON BATT
ALIGN
SYS 3
NAV
CLR
E9
6
E
6
3
FAULT
BATT FAIL
OFF
ALIGN
ON BATT
BATT FAIL
ATT
ON BATT
SYS 2
NAV
ALIGN
OFF
ALIGN
SYS 1
ATT
ALIGN
NAV
BATT FAIL
OFF
ALIGN
7
W
W
4
1
HDG/STS
WIND
SYS DSPL
BRT
P/POS
LASEREF
INERTIAL SYSTEM
DISPLAY UNIT
OFF
TEST
TK/GS
DSPL SEL
Honeywell
TEST
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
THRUST
MANAGEMENT
COMPUTER
YAW
DAMPER
FLIGHT
DATA
ACQN UNIT
AIR DATA
COMPUTER
EHSI/EADI
VSI
RDMI
ANTI-SKID
AUTOBRAKE
SYSTEM
WEATHER
RADAR
IR
MODE
PANEL
INERTIAL
REFERENCE
UNIT
FLIGHT
MANAGEMENT
COMPUTER
GROUND
PROXIMITY
WARNING
FLIGHT
CONTROL
COMPUTERS
Figure 114 shows a block schematic of the interface of the IRS with the aircrafts
avionics systems.
Page 2-149
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AIRCRAFT HEADING
MAGNETIC NORTH
BEARING TO
VOR 2
BEACON
BEARING TO
ADF 1
BEACON
30
33
24
12
21
VOR
A
D
F
15
A
D
VOR
RMI Display
Figure 115
Page 2-150
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.
3.
NM
VOR NO 2
DM
ED
IST
AN
CE
=
75
.5
BEARING TO
VOR NO 2 = 30
DME DIS
65.5 NM
TANCE =
BEARING TO
VOR NO 1 = 87
VOR NO 1
DDRMI Operation
Figure 116
Page 2-151
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 111 shows a DDRMI indications resulting from the situation in figure 117.
65.5
75.5
DME - 1
DME - 2
24
12
21
ADF
15
V
O
R
30
33
V
O
R
ADF
DDRMI Indication
Figure 117
Page 2-152
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CAPTS
DDRMI
DME
SYSTEM
NO 1
COMPASS
SYSTEM
NO2
ADF
SYSTEM
NO 1
VOR
SYSTEM
NO 1
ADF
SYSTEM
NO 2
VOR
SYSTEM
NO 2
COMPASS
SYSTEM
NO 1
DME
SYSTEM
NO 2
F/OS
DDRMI
Figure 118 shows a block schematic of the DDRMI system and the source of all
displayed data.
DDRMI Schematic
Figure 118
Page 2-153
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.
Monitor Stations.
The Master Control Station is located at Colorado, USA, and is responsible for
processing satellite-tracking information received from the five Monitor Stations.
The Control Segments monitor the total system performance, corrects satellite
position and re-calibrates the on-board atomic time standards as necessary. The
Monitor Stations are located to provide continuous "ground" visibility of every
satellite. Three of the five monitor stations have ground antennas, which are
used to upload data to the satellites. Figure 120 shows the location of the Control
Segment.
COLORADO
SPRINGS
HAWAII
KWAJALIEN
ASCENSION
DIEGO
GARCIA
MASTER CONTROL
MONITOR STATION
GROUND ANTENNA
Page 2-155
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.52.3 Operation
GPS operates by measuring the time it takes a signal to travel from a satellite to a
receiver on-board the aircraft. This time is multiplied by the speed of light to
obtain the distance measurement. This distance results in a Line Of Position
(LOP). Figure 121 shows GPS LOP.
LINE OF
POSITION
(LOP)
Page 2-156
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
R EC EIV ER C OD E N OT
SY NC H R ON ISE D
W IT H T HE SA T ELL IT E CO DE
W ILL GIV E T W O/T H R EE
PO SSI BLE POS IT ION S
R EC EIV ER AD D S/ SU BT R AC T S
T IM E F R OM I TS C OD E T O
ES T ABL ISH T H E LOP S
IN T ER SE CT I NG T H E SA ME PO IN T
Code Synchronisation
Figure 122
Page 2-157
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.
The P code is for military use only. Both codes transmit signals in a "Pseudo
Random Code" at a certain rate.
2.52.5 Time Measurements
Once the GPS receiver has synchronized with the satellite code, it can then
measure the elapsed time since transmission by comparing the phase shift
between the two codes. The larger the phase shift, the longer the length of time
since transmission. The length of time since transmission times the speed of light
equals distance.
Page 2-158
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SIGNAL RECEIVED
FROM SATELLITE
SIGNAL TRANSMITTED
FROM SATELLITE
Page 2-159
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AIRCRAFTS
VERTICAL
POSITION
AIRCRAFTS
HORIZONTAL
POSITION
Page 2-160
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-161
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-162
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
GP S
A N TE N NA
E FIS
N AV I G A TIO N
PR OC ESSOR
U NI T
A DC
A UT O P IL O T
C OM PA SS
A UT O P IL O T
M O D E S E L E CT
M U LT IF U N C T I O N
C O N TR O L
D IS P L A Y U N IT
R TE
D EP
ARR
LE GS
H OLD
PR OG
VN A V
A TC
T IT L E F IEL D
L EF T
F IE LD
R IGH T
F IE LD
SC R A T CH PA D
BRT
C LR
D IM
PR E V
N EX T
M EN U
D A TA
EX EC
SP
Page 2-163
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.52.10
The Boeing 777 has two independent GPS, which are used to calculate the
following:
1. Aircrafts Latitude.
2. Aircrafts Longitude.
3. Aircrafts Altitude.
4. Aircrafts Groundspeed.
5. Accurate Time.
Figure 127 shows the system layout.
LEFT GPS
SENSOR UNIT
RIGHT GPS
SENSOR UNIT
GPWC
RIGHT GPS
ANTENNA
CHR
DATE
60
AIR DATA
INERTIAL
REFERENCE
UNIT
ADIRU X 3
DAY. MON . YR
50
23 : 59
10
GMT
DIGITAL
CLOCK X2
ET/CHR
45
20
30
RUN
HLD
ET
RUN
HLD
99 : 59
RESET
FS D
SS MT
M
LEFT GPS
ANTENNA
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The two sensor units receive GPS satellite signals from their respective antennas
and calculate the aircrafts position and accurate time. This data is sent to the
Aircraft Information Management System (AIMS) cabinets and the Ground
Proximity Warning Computer (GPWC). The Flight Management Computing
system uses the AIMS GPS data to calculate the aircrafts position for use in its
navigation calculations.
The AIMS cabinets also send GPS data to the Air Data Inertial Reference Units
(ADIRU) which is used to calibrate the inertial sensors, thus decreasing any
inertial reference drift.
GPS time goes to the Universal Time Co-ordinated function (UTCF) within the
AIMS, the AIMS also outputs time data to the flight deck clocks.
2.52.11
2.52.12
1.
Acquisition Mode.
2.
Navigation Mode.
3.
4.
Aided Mode.
Acquisition Mode
The GPS sensor units look for and lock onto the satellite signals. The sensors
must find at least 4 satellites before it can start to calculate GPS data. Whilst the
sensor is in the acquisition mode, itreceives the following data from the Flight
Management system:
1.
2.
Aircrafts Velocity.
3.
The GPS sensor unit uses this data to calculate which satellites are available at
the current aircrafts position, allowing the sensor unit to receive the signals from
those satellites available and which ones may be used for navigation calculations.
Page 2-165
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.52.13
Navigation Mode
Once the GPS sensor has acquired and locked onto at least 4 satellites it will
enter the navigation mode. In this mode the sensor unit it will compute the GPAS
data. If during the Navigation mode the GPS accuracy is not within 16NM of the
actual aircrafts position, the sensor output will go into None Computed Data
(NCD).
2.52.14
With 4 satellites available, the GPS sensor stores the difference between the Air
Data Inertial Reference Unit (ADIRU) altitude and the GPS altitude. When the
GPS sensor is only receiving signals from 3 satellites, it will use this stored data
so that it can estimate the GPS altitude. During this phase the GPS sensor will
use the aircrafts altitude from the ADIRU and the length of the earths radius as
the fourth range required for GPS altitude calculations. Figure 128 shows the
Altitude Aided Mode.
Page 2-166
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.52.15
Aided Mode
The GPS sensor enters the Aided Mode during short periods (Less than 30
seconds) of bad satellite coverage. An example of bad satellite coverage is poor
satellite geometry, where at least 4 satellites are available but they are not spread
out far enough so the GPS sensor unit can make an accurate position fix.
In the aided mode, the GPS sensor unit receives altitude, heading and
groundspeed from the Flight Management System (FMS). The GPS sensor unit
uses this data to go back into Navigation mode when there is good satellite
coverage again. During the Aided Mode the GPS sensor unit output is once
again Non Computed Data (NCD)
Page 2-167
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ARE
4
SATS
AVAIL?
NO
BAD
SAT
COVERAGE?
NO
ALTITUDE AIDED
MODE
30
SEC
PASSED?
ARE
THERE
ONLY 3
SATS
AVAIL?
NO
BAD
SAT
COVERAGE?
NAVIGATION
MODE
YES
NO
NO
ARE
4
SATS
AVAIL?
ACQUISITION
MODE
POWER-UP
YES
YES
NO
NO
AIDED
MODE
ARE
4
SATS
AVAIL?
YES
YES
YES
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.52.16
The purpose of the RAIM is to monitor the status of the satellites that the GPS
sensor unit is using for its navigation calculations. The output of the RAIM
function is an estimate of the GPS position error. The RAIM value goes to the
Flight Management System (FMS) and is used by the FMS to determine if the
GPS data can be used for navigation. Figure 130 shows the operation of RAIM.
1
5
SATELLITE
CURRENTLY
MONITORED
RAIM Operation
Figure 130
Page 2-169
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.52.17
Differential GPS
The accuracy of the GPS is typically 15 25 metres in 95% of the position fixes
available. The USA Department of Defence degrades this accuracy for security
reasons to 100 metres in 95% of the position fixes. However, this error can be
further reduced to almost zero by the use of Differential GPS.
If GPS receivers are placed on the ground in known locations (Latitude
Longitude), the exact errors of the GPS satellites can then be calculated by
comparing the known position of the receivers against the GPS satellites
calculated position. This error is then transmitted to other receivers who use it to
correct the GPS errors and thus have a more accurate position fix. Figure 131
shows the operation of differential GPS.
ERROR CALCULATION
ERROR TRANSMISSION
Differential GPS
Figure 131
Page 2-170
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
HORIZONTAL
(B & C)
CORRECTORS
FILLER
PLUG
BELLOWS
BOWL
MAGNET
SYSTEM
Damping is achieved by filling the compass bowl with a mineral liquid or alcohol,
which has a low viscosity, low freezing point, high resistance to corrosion and
does not discolour. The compass is also given buoyancy by the liquid and this
reduces wear on the pivots. The compass liquid expands and retracts with
changes in temperature and this has undesirable effects. To compensate for this,
a bellows or corrugated diaphragm is fitted.
Note:
Page 2-171
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
On some modern aircraft the direct reading compass is stowed on the center
windscreen strut, only being used in an emergency. They also have to have
some sort of lighting; this lighting is operated by dc and does not effect the
compass operation. Figure 134 shows two types of compass fitted to modern
aircraft.
FIXED
COMPASS
HINGED
COMPASS
Page 2-172
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
115v 400 Hz
6
E
12
21
VOR
S
15
A
D
F
_ +
W 3
0
24
N
33
A
D
F
VOR
SLAVED
DG
VOR/ADF
SYNC
Page 2-173
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SIDE
VIEW
LAMINATED
COLLECTOR
HORNS
AC POWER
EXCITER
COIL
C
TOP
VIEW
B
C
SECONDARY
PICK-OFF
COILS
Page 2-174
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Synchronisation Annunciator.
2.
Synchronisation Knob.
3.
Slaved/DG Switch.
Page 2-175
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SYNCHRONISATION
ANNUNCIATOR
SLAVED/DG
SWITCH
COMPASS
DG
HDG
SLEW
COMPASS
SLAVE
SLAVED
SYNCHRONISATION
SWITCH
Page 2-176
1.
Autopilot.
2.
3.
4.
5.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-177
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.53.10
Servo System
A servo loop between the gyro and the compass card in the RMI ensures that any
change of aircraft heading causes a corresponding rotation of the compass card,
but in the opposite direction. The servo loop comprises a synchro transmitter
(Tx), a control transformer (CT), a servo amplifier and a servomotor.
The rotor of the synchro transmitter points in the same direction as the gyro.
The error signal is applied via the servo amplifier to the motor. The motor in its
turn drives the compass card and the rotor of the control transformer. When the
latter rotates, the error signal reduces to zero and the motor stops rotating.
The rotor is powered with a 400-Hz signal, which causes a 400-Hz magnetic field.
This magnetic field produces 3 voltages in the stator windings of the synchro
transmitter. The 3 voltages in the control transformer cause a resulting magnetic
field.
The rotor of the control transformer produces an error signal any time the rotor of
the control transformer is not perpendicular with the direction of the resulting
magnetic field.
The error signal is applied via the servo amplifier to the motor. The motor in its
turn drives the compass card and the rotor of the control transformer. When the
latter rotates, the error signal reduces to zero and the motor stops rotating.
If the aircraft changes heading, the direction of the 400-Hz magnetic field in the
synchro transmitter changes with respect of the stator windings and therefore the
direction of the resulting magnetic field in the control transformer changes too.
An error signal is now present and after amplification the "heading" of the
compass card and the rotor of the control transformer changes accordingly and
the compass card reads the new aircraft heading.
Page 2-178
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
COMPASS
CARD
TORQUE
MOTOR
TM
ANNUNCIATOR
SYNCH
KNOB
DU
EXCITATION
(AC)
DETECTOR
UNIT
(FLUX VALVE)
CT
SLAVING
AMP
HEADING SHAFT
SERVO
AMP
CT
VELOCITY FEEDBACK
TG
TACHO
GENERATOR
GYRO CASE
OUTER
RING
GYRO
CX
INNER
RING
26V AC
400 Hz
Page 2-179
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.53.11
Slaving loop
To obtain a common reference for all aircraft, use is made of the earth magnetic
field the direction of which is detected by a flux valve. A second control
transformer in the RMI compares the compass card reading with the direction of
the earth magnetic field.
Any difference between these two causes an error signal at the output of the rotor
of the control transformer. The error signal is amplified in a slaving amplifier and
this signal drives a torque motor in the directional gyro unit. The torque motor
changes the position of the stable element and of the rotor of the synchro
transmitter. As described for the servo loop, the compass card and rotors of both
control transformers rotate accordingly until the error signals have been reduced
to zero.
The amplified error signal at the output of the slaving amplifier also drives a
cross-dot annunciator. Either a cross or a dot indicates any unsynchronised
condition of the compass system. The cross-dot annunciator can be used to
manually synchronise the compass system by turning the manual synchronising
knob on the control panel in the cross or dot direction until the cross or dot has
disappeared.
Page 2-180
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-181
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULATOR
BEAT FREQUENCY
COUNTER
INDICATOR
TRANSMITTER
RECEIVER/MIXER
Page 2-182
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In the receiver mixer, the transmitted and received frequencies are mixed and the
beat frequency (difference) is counted in the counter. The beat counter converts
the frequency difference to an analog dc voltage whose amplitude is a function of
aircraft altitude above the ground. A servo system in the indicator drives the
indication to a position corresponding to the amplitude of the dc voltage received
from the beat counter.
Figure 140 shows two types of indicator used.
DIAL
INDICATOR
RIBBON
INDICATOR
Radio Altimeters
Figure 140
On the ribbon type indicator, the aircraft reference symbol remains fixed in the
centre while the tape is driven behind it. Different tape colours are used to give
an instant indication of the approximate height. The flag, when activated, partially
obscures the aircraft symbol.
A manually set altitude trip (decision height) is provided. By means of a DH Index
control a marker or bug can be set to any desired height. If the aircraft is flying
below the DH bug setting the DH lamp will be illuminated to give a warning.
Page 2-183
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FAN BEAM
TRANSMISSION
30 30
SHORTEST
RETURN PATH
30
SHORTEST
RETURN PATH
Page 2-184
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Radio Altimeter systems are called Low Range because they are not intended
to operate at aircraft altitudes above the ground greater than 2,500ft. It is used
mostly during final approach. When making a CAT II approach, the radio
altimeter notifies the crew when the aircraft is 100 feet above the extended
runway. This is the point at which the flight crew must be able to see the runway
to land and is called the Decision Height. The decision height may be selected
above 100ft as required.
Figure 142 shows a Radio Altimeter antenna and its location.
RX
ANTENNAS
TX
ANTENNAS
HORN ANTENNA
Page 2-185
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.54.3 Testing
The Radio Altimeter system may be tested from the transceiver or other areas
depending on aircraft type. When the test switch on the transmitter/receiver is
operated, the integral test lights are tested. A test altitude of 40 ft is given and
lights displayed, 'SYS OK' for serviceable, 'RT' or 'ANT' for a fault, give test
results. Figure 143 shows a radio Altimeter Transceiver.
TEST
SYSTEM OK
R/T UNIT
ANT
IND
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-187
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TRANSMITTED
ENERGY
SELECTED
RANGE
SCAN ANGLE
RFLECTED
ENERGY
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The part of a cloud, which gives the strong radar returns, is known as the storm
cell. The closer the storm cell is to the edge of the detected cloud, the higher the
rainfall gradient and the worse the conditions are likely to be.
The function of Weather Radar is to detect and display conditions involving storm
cells and rainfall gradients in such a way as to allow the operator to assess the
probability of turbulence associated with such conditions. Figure 145 shows a
typical weather radar scanner.
AZIMUTH
GEAR
REFLECTOR
ELEVATION
GEAR
AERIAL
GIMBAL
WAVEGUIDE
Page 2-189
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-190
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
GAIN
TILT
SB/T
WX
WX/T
RCT
GCR
MAP
UP
DWN
MIN
MAX
VAR
10
20
40
80
160
DISPLAY
OFF
320
SEC
MARKER
MAX
OFF
MAX
FRZ
FRZ
LEFT
RIGHT
INOP
ALRT
Page 2-191
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ROLL
ANGLE
PITCH
ANGLE
AZIMUTH ANGLE 0
AZIMUTH ANGLE 90
NO STABILIZATION REQUIRED
NO STABILIZATION REQUIRED
ROLL
ANGLE
PITCH
ANGLE
AZIMUTH ANGLE 90
AZIMUTH ANGLE 90
WITH NO STABILIZATION
WITH NO STABILIZATION
ROLL
ANGLE
PITCH
ANGLE
AZIMUTH ANGLE 90
AZIMUTH ANGLE 90
STABILIZED
STABILIZED
Roll/Pitch Stabilization
Figure 147
Page 2-192
40
WX/T
80
RCT
160
GCR
TILT
UP
ALRT
MAX
RIGHT
OFF
MARKER
SEC
DWN
INOP
320
MAP
LEFT
INDICATOR
CONTROL
20
WX
FRZ
MAX
10
SB/T
FRZ
OFF
MAX
VAR
DISPLAY
MIN
GAIN
POWER
SUPPLIES
VIDEO
POWER
CONTROL
28V D.C.
115V A.C.
ROLL
SWEEP
TRANSMITTER
-RECEIVER
PITCH
IRS
STAB
POWER
WAVEGUIDE
ANTENNA
ASSEMBLY
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-193
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
WX
RX/TX
WAVEGUIDE
SECTION 3
30" FLAT
PLATE
ANTENNA
WAVEGUIDE
SECTION 2
WAVEGUIDE
SECTION 1
ANTENNA
PEDESTAL
Figure 149 shows the type of weather radar fitted to modern aircraft.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The weather radar system has a dedicated control panel for selection of the
required mode of operation. This type of system uses the EFIS ND to display the
weather information. Figure 150 shows the weather display on the EFIS ND on a
Boeing 737 aircraft.
WX
WEATHER
RETURN
+10
14
MODE
ANNUNCIATION
13
40
TILT ANGLE
1/2 RANGE
INDICATION
Page 2-195
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The display is controlled via the EFIS control panel. Figures 151 and 152 shows
an EFIS control panel and a weather radar control panel.
HSI
RANGE
EXP
ADI
DH REF
150
80 160
VOR/
ILS
NAV
40
VOR/
ILS
MAP
NAV
CTR
MAP
FULL
320
20
10
PLAN
WXR
ON
RST
MAP
BRT
VOR/ADF
ON
NAV AID
ARPT
ON
RTE DATA
ON
ON
WPT
ON
MODE
TEST
-7
WX
WX+T
MAP
10
-6
MIN
15
-5
-4
UP
TILT
GAIN
-3
CAL
DN
-2
MAX -1
15
10
IDNT
STAB
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-197
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
120
R = 6 MTRS
120
RED/WHITE ROPE
WARNING
SIGN
Figure 154 shows safety areas and boundary marks to be displayed during
ground operation of weather radar.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.55.5 Radome
The radome is an aerodynamically shaped nose cone made of a dielectric
material, which can have an overriding effect on the weather radar systems
performance. The radome should transmit 90% of the incident energy, posses
structural strength, protect against erosion, prevent spark discharge of static and
protect against lightning strikes.
Structural strength comes from how the radome is constructed. Normally they
are of the sandwich type, consisting of a honeycomb structure supported on each
side by a thin skin of laminated glass fibre.
Anti static/erosion is overcome by coating the nose area with a polyurethane
material. This material is bonded onto the radome, but must not be too thick so
as to effect the transmission of energy. The radome is also coated with an anti
static paint containing small graphite particles.
Lightning strike protection takes the form of metal strips bonded to the surface of
the radome and painted over. The strips run from the nose of the radome to the
bulkhead, where good electrical bonding must be achieved so that any lightning
strikes are dissipated in the airframe with minimum damage. Figure 155 shows
the construction of a radome.
Radome Construction
Figure 155
Page 2-199
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SINK RATE
WHOOP!
WHOOP!
PULL-UP
GPWS Mode 1
Figure 156
Page 2-200
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TERRAIN
TERRAIN
TERRAIN
TERRAIN
WHOOP!
WHOOP!
PULL-UP
GPWS Mode 2
Figure 157
DONT SINK
GPWS Mode 3
Figure 158
MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11
Page 2-201
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TOO LOW
GEAR...
GPWS Mode 4
Figure 159
GLIDESLOPE
GLIDESLOPE
GPWS Mode 5
Figure 160
Page 2-202
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MINIMUMS
MINIMUMS
DECISION HEIGHT
GPWS Mode 6
Figure 161
STRONG DOWNDRAFT
HEADWIND
TAILWIND
WINDSHEAR
WINDSHEAR
GPWS Mode 7
Figure 162
Page 2-203
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
EFIS
SYMBOL
GENERATORS
PULL UP
DATA &
LOGIC
INPUTS
SYSTEM
TEST
GROUND
PROXIMITY
WARNING
COMPUTER
BELOW G/S
P - INHIBIT
INOP
EADI
PFD
EADI
PFD
CAPT
F/O
GPWS
CONTROL
PANEL
RADIO
ELECTRONICS
UNIT
Page 2-204
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
STATUS/HISTORY
PRESENT
STATUS
GROUND PROXIMITY
FLIGHT
HISTORY
INOP
CAUTION
OBSERVE PRECAUTIONS
FOR HANDLING
ELECTROSTATIC
SENSITIVE
DEVICES
FLAP/GEAR
INHIBIT
NORMAL
SYS TEST
CONTROL PANEL
Page 2-205
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PULL-UP.
2.
BELOW G/S.
Page 2-206
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MCP SPD
CLMB
HDG SEL
V NAV
10
10
180
160
150
140
10
10
120
WINDSHEAR
GS
173
DH 350
RA 1620
Page 2-207
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-208
FMC
LS
LS
MODE
CONTROL
IRU
PP/TKE
COURSE
SELECT
FLAPS/AOA
HS
HS
PP/TKE/ROLL
PITCH/ACCL
STALL
WARNING
IAS/ALT
ALT RATE
RAD ALT HT
LOC/GS
LS
LS
ADC
RAD ALT
ILS
FLAP
POS
GEAR
POS
FDAU
G/S
GPEW
W/S
NORMAL
INHIBIT
INOP
BELOW G/S
P - INHIBIT
PULL UP
MONITOR
G/S
WARNING
G/S
INHIBIT
GPWS
WARNING
WINDSHEAR
CAPT
PFD
GEAR
POSITION
SWITCHES
FLAP
POSITION
SWITCHES
BELOW G/S
P - INHIBIT
PULL UP
F/O
PFD
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 166 shows GPWS block schematic for the Boeing 737 aircraft.
Page 2-209
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-210
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
OBSTACLES
SURVEY POINTS
ABOVE SEA LEVEL
Terrain/Obstacle Database
Figure 167
Page 2-211
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
50% YELLOW
25% YELLOW
50% GREEN
16% GREEN
REFERENCE
ALTITUDE
MIN ELEVATION No
50% RED
REF ALTITUDE +2000
MAX ELEVATION No
Figure 168 shows a graph on when caution and warning alerts are triggered.
Page 2-212
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Table 3 shows the different Terrain/Obstacle threat levels and the colour
indication present with TAD and Peaks selected.
Colour
Solid Red
Solid Yellow
50% Red Dots
Indication
Terrain/Obstacle threat warning.
Terrain/Obstacle threat warning.
Terrain/Obstacle that is more than 2000 feet
above the aircraft.
50% Yellow Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is between 1000 and 2000
feet above the aircrafts attitude.
25% Yellow Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is 500 (250 with gear
down) feet below to 1000 feet above the
aircrafts altitude.
Solid Green
Shown only when no red or yellow
(Peaks Only)
Terrain/Obstacle areas are within range on the
display. Highest terrain/obstacle not within 500
(250 with gear down) feet of the aircrafts
altitude.
50% Green Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is 500 (250 with gear
down) feet below to 1000 below the aircraft'
altitude.
50% Green Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is in the middle elevation
(Peaks Only)
band when there is no red or yellow terrain
areas within range on the display.
16% Green
Terrain/Obstacle that is 1000 to 2000 feet below
the aircrafts altitude.
16% Green
Terrain/Obstacle that is the lower elevation band
(peaks Only)
when there is no Red or Yellow terrain areas
within range on the display.
Black
No significant Terrain/Obstacle
16% Cyan
Water at Sea Level Elevation (0 feet MSL)
Magenta Dots
Unknown terrain. No terrain data in the
database for the magenta area shown.
Page 2-213
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 169 shows a Weather Radar Display used for EGPWS displays.
40
20
160
10
OFF
CAUTION TERRAIN
(YELLOW)
DIM
80
320
WARNING TERRAIN
(RED)
RANGE
RNG 20
TERRAIN
(GREEN)
TERR
EGPWS Display
Figure 169
2.57.2 Terrain Alerting & Display (TAD)
With a compatible EFIS or Weather Radar display, the EGPWS TAD feature
provides an image of the surrounding terrain represented in various colours and
intensities. There are two types of TAD display depending on the options
selected:
Standard TAD Provides a terrain image only when the aircrafts altitude is 2000
feet or less above the terrain.
Peaks Enhances the standard display characteristics to provide a higher
degree of terrain awareness independent of the aircrafts altitude. In either case,
terrain and obstacles (if enabled) forward of the aircraft are displayed.
Note; Obstacles are presented on the display as terrain, using the same colour
scheme. Peaks and Obstacle functions are enabled by EGPWS program pin
selection.
Page 2-214
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
REF
ALT
> 500 Ft
Page 2-215
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ENVELOPE
MODULATION
AREA
Envelope Modulation
Figure 171
Page 2-216
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
WARNING
(TYPICALLY 30 SEC
AHEAD OF TERRAIN)
CAUTION
(TYPICALLY 60 SEC
AHEAD OF TERRAIN)
Page 2-217
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
laterally (more if turning). The look-ahead and up angles are a function of the
aircraft flight path angle, and the look-ahead distance are a function of the
aircrafts altitude with respect to the nearest runway. This relationship prevents
undesired alerts when taking off and landing.
The look-ahead distance is a function of the aircrafts speed and distance to the
nearest runway. A terrain conflict intruding into the caution ribbon activates the
EGPWS caution lights and the aural message CAUTION TERRAIN, CAUTION
TERRAIN or TERRAIN AHEAD, TERRAIN AHEAD. The caution alert is given
typically 60 seconds ahead of the terrain conflict and is repeated every seven
seconds as long as the conflict remains within the caution area.
When the warning ribbon is intruded, typically 30 seconds ahead of the terrain,
EGPWS warning lights activate and the aural message TERRAIN, TERRAIN,
PULL UP is enunciated with PULL UP repeating continuously while the conflict
is within the warning area.
Note; the specific aural message provided is established during the initial
installation of the EGPWS and is a function of whether or not the terrain features
are enabled and the selected audio menu (via program pins).
2.57.5 Terrain Clearance Floor (TCF)
The TCF function enhances the basic GPWS Modes by alerting the flight crew of
a descent below a defined Terrain Clearance Floor regardless of the aircrafts
configuration. The TCF alert is a function of the aircrafts RAD ALT and distance
(calculated from Lat/Long position) relative to the center of the nearest runway in
the database.
TCF alerts result in the illumination of the EGPWS caution lights and the aural
message TOO LOW TERRAIN. The audio message is provided once when
initial envelope penetration occurs and again only for an additional 20% decrease
in RAD ALT altitude. The EGPWS caution lights will remain on until the TCF
envelope is exited.
Page 2-218
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
R U N WA Y
LE NG TH
EN V ELOP E
B IA S FA C TOR
15N M
12N M
4N M
15 N M
12 N M
4 NM
E N V E LO P E
B IA S
TO O LOW TE RR A IN
TO O LOW TE RR A IN
4 0 0 ' - 7 0 0 ' ft
F AC T O R
0 ' - 4 0 0 ' ft
T E R RA IN C L E A RA N C E F L O O R
Page 2-219
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
GND
PROX
G/S
INHIBIT
FLAP
OVRD
GEAR
OVRD
G/S INHB
OVRD
OVRD
GND PROX
TERR
OVRD
OVRD
Page 2-220
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Accelerations (IRS).
b)
Angle of Attack.
c)
Flap Position.
Inputs are also required for discrete signals. These discrete inputs are used for
system configuration, signal/status input and control input functions. EGPWS
program pins are utilized to inform the system of the type of aircraft and interface
that is in use. These are established during EGPWS installation.
Discrete signals also include signals for Decision Height, Landing Flaps
selected, display range and status discrete such as RAD ALT/ILS valid.
EGPWS provides both visual and audio outputs. The visual outputs provide
discrete alert and status annunciations and display terrain video on a compatible
CRT screen. Audio enunciations are provided (via the aircrafts interphone
system) at specific alert phases.
Page 2-221
Page 2-222
DADC
IRS
GPS
FMS
RAD ALT
AIRCRAFT
SENSORS
CONTROL
DISCRETE
INPUTS
P
R
O
C
E
S
S
I
N
G
I
N
P
U
T
EGPWC
WINDSHEAR
DETECTION &
ALERTING ALGORITHMS
TERRAIN CLEARANCE
FLOOR ALGORITHMS
AURAL
CALLOUTS
GPWS
ALGORITHMS
P
R
O
C
E
S
S
I
N
G
O
U
T
P
U
T
TERRAIN
DISPLAY
DATA
WARNING/
CAUTION
LAMPS
AUDIO
ALERT
MESSAGES
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
EGPWS System
Figure 175
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
EGPWS.
2.
RADIO ALTIMTER.
3.
4.
ILS (Glideslope).
5.
6.
GEAR/FLAPS.
7.
In the event that the required data for a particular function is not available, then
that function is automatically inhibited and annunciated (e.g. if PP data is not
available or determined unacceptable, TAD/TCF is inhibited, any active terrain
display is removed and TERR INOP indicated on CRT display.
2.57.9 Self Test
The EGPWS provides a Self-Test Capability for verifying and indicating intended
functions. This Self-Test capability consists of six levels to aid testing and
troubleshooting the EGPWS. These six levels are:
Level 1 - GO/NO GO Test. Provides an overview of the current operational
functions and an indication of their status. The flight crew as part of their PreFlight test carries out this test.
Level 2 - Current Faults. Provides a list of internal and external faults currently
detected by the EGPWC.
Level 3 EGPWS Configuration. Indicates the current configuration by listing
the EGPWS hardware, software, databases and program pin numbers detected
by the EGPWC.
Level 4 Fault History. Provides an historical record of the internal and
external faults detected by the EGPWC.
Level 5 Warning History. Provides an historical record of the alerts given by
the EGPWS.
Level 6 Discrete Test. Provides audible indication of any change to a discrete
input state.
Page 2-223
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Note: Level 2 6 tests are typically used for installation checkout and
maintenance operations.
Figure 176 shows TAD/TCF display test pattern.
20
40
160
10
OFF
DIM
80
320
RANGE
RNG 160
TERR ST
Page 2-224
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-225
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
STATIC
LINE NO1
PITOT
LINE
HEATER
CONNECTION
STATIC
LINE NO2
PITOT
STATIC
PORTS
Pitot/Static Probe
Figure 178
In a parked aircraft, the pitot and static pressures are equal. In a moving aircraft,
the pitot pressure is greater because additional pressure is developed at the
forward end of the tube by its motion through the air. Altitude is calculated on the
basis of static air pressure, and airspeeds are calculated on the basis of the
difference between pitot and static pressures.
Since a pitot/static probe is, under certain conditions, subjected to icing, it is
necessary to have available a heater to melt the ice which would block the ports.
Flush static ports may also be heated, if required.
Page 2-226
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AIR FLOW
SENSING
ELEMENT
METERED
ORIFICE
(VERY SMALL)
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTION
ELECTRICAL
SIGNAL OF
TEMPERATURE
Page 2-227
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-228
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Pitot and static pressures are transmitted through seamless and corrosionresistant metal (light alloy) pipelines. Flexible pipelines are also used when
connections to components mounted on anti-vibration mountings are required. In
order for an Air Data System to operate effectively under all flight conditions,
provision must also be made for the elimination of water that may enter the
system as a result of condensation, rain, snow, etc. This will reduce the
probability of Slugs of water blocking the lines.
This provision takes the form of drain holes in the probes, drain taps and valves
in the systems pipelines. The drain holes within the probes are of diameter so as
not to introduce errors into the system. Methods of draining the pipelines varies
between aircraft types and are designed to have a capacity sufficient to allow for
the accumulation of the maximum amount of water that could enter the system
between maintenance periods. Figure 181 shows a typical water drain valve.
ORANGE
FLOAT
INDICATOR
TRANSPARENT
PLASTIC PIPE
DRAIN
VALVE
BAYONET
FITTING
CAP
(SELF SEALING)
Water Drain
Figure 181
Page 2-229
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
LOWER
PRESSURE HEADS
UPPER
PRESSURE HEADS
LOWER
UPPER
PC
A/S 2
MS 1
DIFF
PRESS
A/S 1
MS 2
ADC 2
ADC 1
FLT
REC
Figure 182 shows a typical air data system for a large aircraft.
PITOT
PITOT
F/O
CAPT
IAS
VS
ALT
ALT
VS
STATIC
IAS
STATIC
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.
3.
4.
Altitude.
5.
6.
7.
The system supplies air data information to any system in either digital or analog
form.
Page 2-231
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TRUE AIRSPEED
STATIC AIR TEMP
TOTAL AIR
TEMPERATURE
MACH
PITOT
PRESSURE
INDICATED
AIRSPEED
STATIC
PRESSURE
TRUE
AIRSPEED
AUTO THROTTLE
MACH HOLD
(AUTOPILOT)
AUTO THROTTLE
AIRSPEED HOLD
(AUTOPILOT)
FDR
ALTITUDE
VSI, FDR
ATC TRANSPONDER
CABIN PRESSURE
ALT HOLD (AUTOPILOT)
ALT RATE (AUTOPILOT)
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AC
EXCITATION
M
STATIC
PRESSURE
ALTITUDE
RATE
GEAR TRAIN
ALTITUDE
DIGITAL
ENCODER
CT
ATC
TRANSPONDER
ALTITUDE
0V
+10V
Altitude Module
Figure 184
If the aircraft is parked, or on a holding altitude, the static pressure will be
constant. The servo motor will have driven until the force exerted by the spring
balances the force exerted by the evacuated bellows, and the E pick-off
armature has been moved to its null position. Any position other than the null
causes the servo-motor to run in one direction or the other. The tacho-generator
gives position feedback and also gives an output off altitude rate.
Page 2-233
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
.90
.885
50
MACH NO
40
IAS
36,000ft
350
30
400
21,000ft
20
ALTITUDE
1,000ft
10
0
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
TAS/IAS/Mach Vs Altitude
Figure 185
In the diagram above the Mach No lines are drawn on the basis of a standard day
temperature chart; It can be seen that .90 Mach at sea level would be 600kts
TAS. From above 36,000ft, .90 Mach equals only 525kts TAS. If an aircraft is
limited to Mach .885/IAS 390kts, it could fly at 390kts up to 21,000ft. Above this
height, the IAS would have to decrease to ensure that the maximum Mach No of
.885 is not exceeded.
Page 2-234
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MACH MODULE
M
POT
ALT
(ALT MODULE)
POT
MACH
TAS MODULE
POT
IAS MODULE
ALT
RATE
ALT
(MACH MODULE)
E
PICK-OFF
ALT
MODULE
POT
ENCODER
CT
CT
ATCRBS
ALT HOLD
ALT
ALT
CABIN
PRESS
E
PICK-OFF
CT
IAS
POT
CT
TAS
TAT
POT
Page 2-235
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
IAS HOLD
ENGAGE
ALT HOLD
ENGAGE
MACH HOLD
ENGAGE
TEMP
BRIDGE CCTS
& MULTIPLEXER
PITOT
TRANDUCER
PITOT
MILLIBAR
SET
STATIC
TRANDUCER
STATIC
I/P
CCTS
CENTRAL
PROCESSOR
& MEMORY
A/D
D/A
O/P
DIGITAL
O/Ps
ANALOG
O/Ps
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 2-237
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
True airspeed (TAS) - Is the speed of the aircraft with respect to the ambient air
through which it flies. It is airspeed (impact pressure) corrected for
compressibility and density. This depends on altitude and temperature.
Total Air Temperature (TAT) - To measure the outside air temperature we install
a sensor outside the aircraft. When we fly the sensor is in an airstream. The
airstream hits the sensor, comes to a stop, rises in pressure and therefore rises in
temperature. The air temperature plus the temperature rise is called total air
temperature.
Static Air Temperature (SAT) - Is the temperature of the undisturbed ambient
air (TAT corrected for speed).
Page 2-238
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PART THREE
CONTENTS
3
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Page 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
3.20
3.21
3.22
Page 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3.23
3.24
3.25
3.26
3.27
3.28
3.29
3.30
3.31
3.32
3.33
Page 3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3.34
3.35
3.36
3.37
3.38
Page 4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.1 BATTERIES
In almost all aircraft electrical systems a battery has the following principal
functions:
To help maintain the dc system voltage under transient high load current.
To supply power for short-term heavy loads when generator, or ground power, is
not available: e.g. engine starting.
To supply power for essential services, under emergency conditions.
3.1.1 Primary Cell/Secondary Cell
A battery is a device for converting chemical energy into electrical energy and is
made up of a number of primary or secondary cells. As a primary cell
discharges, i.e. supplies electrical energy, the chemical action destroys the cell
and it cannot be re-formed, i.e. charged.
As a secondary cell discharges, the chemical action converts the cell material into
other forms and these can be converted into the original material, i.e. charged.
Therefore secondary cells can be discharged and charged during the 'life' of a
battery.
Secondary cells are used in aircraft batteries of which there are two types
1.
2.
2.
Page 3-1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
If cells are connected in series, the total voltage across the arrangement is the
sum of each cell voltage. The capacity is as for one cell.
If cells are connected in parallel, the total voltage is as for one cell. The total
capacity of the arrangement is the sum of each cell capacity. Figure 1 shows the
connection of cells.
SERIES CONNECTION
PARALLEL CONNECTION
Cell Connection
Figure 1
Page 3-2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
POSITIVE PLATE
GROUP
NEGATIVE PLATE
GROUP
C E LL
C O N NE C TO R
VEN T C A P
S E P A RA TO R
P R O TE C TO R
P LA TE S TR AP
C E LL
C OVER
TE R M IN A L
POST S
S E P A RA TO RS
P LA TE
Cell Arrangement
Figure 2
Note that there are more negative plates than positive plates. This is because
positive plates may buckle under discharge; negative plates do not buckle so
when the cell is complete, positive plates are completely enclosed by negative
plates, keeping buckling to a minimum.
The electrolyte consists of two constituents, sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and water
(H2O), which are mixed in such proportions that the relative density (RD) is
generally about 1.25 to 1.27 for a charged cell.
Page 3-3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
E L E CT R O N S
Pb
O2
Pb
L E AD
L E AD P E R O X ID E
H2
SO4
S U L P H U R IC A C I D
B AT TE R Y IN A C H AR G E D S T AT E
Pb
Pb
L E AD S U LP H A TE
Pb
O2
Pb
SO4
SO4
L E AD S U LP H A TE
H2
SO4
D IL U T E D S U L P H U R I C A C ID
B AT TE R Y IN A D IS C H AR G E D S T AT E
Page 3-4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The cell may be recharged by connecting the positive and negative plates,
respectively, to the positive and negative terminals of a D.C. source of a slightly
higher voltage than the cell. All foregoing reactions are then reversed; the lead
sulphate on the positive plate being restored to lead peroxide, the negative plate
restored to lead, and the electrolyte restored to its original relative density.
3.2 LEAD/ACID BATTERIES
The battery in figure 4 is made up of two blocks, each containing six cells of 2
volts per cell, connected in series. Hence, each block delivers 6 x 2 volts = 12
volts. Since there are 2 blocks of 12 volts in series, Battery Voltage = 24V.
Lead/Acid Battery
Figure 4
Page 3-5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Battery
Type
State of
charge
Positive Plate
Negative Plate
Electrolyte
Lead-Acid
Charged
PbO2
(Lead Dioxide)
Pb
(Lead)
H2SO4
Concentrated Sulphuric Acid
Lead-Acid
Discharged
PbSO4
(Lead Sulphate)
PbSO4
(Lead Sulphate)
H2SO4
Weak Sulphuric Acid
Table 1
Fully charged cell voltage
1.8 volts.
1.25 1.27.
Discharged
1.150.
Note: The solution becomes weaker on discharge and that the SG figures may
vary and manufacturer's instructions should be referred to.
Page 3-6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
T
E
R
M
I
N
A
L
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
24V
21.6V
DISCHARGED
20 AMP
DISCHARGE
10 AMP
DISCHARGE
TIME IN HOURS
Page 3-7
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DISCHARGED = 1.150
SYRINGE
1.100
1.150
1.100
FLOAT
1.250
1.300
1.350
1.400
RUBBER
TUBE
Hydrometer
Figure 6
Page 3-8
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Page 3-9
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 3-10
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
T
E
R
M
I
N
A
L
FOLLOWING CHARGE
BATTERY TERMINAL VOLTAGE
MUST NOT FALL BELOW 28.5V
FINAL
ON CHARGE
VOLTAGE
30V
28V
24V
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
CONSTANT
CHARGE CURRENT
TIME
Charge Curve Lead-Acid Battery
Figure 7
3.3.4 Capacity Test
Reasons for a Capacity test are as follows:
1. After initial charge.
2. Routine maintenance at specified periods: e.g. 3 months.
3. If the capacity of the battery is in doubt.
This test is to determine whether the battery will be able to carry out its function
as an emergency power source on the aircraft. To measure capacity, a fully
charged battery is discharged at the battery rating, whilst the time to discharge is
recorded, i.e. a 30AH battery at the one hour rate is discharged at 30 amps.
Page 3-11
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PLATE
NICKEL MESH
Page 3-12
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The case is made of a plastic/nylon material, which allows for slight expansion of
the cell when fully charged. It acts as an insulator between cells and is
impervious to electrolyte.
The electrolyte in a Ni/Cd cell is an alkaline:
Potassium Hydroxide, and may be topped up with distilled or de-ionized water.
The relative density is normally between 1.240 and 1.300 depending on the
manufacturer's instructions.
The plates are made from wire screens sintered with nickel powder. They are
impregnated with the active plate material.
1. Positive Plate - Nickel.
2. Negative Plate - Cadmium.
Page 3-13
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Battery
Type
NickelCadmium
State of
charge
Positive Plate
Negative Plate
Electrolyte
Charged
Cd
(Cadmium)
KOH (Potassium
hydroxide) unaffected
by state of charge
Ni(OH)2
(Nickel
Hydroxide)
Cd(OH)2
(Cadmium
Hydroxide)
KOH (Potassium
hydroxide) unaffected
by state of charge
NickelCadmium Discharged
Table 2
Fully charged cell voltage
1.1 volts.
Page 3-14
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
BATTERY CASE
Ni/Cad CELL
VENT
PIPE
71C THERMOSTAT
(RED TOP)
57C THERMOSTAT
(BLACK TOP)
NUT
THERMOSTAT
CONNECTOR
O-RING
LID ASSEMBLY
WASHER
HOLD DOWN
BAR
NON-RETURN
VALVE
STRAP
RUBBER
GASKET
Page 3-15
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 3-16
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Page 3-17
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
C
E
L
L
V
O
L
T 1.0 V
A
G
E
DISCHARGED
72 amps
36 amps
1h
18 amps
1h
2h
TIME
Page 3-18
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
C
E
L
L
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
VOLTAGE INITIALLY
RISES THEN SETTLES
DOWN TO A STEADY
RISE
AT THE SECOND
RISE THE CELLS
START TO GAS
TIME
Page 3-19
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
During this discharge, the time is recorded in hours, from the start of the
discharge and at each stage. The individual cell voltages are also recorded.
The battery voltage and each cell voltage are monitored periodically to ensure the
discharge remains constant.
Initially, the first cell to reach 1.0 volt is looked for then the discharge is continued
until the battery voltage is equal to an average of 1.0 volt per cell. A 24V Ni/Cd
battery has 20 cells. At 1.0 volt per cell, battery voltage will equal 20 volts. By
discharging the battery to its minimum capacity and timing the discharge, the
capacity of the battery has been ascertained. Also, by discharging to a known
point, the amount of charge required is found and the risk of overcharging is
minimized.
3.5.7 Constant Current Charging
Constant current charging is always used in the battery workshop. Its advantage
over constant potential (voltage) charging is that constant current charging
maintains cell balance and capacity.
Note: Always follow the manufacturer's instructions for charging.
3.5.8 Charging Rate
Consider a battery rated at 24V, 40AH at the 1hr rate.
The charge current is expressed in multiples of 'C' amps. Therefore, when we
say the charge rate is:
0.1C = 4 amps
2.
3.
4.
Page 3-20
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
T
E
R
M
I
N
A
L
30V
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
4 HOURS
10 - 11 HOURS
TIME
Charge Method 1
Figure 12
Page 3-21
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3.6.2 Method 2
Charge at 0.5C amps for two hours. Battery voltage should have reached an
average of 1.55 volts per cell (20 cells = 31 volts). If it is not up to 31 volts, then
charge for a further half-hour at this rate. Continue the charge at 0.1C amps for a
further four hours. Figure 13 shows charge method 2.
T
E
R
M
I
N
A
L
31V
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
2 HOURS
0.5 HOURS
4 HOURS
TIME
Charge Method 2
Figure 13
Page 3-22
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Page 3-23
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.
When all cells are discharged, stand the battery, with shorting links on, for
sixteen to twenty four hours.
3.
The shorting links should then be removed and the battery charged at the
recommended recycling charge rate for twenty four hours.
4.
After the first five minutes of charge, any cell over 1.5 volts requires the
addition of water, distilled or de-mineralized.
5.
After the first ten minutes of charge, cell voltages must be between 1.20 and
1.55 volts. If any cell is below or above these voltages, it must be rejected
and replaced.
6.
After twenty hours of charge, record each cell voltage and adjust the
electrolyte level.
After twenty four hours of charge, record each cell voltage. These readings must
not be below the twenty hour readiness. Any cell below by more than 0.04 volts
must be rejected and replaced.
3.7.4 Deep Discharge
This is a term sometimes used. It is when the battery is discharged and all the
available capacity is removed.
Page 3-24
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Discharge the battery at 1.0C amps until battery voltage falls to 20 volts and
then stop the discharge.
2.
Monitor cell voltages prior to the battery reaching the 20 volts. If any cell
falls to zero volts, or goes reverse, then stop the discharge. Zero voltage
indicates a shorted cell and reverse indicates a weak cell.
3.
4.
5.
6.
When all cells are discharged, stand battery, with shorting links on, for
sixteen hours.
7.
Charge battery.
Repeat the 'cell balancing'. The time that each cell takes to fall to 1.0 volt should
have improved: i.e. longer time recorded. Reject any weak or shorted cells.
Note: As already discussed, a battery must be able to deliver at least 80% of its
rated capacity to be suitable for aircraft use. Ni/Cd batteries are discharged then
charged before a capacity test to determine their efficiency. With certain types of
cell, this figure of 80% does not apply.
These cells and their rated capacity are as follows:
After discharge Charge Capacity Test carried out, the capacity of the cells
must be at least:
85%
100%
Page 3-25
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Deep discharge the battery, stand for sixteen to seventeen hours with
shorting links on.
2.
3.
Stand the battery for a further twenty four hours, without the shorting links
on.
4.
Measure the cell voltages, they should have recovered to above 1.08 volts.
Below this voltage indicates a high internal resistance, or an open circuit
inside the cell.
3.7.7 Storage
Ni/Cd batteries should be stored in a clean, dry, well ventilated room and
separate from L/A batteries.
3.7.8 Ready For Service
Store in a charged condition.
Ni/Cd batteries will self discharge if left standing, therefore a trickle charge is
required, (approximately 1 mA per AH).
3.7.9 Long Term
Deep discharge and store with main terminals shorted.
3.7.10 Facts And Figures
Batteries, L/A or Ni/Cd, proved to have less than 80% capacity should be rejected
for aircraft use.
During emergency use, e.g. main power failure, batteries must be able to sustain
essential services for at least 30 mins.
Page 3-26
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
CHARGER VOLTAGE
31.5 V
CONSTANT
CURRENT
MODE
CONSTANT
VOLTAGE
MODE
27.5
POWER
FIRST
APPLIED
TIME
Page 3-27
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Note: When electrical power is first applied to the charger, it goes into the
constant current mode and the battery is being charged.
CHARGER VOLTAGE
BATTERY VOLTAGE
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
INITIAL
CONSTANT
MODE
CONSTANT
VOLTAGE
MODE
CONSTANT
CURRENT
MODE
TIME
2.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Page 3-29
Page 3-30
EXT
EXT
PWR
OFF
BATT
REVERSE
CURRENT
(C/B)
TO GENERATOR SYSTEMS
AND ALL D.C. SERVICES
MAIN BUS
OFF
BATTERIES
BATTERY
RELAY
VOLTMETER
BATTERY BUS
BATTERY BUS-BAR
TO ESSENTIAL SERVICES
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
BATTERY SWITCHING
RELAY
BATTERY
2
EXT
2a 3a
2b 3b
1a
1b
BATTERY
1
BATT
EXT
OFF
BATTERY
RELAY 1
BATTERY BUSBAR
BATT
TO ENGINE
STARTING
SYSTEM
OFF
BATTERY
RELAY 2
The battery system on certain types of turboprop aircraft are designed so that the
batteries may be switched from a parallel configuration to a series configuration
for the purpose of engine starting from battery power. The circuit arrangement of
this type of system using two 24-volt Nickel-cadmium batteries is shown in
simplified form in Figure 17.
Page 3-31
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
With reference to figure 15; under normal parallel operating conditions, battery 1
is connected to the battery busbar via its own battery relay and also contacts 1a
1b of a battery switching relay. Battery 2 is directly connected to the busbar via
its relay.
When its necessary to use the batteries for starting an engine (i.e. an internal
start). Both batteries are connected to the battery busbar in the normal way and
24V supply is fed to the engine starting system via the battery busbar. Closing
the starter switch energises the corresponding starter relay, and at the same time
the 24V supply is fed via the starting circuit, to the coil of the battery switching
relay energising it. Contacts 1a 1b are now opened to interrupt the direct
connection between battery 1 and the busbar. Contacts 3 a 3b are also opened
to interupt the grounded side of the battery 2. Since contacts 2 a 2b of the
switching relay are closed they connect both batteries in series so that 48V is
supplied to the busbar and the starter motor.
After the engine has started and reached self-sustaining speed, the starter relay
automatically de-energises and the battery switching relay coil circuit is
interrupted to return the batteries to their normal parallel configuration.
Note: The power selector switches are left in the Battery position so that when
the generators are switched onto the battery busbar, charging current will flow to
the batteries.
3.8.2 Aircraft Battery Charger Units
In most modern transport aircraft, the battery system incorporates a separate unit
for maintaining the batteries in a state of charge. These units also provide some
method of sensing the temperature of the batteries during the charging cycle and
will automatically isolate the charging unit whenever an over temperature is
sensed.
The circuits of On-Board charger units vary between aircraft types. The
following explains the operation of the charger unit fitted to the McDonnell
Douglas DC-10.
Page 3-32
A
115V
3 A.C. B
MAIN
C
3
REVERSE
CURRENT
C/B
DIRECT FROM
BATTERIES
D.C.
A3
B2
A2
B1
PWR SUPPLY
INTERUPT
TEMP SENSOR
CURRENT
TEMP CONTROL
REF VOLTS
B2
D.C. FROM
T.R.U.
TEMP SENSOR
LOGIC
CCT
CHARGING CURRENT
PWR SUPPLY
MONITOR
SCR SW
CCT
SCRS
A3
SENSING RELAYS
A2
B1
TEMPERATURE
CUT-OFF
REGULATOR
PWR SUPPLY
D.C.
BATTERY
SWITCH
BATT
BATTERY
SWITCH
D.C. FROM
T.R.U.
B1
A1
D.C.
RELAY
B2
OFF
A2
A.C.
RELAY
TO BATT
BUS
1 A.C.
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TEMP SENSOR
TRANSFORMER
RECTIFIER
UNIT
OFF
ON
EMERGENCY
POWER SWITCH
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Page 3-33
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 3-34
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
BATTERY
CHARGER
BATTERY
CHARGER
TRANSFER
RELAY
BUSBAR
GRND SERV
GROUND
SERVICE
RELAY
APU START
INTERLOCK
RELAY
TRANSFER
RELAY
NORM
No 1 GENERATOR BUSBAR
ALT
No 1 TRANSFER BUSBAR
TRANSFER
SIGNAL 28V
D.C. (No 2
GENERATOR
CONTROL UNIT)
No 2 MAIN BUSBAR
No 2 GENERATOR BUSBAR
The charger operates from the aircrafts 115V 3-phase A.C. power supplied from
a Ground Service busbar, which in turn is normally powered by the No 1
generator system, or the external power source. This ensures that the aircrafts
battery is maintained in a state of charge both in flight and on the ground. Figure
17 shows the chargers A.C. input circuit.
Page 3-35
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
BATTERY
BUSBAR
HOT BATTERY
BUABAR
BATTERY
THERMAL
SWITCH
BATTERY
CHARGER
MODE
CONTROL
RELAY
115V
400Hz
3
TRU
HIGH
LOW
FROM MAIN
TRU
BATTERY
TRANSFER
RELAY
BATTERY
BUSBAR
RELAY
EXT POWER
RELAY
METERING
SHUNT
EXT A.C.
BUSBAR
BATTERY
SWITCH
115V 400Hz
EXT POWER
BUSBAR
In flight the A.C. supply is routed to the charger throughh the relaxed contacts of
a battery charger transfer relay and an APU start interlock relay. This interlock
ensures the charger is inhibited when the APU is starting. Figure 18 shows the
battery charger control circuit.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The D.C. supply for battery charging is obtained from a TRU within the charger
unit, which will maintain the battery cell voltage levels in two modes of operation:
1.
High Charge.
2.
Low Charge.
Under normal operating conditions of the aircrafts power generation system, the
charging level is in the high mode since the mode switch is energised by a
rectified output through the batteries thermal switch, and the relaxed contacts of
both the battery bus relay and the external power select relay.
The charger operates firstly in the high mode, providing an unregulated supply to
the battery until the battery voltage rises above that of the charger. The charger
current then falls to zero until the battery voltage falls below that of the charger, at
which time the charger provides the battery with a pulsed charge and the process
is repeated. This pulsing continues until the control circuits within the charger
change the operation to the low mode, approximately 2 minutes after pulse
charging commenced.
In the event that the number 1 generator supply fails, there will be a loss of A.C.
power to the ground service busbar, and therefore, to the battery charger.
However, with the number 2 generator still on line, a transfer signal from the
number 2 generator control unit is automatically supplied to the coil of the battery
charger transfer relay, its contacts change over to the connect the charger to the
number 2 A.C. supply. Thus the battery chargers operation is not interrupted.
The APU start interlock relay is connected in parallel with a relay in the starting
circuit of the APU, and is only energised during initial stage of starting the APU
engine. This prevents the starter motor from drawing part of its heavy starting
current through the battery charger. The interlock relay releases automatically
when the APU engine reaches 35% rev/min.
In addition to the control relay within the battery charger, there are three other
ways in which the charging mode can be controlled, each of them fulfilling a
protective role by interupting the ground circuit to the mode control relay and so
establishing a low mode of charge. They are:
1.
2.
The loss of D.C. power from the designated TRU, causing the battery
transfer relay to relax and the battery bus relay to energise.
3.
Energising the fuelling panel power select relay when external A.C. power is
connected to the aircraft
Page 3-37
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
GENERATOR
END
HOUSING
FIELD WINDING
FRAME
DRIVE SHAFT
LAMINATED ARMATURE
POLE PIECES
D.C. Generator
Figure 19
Page 3-38
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
COMMUTATOR
POLE
TERMINAL
BOX
YOKE
Z
A
A1
Z1
FIELD
WINDING
BRUSH
Page 3-39
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TO
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
CURRENT
REGULATOR
SHUNT
WINDING
SERIES
WINDING
GEN
RESISTOR
Page 3-40
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The regulator consists of two armatures (1 for current regulation, 1 for voltage
regulation). The voltage regulator consists of windings assembled on a common
core. The shunt winding consists of many turns of fine gauge wire and is
connected in series with the current regulator winding and in parallel with the
generator. The series winding consists of a few turns of heavy gauge wire and is
connected in series with the generators shunt field winding.
When the generator is operating, the contacts of both regulators are closed so
that a positive supply flows through the generator field winding providing the
necessary excitation for raising the generator output. At the same time current
passes through the shunt winding of the voltage regulator, which will increase the
electromagnetic field. As soon as the generator output voltage reaches the preadjusted regulator setting, the electromagnetic field becomes strong enough to
oppose the tension of the armature spring and opens the contacts.
The circuit in the series winding is opened causing the field to collapse, at the
same time the supply to the generator field passes through the resistor, reducing
the field current which will cause the generator output to reduce. This reduced
output in turn reduces the electromagnetic field strength of the regulator causing
the spring tension to close the contact to restore the generator output voltage to
its regulated value. The operation is then repeated to maintain the correct
voltage output. The frequency of operation dependant on the electrical load
carried by the generator, typically between 50 to 200 times a second.
3.10.2 Carbon Pile Voltage Regulator
The carbon pile voltage regulator derives its name from the fact that the
regulating element (variable resistance) consists of a stack or pile of carbon
disks. The disks are contained in a ceramic tube with a carbon or metal contact
plug at each end. At one end of the pile, a number of radially arranged leaf
springs exert pressure against the contact plug, thus keeping the disks pressed
firmly together.
For as long as the disks are compressed, the resistance of the pile is very low. If
the pressure on the carbon pile is reduced, the resistance increases. By placing
an electromagnetic in a position where it will release the spring pressure on the
disks as the voltage rises above a predetermined value, a stable and efficient
voltage regulator is obtained. The carbon pile regulator is connected in a
generator system in the field circuit and an electromagnet to control the
resistance. The carbon pile is in series with the generator field and voltage coil is
shunted across the generator output.
A small manually operated rheostat is connected in series with the voltage coil to
provide a limited amount of adjustment. This is necessary where two or more
generators are connected in parallel to the same electrical system.
Page 3-41
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
REGULATED
SETTING
LOAD
VOLTAGE
COIL
PILE PRESSURE
CARBON
PILE
VOLTAGE
OUTPUT
GEN
RPM
MAX
F
I
E
L
D
PILE
RESISTANCE
VOLTAGE
OUTPUT
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
POWER
D1
TR2
R2
D2
C1
CONTROL
R3
R4
C2
ZD1
R5
R6
DC
GEN
FIELD
TO LOAD
Page 3-43
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A+
F+
LOAD +
CURRENT
COIL
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
VOLTAGE
COIL
F
A
Page 3-44
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
A pair of heavy contact points is placed where it will be controlled by the magnetic
field of the soft iron core. When the generator is not operating, these contacts
are held open by the spring. When the generator is operating, and its voltage
value is slightly higher than the battery, the voltage coil in the relay magnetizes
the soft iron core sufficiently to overcome the spring tension.
The magnetic field closes the contact points and connects the generator to the
load. As long as the generator voltage remains higher than the battery voltage,
the current flow through the current coil will be in a direction that aids the voltage
coil to keep the points closed. This means that the field of the current coil will be
in the same direction as the magnetic field of the voltage coil and the two will
strengthen each other.
When the engine turning the generator slows down or stops, the generator
voltage will decrease and fall below that of the battery. In this case the battery
voltage will cause current to start to flow toward the generator through the relay
current coil.
When this happens, the current flow will be in a direction that creates a field
opposing the field of the relay. This results in the weakening of the total field of
the relay, and the contact points are opened by the spring, thus disconnecting the
generator and the battery. The tension of the spring controlling the contact points
should be adjusted so that the points close at approximately 13.5 V in a 12 V
system or 26.6 27 V in a 24 V system.
3.12 CURRENT LIMITER
In some generator systems a device is installed that will reduce the generator
voltage whenever the maximum safe load is exceeded. This device is called a
Current Limiter. It is designed to protect the generator from loads that will cause
it to overheat and eventually burn the insulation and windings.
The current limiter operates on a principle similar to that of the vibrator type
voltage regulator. Instead of having a voltage coil to regulate the resistance in
the field circuit of the generator, the current limiter has a current coil connected in
series with the generator load circuit. Figure 25 shows the circuit of a current
limiter.
Page 3-45
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CURRENT
COIL
TO REVERSE
CURRENT
LIMITER
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
CONTACT
POINTS
RESISTOR
Page 3-46
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Voltage Regulator.
2.
Current Limiter.
3.
This combination will provide for both voltage regulation and protection from
excessive loads. It has proved very successful for the control of 12 and 24-volt
generator systems. Figure 26 shows the circuit for a three-unit generator control
panel.
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
CURRENT
LIMITER
REVERSE
CURRENT LIMITER
A+
F+
Page 3-47
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 3-48
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
BUSBAR
LINE
CONTACTORS
CP
GEN
No 1
FC
VC
CP
VC
EC
FC
EC
EQUALISING
RELAYS
INTERPOLE
COIL
INTERPOLE
COIL
Page 3-49
GEN
No 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Both generators are each feeding 150 amps to a common bus bar. The current is
fed to the loads and the 150 amps complete the circuit to each generator through
its earth connection. It can be seen that there is a voltage drop across (usually)
an interpole of each generator and since the load currents are equal, the voltage
drops are also equal. The same potential occurs at each end of the equalizing
loop and so no current flows in the equalizing coils.
When there is an imbalance of currents between the generators, the voltage drop
across the interpole of the generator supplying the largest current is greater than
the voltage drop in the other generator. The end of the equalizing loop with the
largest voltage drop will be driven more negative, causing equalizing current to
flow from the lightly loaded generator to the overloaded generator.
Current flow in this direction causes one regulator to increase the output of the
associated (lightly loaded) generator. The other regulator causes the associated
(over loaded) generator to reduce its output. Figure 29 shows the operation of
the equalising circuit when the No 2 generators output is higher than that of the
No 1 generator.
300 AMPS
BUSBAR
100 AMPS
LINE
CONTACTORS
CP
GEN
No 1
FC
200 AMPS
VC
CP
VC
EC
FC
GEN
No 2
EC
EQUALISING
RELAYS
100
AMPS
- 0.17V
- 0.34V
200
AMPS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
FIELD
EXCITATION
CURRENT
GEN
No 1
No 1 VOLTAGE REGULATOR
BUSBAR
GEN
No 2
No 2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR
FIELD
EXCITATION
CURRENT
Paralleling load sharing can also be controlled utilising vibrating contact voltage
regulation. Figure 30 shows a load sharing circuit using vibrating contact voltage
regulators.
Page 3-51
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
For this method of load sharing the circuit comprises an additional coil Eq in the
voltage regulation section A of each regulator and a paralleling relay unit. When
both generators are in operation and supplying the correct regulated outputs
voltages, the contacts in the voltage and current (B) regulation sections of each
regulator are closed. The contacts of the reverse current relays C are also
closed thereby connecting both generators to the busbar. The outputs from each
generator are also supplied to the coils of the paralleling relay unit so the contacts
of its relays are closed.
The paralleling relays and the equalising coils form the paralleling (equalising)
circuit between both generators. Under load-sharing conditions, the current
flowing through the coils Eq is in the same direction as that of the voltage coils
of the voltage regulating sections of each regulator, but in equal and opposite
directions at the contacts of the paralleling relay unit.
If the voltage output of the No 1 generator should rise, there will be a greater
voltage input to the voltage regulating section of the number 1 voltage regulator
compared with that of the corresponding section of the number 2 regulator.
There will be an unbalanced flow of current through the equalising circuit such
that the increase of current through coil Eq of the number 1 voltage regulator
will now assist the electromagnetic effect of voltage coil D causing the relay
contacts to open. This connects the resistance into the field circuit of the number
1 generator, reducing its excitation current and its voltage output.
Because of the unbalanced condition, the increased current in the equalising
circuit will also flow across the paralleling relay unit contacts to the coil Eq in the
number 2 voltage regulator so that it opposes the electromagnetic effect of its
associated coil D.
In a paralleled generator system utilising solid sate regulation, any unbalanced
conditions are detected and adjusted by interconnecting the regulators via two
additional paralleling transistors, one in each regulator.
Page 3-52
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
TO GCU
T1
T2
T3
FROM
GCU
PMG
PERMANENT
MAGNET
GENERATOR
RECTIFIER
EXCITER
GENERATOR
MAIN
FIELD
MAIN GENERATOR
Brushless Generator
Figure 31
MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 3 ISSUE 7 - 01/02/11
Page 3-53
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
VARIABLE
DISPLACEMENT
FIXED
DISPLACEMENT
HYDRAULIC UNIT
CONTROL
CYLINDER
DIFFERENTIAL UNIT
OUTPUT
TO
GENERATOR
INPUT
FROM
ENGINE
TO OIL PUMPS
AND GOVERNOR
GOVERNOR
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The power used to drive the generator is controlled and transmitted through the
combined effects of the units. Oil for the system operation is supplied from a
reservoir via charge pumps within the unit, and a governor.
3.15.3 Variable Displacement Unit
The variable displacement unit consists of a cylinder block; reciprocating pistons
and a variable angle wobble or swash plate, the latter being connected to the
piston of a control cylinder. Oil to this control cylinder is supplied from the
governor. This unit is driven directly by the input gear and the differential planet
gear carrier shaft, so that its cylinder block always rotates (relative to the port
plate and wobble plate) at a speed proportional to the input gear speed and
always in the same direction.
3.15.4 Control Cylinder
When the control cylinder moves the wobble plate to some angular position, the
pistons within the cylinder block are moved in and out as the block rotates, and
so the charge oil is compressed to a high pressure and then ported to the fixed
displacement unit. Under these conditions the variable displacement unit
functions as a hydraulic pump.
3.15.5 Governor
The supply of charge oil to the units control valve is controlled by a governor
valve which is spring biased, flyweight operated and driven by the out gear
driving the generator. It therefore responds to changes in transmission output
speed.
3.15.6 Fixed Displacement Unit
The fixed displacement unit is similar to the variable displacement unit, except
that its wobble plate, which has an inclined face, is fixed and has no connection
to the control cylinder. When oil is pumped to the fixed displacement unit by the
variable displacement unit, it functions as a hydraulic motor and the volume of oil
pumped to it determines its direction of rotation and speed.
3.15.7 Differential Gear Unit
The differential gear unit consists of a carrier shaft carrying two meshing (1:1
ratio) planet gears, and a gear at each end; one meshing with the input gear and
the other with the gear which drives the variable displacement unit cylinder block.
The carrier shaft always rotates in the same direction and at a speed which via
the input , varies with engine speed. Surrounding the carrier shaft are two
separate housings, and since they have internal ring gears meshing with the
planet gears, then they can rotated differently. Each housing also has an
external ring gear; one (input ring gear) meshing with the fixed displacement unit
gear, and the other (output ring gear) meshing with the output gear drive to the
generator.
Page 3-55
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FIXED
UNIT
CONTROL
CYLINDER
CARRIER
SHAFT
T
EN
ER
F
IF
IAL
OUTPUT
RING GEAR
TO
GENERATOR
OUTPUT
GEAR
TO
GOVERNOR
INPUT
GEAR
INPUT
RING GEAR
TO
PUMPS
FROM
ENGINE
Underdrive Phase
Figure 33
Page 3-56
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The control cylinder changes the angular of the variable displacement units
wobble plate so that the oil is pumped at high pressure to the fixed displacement
unit causing it to rotate in the same direction as that of the variable displacement
unit. This rotation is transmitted to the input ring gear housing, of the differential
unit, so that it will rotate in the same direction as the output ring gear housing,
and the carrier shaft. Because the input ring gear housing is now rotating in the
same direction as the carrier shaft then the speed of the freely rotating planet
gear meshing with the housing will be reduced. The speed of the second planet
gear will also be reduced in direct ratio thereby reducing the speed of the output
ring gear housing. This hydromechanical process of speed subtraction
continues until the required generator drive speed is attained.
3.15.10 Overdrive Phase
When the output speed supplied to the transmission is lower than that required to
produce the required output speed, the governor causes charge oil to be supplied
to the control cylinder. In this condition, the transmission is said to be operating
in the Overdrive phase. Figure 34 shows the CSD operating in Overdrive
Phase.
Overdrive Phase
Figure 34
Page 3-57
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The control cylinder changes the angular of the variable displacement units
wobble plate so that the oil is pumped at high pressure to the fixed displacement
unit causing it to rotate in the opposite direction as that of the variable
displacement unit. This rotation is transmitted to the input ring gear housing, of
the differential unit, so that it will rotate in the opposite direction as the output ring
gear housing, and the carrier shaft. Because the input ring gear housing is
now rotating in the opposite direction as the carrier shaft then the speed of the
freely rotating planet gear meshing with the housing will be increased. The speed
of the second planet gear will also be increased in direct ratio thereby increasing
the speed of the output ring gear housing. This hydromechanical process of
speed addition continues until the required generator drive speed is attained.
Figure 35 shows a typical CSD-Generator Unit.
BRUSHLESS
GENERATOR
OIL LEVEL
SIGHT GLASS
CONSTANT SPEED
DRIVE UNIT
Page 3-58
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
RESET
SPRING
INPUT
SPLINE
SHAFT
INPUT
SHAFT
THREADED
PAWL
SOLENOID
INPUT
GEAR
PAWL
SPRING
HANDLE
SPRING
TRANSMISSION
CASE
Page 3-59
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The drive from the engine is transmitted to the CSD via a dog-tooth clutch, and
disconnect is initially activated by a solenoid controlled from the flight deck.
When the solenoid is energised, a spring-loaded pawl moved into contact with the
threads of the input shaft, which serves as a screw causing the input shaft to
move away from the input spline shaft (driven by the engine) therby seperating
the driving dogs of the clutch.
Resetting of the disconnect mechanism can only be accomplished on the ground
following shut-down of the appropriate engine. This is accomplished by pulling
out the reset handle to withdraw the threaded pawl from the input shaft, and
allowing the reset spring on the shaft to re-engage the clutch. At the same time,
and with the solenoid de-energised, the solenoid nose pin snaps into position in
the slot of the pawl.
3.16 INTEGRATED DRIVE GENERATOR (IDG)
The IDG is a state-of-the-art means of producing A.C. electrical power. It
contains both generator and the CSD unit in one unit. This concept helps to
reduce both the weight and the size of the traditional two-unit system. The CSD
contains a hydraulic trim unit and a differential assembly, which converts the
variable engine rpm to a generator input speed of 12,000 rpm. Figure 37 shows
a typical IDG as used on Boeing 757 aircraft.
OUTPUT
115 V 400 Hz
GENERATOR
CONSTANT
DRIVE UNIT
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Page 3-61
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
GENERATOR
PMG
ERROR DETECTOR
REFERENCE
SENSING
R1
R2
RV1
PRE-AMP
ERROR
CONTROL
WINDING
SIGNAL
CONTROL
WINDING
POWER AMP
A.C. EXCITER
EXCITER FIELD
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The output side of the reference bridge is connected to an error control winding
of the pre-amplifier and then from this amplifier to a signal control winding of the
power amplifier. Both the amplifiers are three-phase magnetic amplifiers. The
output of the power amplifier is supplied to the shunt windings of the generators
A.C. exciter stator.
The output of the error bridge rectifier is a D.C. voltage slightly lower than the
average of the three A.C. line voltages: This voltage may be adjusted via a
variable resistor (RV1) to bring the regulator system to a balance condition for
any nominal line voltage.
A balanced condition of the reference bridge circuit is obtained when the voltage
applied across the bridge (points A & B) is exactly twice that of the voltage drop
across the two tubes. Since under this condition, the voltage drop across R1 &
R2 will equal the drop across each tube, then no current will flow in the output
circuit to the error control winding of the pre-amplifier.
If the A.C. line voltage should go above or below the fixed value, the voltage
drops across R1 & R2 will differ causing an unbalance of the bridge circuit and a
flow of current to the error control winding of the pre-amplifier. The direction
and magnitude of the current flow will depend on whether the error in line voltage,
is above (positive error signal) or below (negative error signal) the balanced
nominal value.
The output from the pre-amplifier to the power amplifier will either be positive or
negative. For a positive error, the exciter current will be decreased and for a
negative output it will be increased.
Page 3-63
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 3-64
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
NEUTRAL
B PHASE
C PHASE
3 PHASE AC
400 HZ
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
BRUSHLESS
AC GENERATOR
FULL-WAVE
CRYSTAL-DIODE
RECTIFIER &
FILTER
3 PHASE AC
VARIABLE
FREQUENCY
FILTERED
DC
CONVERSION
CIRCUIT
A PHASE
VOLTAGE
SENSING
Page 3-65
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.20.2 Operation
The Frequency-Wild Generator has a three-phase output of 22kVA at 208 volts
and supplies full load at this voltage through a frequency range of 280 to 400 Hz.
Below 280 Hz the field current is limited and the output relatively reduced. The
generator consists of two major assemblies:
1. Fixed stator assembly in which the current is induced.
2. Rotating assembly (rotor).
3.20.3 Stator Assembly
The stator assembly is made up of a high permeability laminations and is
clamped in a main housing by an end frame having an integral flange for
mounting the generator at the corresponding drive outlet of an engine-driven
accessory gear-box.
The stator winding is star connected, the star or neutral point being made by
linking three ends of the winding and connecting it to ground. The other three
ends of the winding are brought out to a three-way output terminal box mounted
on the end frame of the generator. Three small current transformers are fitted
into the terminal box and form part of a protection system.
3.20.4 Rotor Assembly
The rotor assembly has six salient poles of laminated construction; their seriesconnected field windings terminate at two slip rings secured at one end of the
rotor shaft. Three brushes are equal-spaced on each slip ring and contained
within a brush-gear housing which also forms a bearing support for the rotor. The
brushes are electrically connected to d.c. input terminals housed in an excitation
terminal box mounted above the brush-gear housing.
3.20.5 Generator Cooling
The generator is cooled by ram air passing into the main housing via an inlet
spout at the slip ring end, the air escaping from the main housing through
ventilation slots at the drive end. An air collector ring encloses the slots and is
connected to a vent through which the cooling air is finally discharged. Provision
is made for the installation of a thermally operated switch to ensure there is
overheat protection.
Page 3-67
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
R
O
T
O
R
STATOR
COMPOUNDING
RECTIFIER
EXCITATION
RECTIFIER
SIGNAL
COMPOUNDING
TRANSFORMER
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
DISCONNECT
TO 208V AC
BUSBAR
AIRCRAFT
DE-ICING
SYSTEM
28V DC
BUSBAR
START
SWITCH
Figure 40 shows the circuit for the frequency wild generator shown in figure 41.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Page 3-69
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PHASE A
STATOR
ROTOR
PHASE B
PHASE C
Page 3-70
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
A
A PHASE
VOLTAGE
A1
NEUTRAL
LINE VOLTAGE
= 3 x PHASE
B PHASE
VOLTAGE
C1
B1
LINE VOLTAGE
= 3 x PHASE
C PHASE
VOLTAGE
LINE VOLTAGE
= 3 x PHASE
C
PHASE VOLTAGE = 115V
LINE VOLTAGE = 200V
Star Connection
Figure 43
Page 3-71
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
LINE
VOLTAGE
A1
C1
E
AS GE
PH TA
L
VO
A
VO PH
L T AS
AG E
E
LINE
VOLTAGE
L CURRENT
= 3 PHASE CURRENT
B1
B PHASE
VOLTAGE
LINE
VOLTAGE
Delta Connection
Figure 44
Page 3-72
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.22 BUSBARS
In most types of aircraft, the output from the generating sources are coupled to
one or more low impedance conductors referred to as Busbars. These are
usually situated in junction boxes or distribution panels located at central points
within the aircraft, and they provide a convenient means for connecting positive
supplies to the various consumer circuits.
Busbars vary in form dependent on the methods to be adopted in meeting the
electrical power requirements of a particular aircraft type. In a very simple
system a busbar can take the form of a strip of interlinked terminals while in more
complex systems main busbars are thick metal (usually copper) strips or rods to
which input and output supplies are connected. The strips or rods are insulated
from the main structure and are normally provided with some form of protective
covering.
3.22.1 Busbar Systems
The function of a distribution system is prmarily a simple one, but it is complicated
by having to meet additional requirments which concern a power source, or a
power consumer system operating either separately or collectively, under
abnormal conditions. The requiremnets and abnormal conditions may be
considered in relation to three main areas, which are as follows.
1.
2.
3.
2.
Essential Services.
3.
Non-Essential Services.
Page 3-73
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Vital Services; are those which would be required after an emergency wheels-up
landing, e.g. emergency lighting and crash switch operation of fire extinguishers.
These services are connected directly to the battery.
Essential Services; are those required to ensure safe flight in an in-flight
emergency situation. They are connected to D.C. and A.C. busbars, as
appropriate, and in such a way that they can always be supplied from a generator
or from batteries.
Non-Essential Services; are those which can be isolated in an in-flight
emergency for load shedding purposes, and are connected to D.C. and A.C.
busbars, as appropriate, supplied from a generator.
Figure 45 shows a typical two D.C. generator distribution system.
GEN
No 1
No 2
INVERTER
No 3
INVERTER
GEN
No 2
NON-ESSENTIAL
A.C. CONSUMERS
No 2
BUSBAR
No 1
BUSBAR
NON-ESSENTIAL
D.C. CONSUMERS
NON-ESSENTIAL
D.C. CONSUMERS
BATTERY
BUSBAR
VITAL D.C.
CONSUMERS
No 1
INVERTER
ESSENTIAL
A.C. CONSUMERS
ESSENTIAL BUSBAR
ESSENTIAL
D.C. CONSUMERS
Page 3-74
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
In figure 44, the power supplies are 28v D.C. from two engine driven generators
operating in parallel, 115v A.C. 400 Hz A.C. from rotary inverters, and 28v D.C.
from the batteries. Each generator has its own busbar to which are connected
the Non-essential consumer services. Both busbars are in turn connected to a
single busbar, which supplies power to the Essential consumer services.
With both generators operating, all consumer services are supplied with power.
The essential busbar is also connected to the battery busbar ensuring that the
batteries are maintained in the charged condition. In the event that one generator
should fail it is automatically isolated from its respective busbar and all busbar
loads are taken over by the operative generator.
Should both generators fail, the non-essential services are no longer provided
with power, the batteries automatically supply power to the essential busbar to
supply the essential services (A.C. essential services via the No inverter). The
batteries will maintain the essential busbar for a period calculated on consumer
load requirements and the battery states of charge.
3.22.2 Split Bus-Bar A.C. Generation System
The generators supply three-phase power through separate channels, to the
main busbar and these in turn supply the non-essential consumer loads and
Transformer rectifier Units (TRUs). The essential A.C. loads are supplied from
the essential busbar, which under normal operating conditions is connected via a
change over relay to the No 1 main busbar. The main busbars are normally
isolated from each other (i.e. the generators are not paralleled). If however one
of the generators should fail, the busbars are automatically inter-connected by the
energising of the Bus-Tie breaker, thus maintaining supplies to all A.C.
consumers and both TRUs.
Page 3-75
Page 3-76
VITAL D.C.
CONSUMERS
BATTERY
D.C. BUSBAR
BATTERY
RELAY
ESSENTIAL
A.C. CONSUMERS
ESSENTIAL
A.C. BUSBAR
NON-ESSENTIAL
A.C. CONSUMERS
CHANGE
OVER
REALY
ESSENTIAL
D.C. CONSUMERS
ESSENTIAL
D.C. BUSBAR
STATIC
INVERTER
No 1 A.C. BUSBAR
GEN
No 1
No 1
TRU
ISOLATION
RELAY
BUS TIE
BREAKER
No 2
TRU
NON-ESSENTIAL
D.C. CONSUMERS
NON-ESSENTIAL
D.C. BUSBAR
NON-ESSENTIAL
A.C. CONSUMERS
No 2 A.C. BUSBAR
GEN
No 2
EXTERNAL
POWER
RELAY
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The supply of D.C. is derived from independent TRUs and the batteries. The No
1 TRU supplies essential loads and the No 2 TRU supplies non-essential loads
connected to the main D.C. busbar. Both the main and essential D.C. busbars
are automatically interconnected by an isolation relay.
In the event that one generator should fail it is automatically isolated from its
respective busbar and all busbar loads are taken over by the operative generator.
If, for any reason, the power supplied from both generators should fail the nonessential services will be isolated and the change over relay between No 1 main
busbar, and the essential A.C. busbar will automatically de-energize and connect
the essential A.C. busbar to an emergency static inverter. The main D.C. busbar
is isolated from the essential D.C. busbar by the isolation relay de-energizing.
The essential D.C. busbar deriving its D.C. supply directly from the battery busbar
to maintain the operation of the essential D.C. and A.C. supplies.
External power can also be connected to the whole system to supply both A.C.
and D.C. to the system.
Page 3-77
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
P R I O R IT Y
GEN 1
GEN 1
ESS AC BUS
GEN 2
EXT PWR
EXT PWR
GEN 2
E M E R IN V
EXT PWR
A C B US 2
GEN 3
GEN 3
GEN 3
GEN 2
EXT PWR
GEN 1
AC BUS 1
ESS A C
B US
E M E R AC
B US
AC BUS 2
A C G RN D
S E R V B US
* M A N U A L O P E R A T IO N
P R I O R IT Y
T RU 1
B AT 1
T RU 3
T RU 3
B AT 2
T RU 2
D C EX T
PW R
T RU 2 *
DC BUS
1
DC BUS
1
T RU 1 *
GR N SER V
T RU
B AT TE R IE S
DC BUS 1
B AT B US 1
ESS D C
B US
EM ER
DC BUS
DC BUS 2
D C G RN D
S E R V B US
B AT B US 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
GCB 1
EMERG AC BUS
AC Busbar System
Figure 48
AC GRND SERV
GSBC 1
GSBC 2
EBTR
EMERGENCY
INVERTER
GEN
1
AC BUS 1
BTB 1
GPTC
GEN
3
EBTC
APTC
APC
EPC
ESS AC BUS
EXT
PWR
BTB 2
GEN
2
AC BUS 2
GCB 2
Figure 48 shows the AC Busbar system, which would satisfy the requirements of
AC priority as shows in Figure 47.
Page 3-79
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AC GND
SERV BUS
BATT 1
DC Busbar System
Figure 49
Page 3-80
DC EXT
PWR
DC EBTC
BIC 1
BATT BUS 1
BATTERY
CHARGER
ESS DC BUS
DC EPR
DC BTC
DC BUS 1
AC BUS 1
AC BUS 1
TRU
1
BPC
EMERG DC BUS
1
2
TRU
3
ESS AC BUS
DC EBPC
TRU
2
DC BUS 2
GND
SERV
TRU
BIC 2
BATT 2
BATT BUS 2
AC BUS 2
AC BUS 2
BATTERY
CHARGER
Figure 49 shows the DC Busbar system, which would satisfy the requirements of
DC priority as shows in Figure 47.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
GPU
APU
XPC 2
APB
TIE BUS
BTB 1
AC BUS 1
BTB 2
AC BUS 3
AC BUS 2
GCB 1
GCB 2
GEN 1
BTB 3
AC BUS 4
GCB 3
GEN 2
BTB 4
GCB 4
GEN 3
GEN 4
Page 3-81
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
GPU
GPU
APU
XPC 2
XPC 2
APB
SSB
TIE BUS
BTB 1
AC BUS 1
TIE BUS
BTB 2
AC BUS 3
AC BUS 2
GCB 1
GEN 1
BTB 3
GCB 2
GEN 2
BTB 4
AC BUS 4
GCB 3
GEN 3
GCB 4
GEN 4
Page 3-82
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Page 3-83
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The BPCU also receives data from the Generator Control Unit GCU, the Ground
Power Control Unit (GPCU) and various bus ties and circuit breakers of the
system. It also receives input information concerning system loads from Load
Controllers. Load controllers are electric circuits that sense real system current
and provide control signals for the generators CSDU rpm governor. The CSDU
output rpm in turn affects the generator output frequency. Load controllers
receive their input signals from current transformers. Figure 52 shows current
transformers as fitted to the Boeing 737 aircraft.
TO PROTECTION
CIRCUITS
Current Transformers
Figure 52
Page 3-84
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Current transformers
Figure 53
Page 3-85
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
BTB
BTB
GTB
LEFT
IDG
LEFT
GCU
RIGHT
IDG
GTB
RIGHT
GCU
BTB
BPCU
APU
GEN
APB
APU GEN
GCU
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Over-current (OC)
Under-voltage (UV)
Over-frequency (OF)
Under-Frequency (UF)
The GCR can be tripped by three manual actions and automatically by the
detection of five faults:
Manual
1.
2.
3.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Over Frequency.
Page 3-87
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
6.
Over-voltage Unit
The unit is designed to protect electrical systems of 200 volts, 3-phase, 400 Hz
from over voltage faults. The unit will operate, to protect the system, when the
voltage rises to (typically) above 220 volts and in effect disconnects the generator
from its loads. Figure 55 shows the circuit for the Over-voltage Unit.
VOLTAGE NORMAL
TR1
DE-ENERGISED
OVERVOLT
RELAY
TR2
D1
D3
D9
D5
R1
D2
D4
LOW
VOLTS
D6
HIGH
VOLTS
ZD4
NO BREAKDOWN
D8
R4
T1
RV1
ZD1 ZD2 ZD3
C1
ZD5
OFF
T2
ON
T3
OFF
D7
R5
R2
R3
C2
Over-voltage Unit
Figure 55
The supply to the unit is via two open-delta connected transformers TR1 and TR2
via the full-wave Rectifier Bridge, across which is connected the potential divider
network R1, RV1 and R2. Under normal conditions, the voltage developed
across RV1 and R2 is not sufficient to break down Zener diodes ZD1, ZD2 and
ZD3. Transistor T1 is therefore not conducting but transistor T2 is, due to the
high potential on its base. This means that T3 is not conducting and the over
voltage relay is not energised.
Page 3-88
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
When the supply voltage exceeds 220 volts, ZD1, ZD2 and ZD3 break down and
(after a time delay afforded by R4, R5 and C2) the voltage across R3 is able to
energise transistor T1. Thus T1 conducts, shutting off T2, which causes T3 to
conduct and the relay to be energised.
C1 is smoothing capacitor. D7 enables C2 to discharge through R3 for operation
on subsequent over-voltage faults. Overall temperature compensation for
transistor T1 is effected through Zener diodes ZD1, ZD2 and ZD3, and by Zener
diodes ZD4 and ZD5 for transistors T2 and T3 respectively. The increased gain
of the transistors due, to a rise in ambient temperature, is compensated for by the
decreased output of the Zener diodes. Diode D9 suppresses the peak inverse
voltage, which would be applied to transistor T3 from the relay coil when the
transistor is shut off.
The length of the time will vary considerably, depending on the value of the overvoltage and on the rate at which the voltage is rising. The following figures are
given as a rough guide: at 220 volts the unit will operate in less than 10
seconds; at 225 volts it will operate in 0.7 to 1.6 seconds; at 250 volts it will
operate in 0.35 to 0.65 seconds. From this it can be said that the time delay is
Inversely proportional to the value of the over-voltage (i.e. the higher the overvoltage the shorter the time delay).
3.23.4 Under-voltage & Reverse Phase Sequence Unit
This unit is designed to protect electrical systems of 200 volts, 3-phase, 400 Hz
from under-voltage faults. It will operate, to protect the system, when the voltage
falls to (typically) 173 2 volts and in effect disconnects the generator from its
load. It also affords protection against incorrect phase rotation in the event of the
generator being incorrectly connected.
The supply to the unit is applied to two open-delta connected transformers TR1
and TR2. Each transformer has two secondary windings S1 and S2. The S1
secondary windings supply the phase sequence circuit, whilst the S2 windings
supply the transistor amplifier and voltage sensing circuits.
Page 3-89
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 56 shows the Under-voltage & Reverse Phase Sequencer Unit circuit.
S1
TR1
TR2
S2
S2
UNDERVOLT
RELAY
D4
S1
D1
D3
D5
D2
D4
D6
R6
T1
D2
C1
D1
ZD1
T2
ZD2
D3
R1
R
4
C2
T
H
R
R
5
R
7
C4
C3
Page 3-90
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
B R E A KD O W N
F RO M G C U
PO W E R SU PPL IES
Z D1
R1
D1
NO
OU TPU T
(G C U N O T R I P )
C1
+V E W H E N G E N
NO
C H AR G E
O U T PU T N O R MA L
Q1
ON
R2
B R E A KD O W N
R E G U L AT E D DC
(A F T E R C 1 C H A R G E D )
F RO M G C U
PO W E R SU PPL IES
Z D1
R1
D1
OU TPU T
(G C U T R IP )
0V
WH EN GEN
O U T P U T U ND E R V O LT A G E
C1
C H AR G E
O R IN C O O R E C T P H A S E
S E Q U E N CE
Q1
OFF
R2
Page 3-91
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PWR
READY
INHIBIT UV
ON ENG
SHUTDOWN
GEN
O/P
UF DETECTOR
365 Hz 5Hz
0.5 - 1 SEC
OF DETECTOR
430 Hz 5Hz
Page 3-92
GB
TRIP
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
LOAD
DPCT
GROUND
DPCT
GEN
GENERATOR
CONTROL RELAY
I-IF
FAULT
IF
LOAD
(I - I F) + (IF) = I
I-IF
DP DETECTOR
IN GENERATOR
CONTROL UNIT
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE
Page 3-93
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
If the current from the generator is I, and the fault current between the generator
and busbar equals If, then the net current will flow through the aircrafts structure
and back to the generator through the ground DPCT. The remainder of the
current I - If , will flow through the load DPCT, the load, the aircraft structure, and
then back to the generator via the ground DPCT. Thus, the ground DPCT will
detect the generators total current (I - If) + (If) which is equal to I, and the load
DPCT will detect I - If.
The difference in current (i.e. the fault current) between the two current
transformers on the phase line is sensed to be greater than the specified limit (20
30A are typical values) a protector circuit within the GCU will trip the generator
control relay.
Figure 60 shows a 3-Phase Differential Protection circuit.
GCB
CT1
CT4
CT2
CT5
CT6
CT3
GEN
R
1
R
3
R
5
D1
R7
D2
D3
R
2
R
4
R
6
C1
R
V
1
ZD1
D4
Page 3-94
TO TRIP
GCR
& GCB
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
GCB
CT1
CT2
CT3
GEN
TO TRIP
GCR
& GCB
R
1
R
3
R
5
D1
R7
D2
D3
R
2
R
4
R
6
C1
R
V
1
ZD1
Page 3-95
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 3-96
CSD DISC
GEN OFF
FIRE HANDLE
CUURENT
DETECTOR
OC - DP
FREQUENCY
DETECTOR
UF/OF
VOLTAGE
DETECTOR
(OV - UV)
PS
CONTROL
DC PWR
CLOSE
GCR
UF
UV
OV/UV
OF
UF
GCR
TRIP
GB TRIP
CIRCUIT
TRIP
GCB
CLOSE
TO
GEN
FIELD
TRIP &
INTERLOCK
CCTS
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
LINE
CCTS
GEN AC
3 PHASE
BATTERY
BACK UP
FIELD
POWER
SUPPLY
PART OF POWER
READY RELAY
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Page 3-97
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3.24 TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a device for converting A.C. at one frequency and voltage to an
A.C. at the same frequency but at another voltage level. It consists of three main
parts:
1. An Iron Core: provides a circuit of low reluctance for an alternating magnetic
field.
2. A Primary Winding: connected to the main power source.
3. A Secondary Winding: which receives electrical energy by mutual induction
from the primary winding and delivers it to the secondary circuit.
There are two classes of transformers:
1. Voltage or Power transformers.
2. Current Transformers.
3.24.1 Voltage transformers
Voltage transformers are connected so that the primary windings are in parallel
with the supply voltage, in the current transformers, the primary windings are
connected in series with the supply voltage. These transformers may be single
phase or three-phase devices. Transformers for three-phase circuits can be
connected in one of several combinations of star and delta connections
depending on the requirements for the transformer.
When the star connection is used in a three-phase transformer for the operation
of three-phase equipment, the transformer may be connected as a three-phase
system. If a single phase load has to be powered from a three-phase supply it is
sometimes difficult to keep them balanced, itr is therefore essential to provide a
neutral wire so that connections of the loads may be made between this and any
one of the three-phase lines. Figure 63 & 64 show transformer connections.
Page 3-98
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
STAR CONNECTION
THREE-WIRE
ELECTRICAL POWER
STAR CONNECTION
FOUR-WIRE
STAR-WOUND
PRIMARY
DELTA-WOUND
PRIMARY
STAR - DELTA
CONNECTION
Page 3-99
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 3-100
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
D4
D2
D6
D3
3 PHASE
A.C. SUPPLY
D1
D5
D.C.
LOAD
Transformer-Rectifier Operation
Figure 64
MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 3 ISSUE 7 - 01/02/11
Page 3-101
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
RECTIFIER
SECTION
TRANSFORMER
SECTION
AMMETER SHUNT
TERMINALS
A.C. INPUT
TERMAINLS
TEMPERATURE
WARNING SYSTEM
TERMINAL
D.C. OUTPUT
TEMINALS
Transformer-rectifier Unit
Figure 65
Page 3-102
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
METER
RECTIFIER UNIT
A.C.
I/P
STAR
STAR
TRANSFORMER UNIT
DELTA
D.C.
O/P
WARNING
SYSTEM
Figure 66 shows the schematic circuit for the TRU shown in figure 65.
Page 3-103
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The unit consists of a transformer and two three-phase bridge rectifier assemblies
mounted in separate sections of the casing. The transformer has a conventional
star-wound primary winding and secondary windings wound in both star and delta
configurations.
Each secondary winding is connected to individual bridge rectifier assemblies
made up of six silicon diodes, and connected in parallel. An ammeter shunt
(dropping 50mV at 100A) is connected in the output side of the rectifier to enable
current taken from the main D.C. output terminals to be measured at ammeter
auxiliary terminals. These terminals together with all others associated with input
and output circuits are grouped on a panel at one end of the unit (see figure 60).
Cooling for the unit is by convection through gauze covered ventilation panels
and in order to give warning of over-heating conditions, thermal switches are
provided at the transformer and rectifier assemblies, and are connected to
independent warning lights. These switches are supplied with D.C. from an
external D.C. source (normally on of the busbars) and their contacts close when
temperature conditions at their respective locations rise to approximately 150C
and 200C.
Page 3-104
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
INVERTER
CONTROL
BREAKER
115V
400Hz
MOTOR
GENERATOR
Page 3-105
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
28V D.C.
INVERTER
CONTROL
BREAKER
CARBON
PILE
115V
400Hz
SHUNT
FIELD
SERIES
FIELD
RECTIFIER
REGULATOR
FIELD
Page 3-106
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
REGULATOR
NOTCH
CONTROL
TURN ON
DELAY
PULSE
SHAPER
400Hz SQUAREWAVE
GENERATOR
28V
D.C.
FILTER
NETWORK
NOTCH
TIME
POWER
DRIVER
CONSTANT
CURRENT
GENERATOR
NOTCH
TIME
OUTPUT
STAGE
CURRENT
SENSOR
VOLTAGE
SENSOR
115V
400Hz
A.C.
ODD
HARMONIC
FILTER
These inverters perform the same conversion function as the rotary machines,
but by means of solid state circuit principles. They are employed in a number of
types of aircraft and in some cases providing the normal source of A.C. They are
more commonly used in supplying emergency sources of A.C. to certain essential
A.C. systems when a failure of the normal source of A.C. has occurred. Figure
69 shows a block schematic of a static inverter.
Page 3-107
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 3-108
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
TRU 3
DC BUS 1
GRND SERV BUS
TRU 1
GRND SERV
RELAY
TRANSFER
RELAY 1
TR 1
MAIN BUS 1
115 V
GEN BUS 1
EXT PWR BUS
TRANS BUS 1
BTB 1
GCB 1
GEN 1
TRU 3
DISCONNECT
DC BUS 2
TRU 2
APU
GCB
EPC
EXT
POWER
BATTERY BUS
TRANSFER
RELAY 2
MAIN BUS 2
GEN BUS 2
115 V
BTB 2
APU
GEN
GCB 2
TR 2
GEN 2
The Boeing 737 aircrafts electrical system operates using a split busbar system
and is shown in Figure 70
Page 3-109
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Page 3-111
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Page 3-113
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Page 3-115
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 3-116
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The controls for the APU are located on the forward overhead panel and consist
of the following:
APU SWITCH Three position switch OFF momentary START and spring
loaded to ON.
START Start circuit armed. Momentarily holding in START and allowing
return to ON, fuel valve opens, air inlet door opens and the start sequence is
initiated.
ON Operating position after start.
OFF Shuts down the APU.
LOW OIL QUANTITY LIGHT Illuminated blue when oil tank fluid level is low.
LOW OIL PRESSURE LIGHT Illuminated amber when oil pressure is low. APU
automatically shuts down.
HIGH OIL TEMPERATURE LIGHT Illuminated amber when APU oil
temperature exceeds maximum allowable. APU automatically shuts down.
OVERSPEED LIGHT Illuminated amber when APU turbine speed exceeds
allowable rpm. APU automatically shuts down.
A.C. AMMETER Displays APU generator load current.
EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE INDICATOR Displays APU exhaust gas
temperature in C.
Page 3-117
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 3-118
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.26.5 Operation
When external power is connected to the aircraft and is switched on, the external
power contactor closes and energises both bus-tie breakers (BTB) to connect
power to the whole busbar system. The connection between the generator
busbars and the transfer bus busbars is made via the transfer relays which are
energised to the Normal position by the BTBs.
Once the number one engine is started and the generator switch (P5-4) is
selected to ON, the BTB 1 will open and GCB 1 will closes, ensuring that all the
number one systems power is delivered from the number one generator. At this
time however the external power is still providing power for the number 2 system.
When the number two engine has been started and its generator switched on,
BTB 2 trips open, GCB 2 closes to connect the generator to the number two
system busbars, and the external power contactor also trips open.
If it is only necessary for the services connected to the ground service busbar to
be operated from external power, this may be achieved by leaving the ground
power switch on P5-4 in the OFF position, and switching a separate ground
service switch (forward attendants panel) to ON. The switch energises a
ground service relay the contacts of which change over a connection from the
generator bus 1 to the external power busbar.
The APU generator is connected to the entire busbar system via its own threephase breaker, this, in turn being energised by two APU generator switches on
the P5-4 panel. Placing the left (No 1) switch to ON closes the APU generator
breaker and also BTB 1, and with the right or (No 2) switch placed to ON the
BTB 2 is closed. As in the case of connecting an external power supply, the
transfer relays are energised to the Normal position by the BTBs.
The normal in-flight configuration of the power distribution system is for each
generator to supply its respective busbars through its own breakers (GCB1 &
GCB 2). The generator switches (P5-4) then energise these breakers; the
interlock circuits keep BTBs 1 & 2 in the open position, so that the generator
systems are always kept entirely separate. GCB 1 and GCB 2 have a set of
auxiliary contacts which in the closed position energise transfer relays to their
Normal positions and so provide connections between generators and transfer
busbars 1 and 2. As will be noted from the diagram, the transfer busbars supply
TRUs 1 and 2 while TRU 3 is supplied direct from main busbar 2.
In the event of a loss of power from one or the other generators, say the number
1 for example; GCB 1 will open thus isolating the corresponding busbars. When
GCB 1opens, another set of auxiliary contacts within the breaker permit a D.C.
signal to flow from the control unit of the number 2 generator via a bus transfer
switch, the alternate coil of transfer relay 1. The contacts will change over so
that power is supplied to the number 1transfer busbar from generator 2
generator, which is still supplying its busbars in the normal way. A similar
transfer of power takes place in the event of loss of power from generator 2.
Page 3-119
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Generator busbar 1 and main busbar 1 which carry non-essential loads, can not
be supplies with power from generator 2 under the power loss example given on
the previous page. If, however, power to these busbars is required, the APU may
be started in flight and its number 1 switch (P5-4), momentary placed to the ON
position, thereby closing the APU breaker and the BTB 1. At the same time,
transfer relay 1 contacts would change over from Alternate to Normal so that
the APU supplies the whole number 1 system. If a loss of power from the
number 2 system should occur, it is not possible to connect it to the APU since its
number 2 switch is electrically locked out during in flight operations.
3.26.6 Generator Feeder Lines
Figure 75 shows the routing of the feeder lines from the main generators and the
APU generators. At the wing/fuselage junction, the lines pass through sealed
connectors into the underfloor area. All lines are then routed through an
electrical/electronics compartment. Those from the main generators pass
through sealed connectors into unpressurised nosewheel well to connect up with
the generator breakers.
TO LOAD
BUSBARS
P6 PANEL
APU
GENERATOR
BREAKER
LINE CURRENT
TRANSFORMER
ENGINE/WING
DISCONNECT
No 1
GENERATOR
BREAKER
No 2
GENERATOR
BREAKER
ENGINE/WING
DISCONNECT
CSD/GENERATOR
NUMBER 1
CSD/GENERATOR
NUMBER 2
FROM APU
GENERATOR
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
The feeder lines from the APU generators are connected to its breaker located
above floor level within a special compartment (P6) on the flight deck to the rear
of the First Officers position. This compartment contains most of the A.C. and
D.C. busbars, bus-tie breakers, and voltage control and protection units for all
three generators and an external power control unit. Figure 76 shows the
location of the electrical/electronics compartment and the P6 compartment.
EXTERNAL
POWER
GENERATOR
BREAKERS
P6
PANEL
APU
BREAKER
BUSBAR
PROTECTION
PANEL
GENERATOR &
APU CONTROL
UNITS
BUSTIE
BREAKERS
TRUs
BATTERY
CHARGER
NOSE
WHEEL
BAY
EXTERNAL
POWER
CONTACTOR
INVERTER
E1 RACK
E3 RACK
BATTERY
EXTERNAL D.C.
RECEPTACLE
E2 RACK
ACCESS DOOR
TO COMPARTMENT
Electrical/Electronic/P6 Compartments
Figure 76
The feeder lines from the main generator breakers pass into this compartment to
connect with the A.C. busbars. A circuit breaker panel is mounted on the front
side of the compartment, thus this compartment is termed the Load Control
Centre of the aircraft.
Page 3-121
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
APU GENERATOR
CONTROL UNIT
BUS
PROTECTION
PANEL
G7
POWER
SUPPLIES
FOR TEST
EQUIPMENT
G5
115 V A.C.
28V D.C.
No 2 GENERATOR
CONTROL UNIT
G4 G3
No 1 GENERATOR
CONTROL UNIT
P6 PANEL
(BEHIND F/O)
P18 PANEL
(BEHIND CAPT)
P6 Panel
Figure 77
Page 3-122
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
115 V AC
GRND SERV BUS
115 V AC
MAIN BUS 2
ALTERNATE
BATT CHRG
TRANS RLY
115 V AC
TRANSFER BUS 1
115 V AC
TRANSFER BUS 2
BATT
OVERHEAT
RLY
BATT
CHRG
T/R
1
T/R
2
T/R
3
APU START
INTERLOCK
RLY
DC BUS 1
DC BUS 2
NORMAL
OFF
BAT
ON
STANDBY POWER
BATT BUS
BATTERY
BAT
OFF
AUTO
Page 3-123
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
GEN 4
GEN 3
GEN 2
GEN 1
GCB 4
GCB 3
GCB 2
GCB 1
AC BUS 4
AC BUS 3
AC BUS 2
AC BUS 1
BTB 4
TIE BUS
BTB 1
GPU
XPC 2
APB
APU
BTB 2
SSB
BTB 3
TIE BUS
XPC 2
GPU
The B747 aircraft uses a further variation of the split busbar system. Its A.C.
power generating system utilises a system of interlocking GCBs and BTBs, but
in this case various combinations of generator operation are possible. Figure 79
shows a simplified diagram of the B747 A.C. power generation system.
Page 3-124
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.27.1 Operation
If the GCBs only are closed, then each generator will only supply its respective
load busbar; in other words, they are operated individually and unparalleled. The
generators may, however, also be operated in parallel when the BTBs are closed
to connect the load busbars to the Tie-Busbar. As will be noted from figure 77,
this busbar is split into two parts by a split system breaker (SSB) which, in the
open position allows the generators to operate in two parallel pairs.
Closing of the SSB connects both parts of the Tie-Busbar so that all four
generators can operate as a fully paralleled system. By means of the interlocking
system between breakers and the manual and automatic sequencing by which
they are controlled, any generator can supply power to any load busbar, and any
combination of generators can be operated in parallel.
Page 3-125
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CURRENT (REACTIVE)
VOLTAGE
CURRENT (REAL)
CU
RR
EN
T(
AC
TU
AL
)
POWER FACTOR =
CURRENT (REAL)
CURRENT (ACTUAL)
Page 3-126
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
I1
(AC
TU
AL
)
GEN 1
I2 (REAL)
I2 (REACTIVE)
I1 (REACTIVE)
I1 (REAL)
I2
(AC
TU
AL
)
GEN 2
Page 3-127
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
I1
(AC
TU
AL
)
GEN 1
I2 (REAL)
I2 (REACTIVE)
I1 (REACTIVE)
I1 (REAL)
I2
(A
CT
U
AL
)
GEN 2
Page 3-128
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
Since the energy supplied to the motored generators originates from a generator
with a higher speed governor setting, this generator carries more than its share of
real load and the motored generators carry less than their share of real load. To
equally divide real load among parallel generators, equal amounts of energy must
be supplied in the form of torque on the generator rotors.
TO CSD
GOVERNOR
TO CSD
GOVERNOR
TO CSD
GOVERNOR
TO CSD
GOVERNOR
MAGNETIC
AMPLIFIER
MAGNETIC
AMPLIFIER
MAGNETIC
AMPLIFIER
MAGNETIC
AMPLIFIER
LOAD
CONTROL
LOAD
CONTROL
LOAD
CONTROL
LOAD
CONTROL
GEN
1
ERROR
DETECTOR
GEN
2
ERROR
DETECTOR
GEN
3
ERROR
DETECTOR
GEN
4
ERROR
DETECTOR
Real Load sharing is controlled by adjustment of the Constant Speed Drive Unit.
Figure 83 shows a real load sharing loop.
Page 3-129
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
GEN A
115V
REACTIVE
CIRCULATING 125V GEN B
CURRENT
Page 3-130
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
I1 (REACTIVE)
I1 (REAL)
I1
(AC
TU
AL
)
GEN 1
I2 (REACTIVE)
I2 (REAL)
I2
(AC
TU
AL
)
GEN 2
I1
(A
CT
U
GEN 1
AL
)
I2 (REACTIVE)
I1 (REACTIVE)
I1 (REAL)
I2 (REAL)
I2 (
AC
TU
AL
)
GEN 2
Page 3-131
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TO PRE-AMP
AND GENERATOR
SHUNT FIELD
TO PRE-AMP
AND GENERATOR
SHUNT FIELD
TO PRE-AMP
AND GENERATOR
SHUNT FIELD
TO PRE-AMP
AND GENERATOR
SHUNT FIELD
ERROR
DETECTOR
ERROR
DETECTOR
ERROR
DETECTOR
ERROR
DETECTOR
GEN
1
MUTUAL
REACTOR
GEN
2
MUTUAL
REACTOR
GEN
3
MUTUAL
REACTOR
GEN
4
MUTUAL
REACTOR
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
The mutual reactor is a device capable of sensing reactive load. Note that its
primary winding (P) is fed from a current transformer at phase C. Its secondary
winding (S) is fed directly from the same phase. The air gap in its core causes a
phase shift of 90 between the primary current and the secondary voltage. Figure
88 shows the circuit of the mutual reactor operation.
GENERATOR OUTPUT
REACTIVE
LOAD SHARE
LOOP
MUTUAL
REACTOR
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
TO THE
TIE BUS
Page 3-133
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Ip
Vs
Figure 89
Is
Ip
Vs
Figure 90
Page 3-134
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
Is
Ip
I PHASE C
(SECONDARY)Vc
V SECONDARY
V PHASE C
THE REGULATOR SEES
THIS AS TOO HIGH A
VOLTAGE AND REDUCES THE
FIELD EXCITATION
I PRIMARY
Vs
Figure 91
Is
Ip
WITH A REACTIVE LOAD
THE VOLTAGE FROM
PHASE C WILL BE IN PHASE
WITH THE SECONDARY VOLTAGE
Vc
Vs
Figure 92
Page 3-135
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
COOLING
FAN
APU
ENGINE
APU AIR
INLET
EXHAUST DUCT
COOLING AIR
INLET
EXHAUST
MUFFLER
COOLING
AIR EXIT
ACCESS
DOOR
GENERATOR
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
FWD
PROPELLER/GOVERNER
UNIT
INBD
G E N E R A TO R
O U T P UT
RAT
GENERATOR
E L E CT R ICA L
C O N NE C T O R S
HYDRAULIC
PUMP
M O U N TIN G
H OL ES
G C U S IG N AL S
& POW ER
IN P UT
S H AF T
FW D
Page 3-137
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.
A hydraulic pump,
3.
4.
5.
6.
Page 3-138
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
3 PIN EXTERNAL
POWER RECEPTACLE
EARTH
EXTERNAL
SUPPLY SOCKET
POSITIVE D.C.
3 PIN
PLUG
POSITIVE D.C.
ACCESS
DOOR
Page 3-139
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A basic external power circuit incorporating a 3-pin socket is shown at Figure 96.
REVERSE
CURRENT
CIRCUIT
BREAKER
EXTERNAL
POWER
RELAY
BATTERY
SYSTEM
EXT
BATT
POWER
SELECTOR
Note that there are 2 large pins (carrying the main busbar load) and one small
pin, which carries the supply to the coil of the external power relay. This means
that if ground power is being applied and the external power plug is withdrawn,
the small pin leaves the power receptacle first, thus breaking the supply to the
external power relay, which opens its contacts. In this way, the main busbar load
is no longer supplied and arcing is prevented as the 2 large pins leave the power
receptacle.
Page 3-140
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
MAIN
MAIN
AUX
GROUND
POWER
PLUG
ON
OFF
GROUND SUPPLY
MASTER SWITCH
AUX
GROUND SUPPLY
CONTACTOR
MAGNETIC
INDICATORS
No 1 BUS
TIE CONTACT
AUX
MAIN
No 1 DC
BUS
ESS DC
BUS
No 2 DC
BUS
No3 BUS
TIE CONTACT
AUX
No 3 DC
BUS
In some aircraft D.C. power is distributed from a multiple busbar system and it is
necessary for certain services connected to each of the busbars to be operated
when the aircraft is on the ground. This requires a more sophisticated
arrangement of the external power supply system. Figure 97 shows a schematic
of a multiple D.C. busbar system.
Page 3-141
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Referring to Figure 97, it can be seen that in addition to the external supply relay
or contactor, there are contactors for tying the busbars together. There are also
magnetic indicators to indicate that all connections have been made.
When the external power unit is connected to the aircraft and the master switch is
selected to ON, it energises the external power supply contactor, thus closing its
auxiliary and main sets of contacts. One set of auxiliary contacts complete a
circuit to the magnetic indicator, which then indicates that an external supply is
connected, and on (Indicator C). A second set complete circuits to coils in the
No 1 and No 3 bus-tie contactors while a third and main heavy-duty set connect
the supply direct to the Vital and No 2 busbars.
When both bus-tie contactors are energized their main contacts connect the
supply from the external supply contactor to their respective busbars. Indication
that both busbars are also Tied to the ground power supply is provided by
magnetic indicators A and B which are energized from the Vital busbar via
the auxiliary contacts of the contactor.
Page 3-142
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
EXTERNAL
POWER
READY
LIGHT
SERVICE
INTERPHONE
CONNECTION
NOSE
WHEEL
WELL
LIGHTS
A.C. PHASE A
A.C. PHASE B
A.C. PHASE C
A.C. NEUTRAL
D.C.
Page 3-143
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Three phase 400 Hz 115V AC power is supplied to the aircraft through the
external power receptacle. Before being connected to the aircraft systems, a
Ground Power Control Unit (GPCU) monitors the supply. Although aircraft
ground power systems vary from type to type the following parameters are
generally monitored:
1. Over voltage
2. Phase sequence
3. Under voltage
4. Over current
5. Over frequency
6. Open phase
7. Under frequency
8. Phase imbalance
When these parameters are within specified limits, then ground power is allowed
to feed the aircraft systems.
Page 3-144
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
28V DC FEEDBACK
RESISTOR
AC GROUND
POWER PLUG
LIMITING
SELECTOR
SWITCH
FREQ
VOLTS
EXT
CONTROL
RELAY
TRIP
CLOSE
GROUND
POWER
SWITCH
GROUND
POWER
AVAILABLE
PHASE
SEQUENCE
PROTECTION
GROUND POWER
TRU
TRIP
CLOSE
GROUND POWER
BREAKER RELAY
Page 3-145
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
INTERPHONE
EXTERNAL
POWER
FLIGHT
SERVICE
PILOT
NOSE
WHEELWELL
ON
NORM
NOT
IN USE
CALL
LIGHT
BATTERY
ALTERNATE
Page 3-147
OFF
AUTO
STANDBY POWER
BAT
NORMAL
DC BUS 2
BATT BUS
T/R
2
115 V AC
TRANSFER BUS 2
ALTERNATE
DC BUS 1
T/R
1
115 V AC
TRANSFER BUS 1
TO GEN 1
VIA EPC 1
A.C.
EXT PWR
ON
BAT
OFF
T/R
3
115 V AC
MAIN BUS 2
EPC2
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
D.C.
EXT PWR
APU START
INTERLOCK
RLY
BATT
CHRG
BATT
OVERHEAT
RLY
BATT CHRG
TRANS RLY
115 V AC
GRND SERV BUS
FROM
GEN BUS 1
GRND SERV
RELAY
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Figure 101 shows an external power schematic for the Boeing 737 aircraft.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 3-148
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The ground service bus receives 115 volt AC three phase power from either AC
bus 1, external power No. 1, or APU generator No. 1 through the ground service
select relays (GSSRs) and the ground service transfer relays (GSTRs),
depending on the source selected by BCU No. 1. External power has priority
when connected for ground operations. AC bus 1 powers the ground service bus
for electrical loads necessary during normal flight operations.
An autotransformer powered by the ground service bus, supplies 28 volt AC
single phase power to the 28 volt AC ground service bus.
An autotransformer powered by the ac bus 3, supplies 28 volt AC single phase
power to the main 28 volt AC bus.
The main and APU battery chargers receive power from the ground service bus.
The output of the battery chargers power the main and APU hot battery buses,
also maintaining the batteries at full charge condition.
3.33.3 Main Standby System
During normal power operations, DC bus 3 powers the main and APU battery
buses through the battery transfer relay. The AC standby bus is powered by AC
bus 3 through the AC standby power transfer relay.
If power is lost on AC and DC bus 3, the system switches to standby power,
energising the main battery relay, and also de-energising the battery transfer
relay and the AC standby power transfer relay. The main and APU battery buses
will now be powered by the main and APU hot battery buses. The static inverter
will also receive 28 volt DC power from the main battery hot bus. The 115 volt
AC single phase power from the static inverter will power the AC standby bus.
The captain's transfer bus receives power from AC bus 3 through the instrument
bus voltage sense unit (IBVSU), and the first officer's transfer bus receives power
from AC bus 2 through another IBVSU.
If the voltage is lost on AC bus 3, the IBVSU will automatically switch to AC bus 1
to power the captain's transfer bus. If AC bus 2 has a power loss, the IBVSU will
switch the first officer's transfer bus to AC bus 1.
Page 3-149
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 3-150
EXT
PWR
1
GHR
GHR
AC GHB 2
AC GHB 1
GSTR
GSTR
DC GHB
TRU
APU
BATT
APU BATT
CHRG
MAIN
BATT
MAIN BATT
CHRG
AC GSB UTIL
AC GSB
DC GHB
TRU
DC BUS 2
AC BUS 2
DC BUS 1
IDG
1
BTB 2
TRU
DCIR
GCB 1
TRU
AC BUS 1
28V AC
XFMR
BTB 1
APB 1
IBVSU
IDG
2
APU HOT
BATT BUS
MAIN HOT
BATT BUS
APU INV
XFR RLY
DCIR
FO TRNS BUS
GCB 2
MAIN
BATT
RLY
FO XFR
RLY
APU
BATT
XFR
RLY
APU
START
RELAY
APU
STATIC
INV
DC BUS 3
TRU
AC BUS 3
DCIR
GCB 3
FMC
IDG
3
BTB 4
CAPT XFR
RLY
BTB 3
IBVSU
DC BUS TIES
SSB
STATIC
INV
28V AC
XFMR
DC BUS 4
TRU
AC BUS 4
STBY PWR
XFR RLY
DCIR
GCB 4
APB 2
XPC 2
AC STBY BUS
28 AC MAIN BUS
IDG
4
APU
GEN 2
EXT
PWR
2
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
28V AC GSB
GSSR
GSSR
XPC 1
APU
GEN 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Page 3-151
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 3-152
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The bus tie breaker switch is a latched, alternate action switch. When depressed
to the latched (AUTO) position, automatic paralleling of the ac buses occurs. The
release (ISLN) position isolates the selected bus from the other AC buses.
Page 3-153
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
EICAS DISPLAY
SELECT PANEL
Page 3-154
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
The Split System Breaker (SSB) status is indicated pictorially in the open or
closed positions.
Bus Tie
Bus tie breaker status is indicated by square box symbology. If bus tie breaker 14 is open, an amber coloured ISLN message is displayed within a box. If bus tie
breaker 1-4 is closed, two white coloured vertical lines overlay the bus outlines
and are enclosed within a box. For invalid bus tie data, the respective bus tie
symbol is replaced by a low intensity white box.
Main Bus
A coloured message and outline indicate main bus status. If ac bus 1-4 is on, the
bus number message and outline are coloured white. If ac bus 1-4 is off, the bus
number message and outline are coloured amber. For invalid main bus data, the
outline changes to low intensity white.
Galley and utility bus status is indicated by the display of an associated message
located next to the appropriate main bus indicator. If main bus 1-4 is on and the
galley bus 1-4 relay is closed, the GALLEY message is coloured green;
otherwise, the message is coloured amber. If main bus 1-4 is on and the utility
bus 1-4 relay is closed, the UTILITY message is coloured green; otherwise, the
message is coloured amber. If galley or utility bus data becomes invalid, the
associated message changes to low intensity white.
Generator Control
Generator Drive
Page 3-155
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3.33.7 DC Distribution
There are four main transformer rectifier units (TRUs), each TRU powers an
associated main 28 volt DC load bus. In addition, under normal operation, the
battery buses are supplied from DC bus No. 3. The TRUs are normally operated
in parallel through the DC isolation relays (DCIRs), 75 amp thermal circuit
breakers, and a DC tie bus. The TRUs are identical and are interchangeable.
The main TRUs are static devices which convert 3-phase nominal 115/200 volt,
400 Hz ac input power into unregulated 28 volts dc output power for the airplane
main dc system. Each TRU employs a transformer with a star connected primary
and paralleled star-delta secondary connections. The 6-phase output from the
secondaries is connected to a 6-phase full wave rectifier bridge and filtered to
produce the desired output. Each TRU has an output voltage of 29 volts at no
load and approximately 27 volts at rated load. The four main TRUs are rated for
a continuous output load of 75 amps.
The DC isolation relay parallels the four main DC buses when de-energized
during normal operation. When energized, they isolate their associated main
buses. The four DCIRs operate in conjunction with the BTBs and the bus tie
switches.
Page 3-156
PFD - L
ND - L
PMG - L
PWR TEST
APU BAT
RELAY
CAPT XPR
RELAY
EPC 1
PFD - R
ND - R
BCU
1
AGCU
1
APU
GEN 1
APB 1
GCU
1
GCB 1
CAPT XPR
RELAY
IDG
1
AC BUS 1
BTB 1
AC 1
DIST
APU BAT
XPR RELAY
DC BUS 1
TRU
EFIS SW
FO
CAPT
APU STATIC
INVERTER
DC BUS 2
TRU
AC 2
DIST
APU INV
XPR RELAY
CAPT XPR
IBVSU
GCU
2
GCB 2
FO XPR
IBVSU
IDG
2
AC BUS 2
BTB 2
SSB
OFF
BAT SW
ON
APU BAT
HOT BUS
DC BUS 3
TRU
AC 3
DIST
IDG
3
VOLTAGE
SENSE RELAY
DC BUS 4
TRU
GCU
3
AC 4
DIST
SINGLE
TRU RELAY
MN BAT
HOT BUS
AC BUS 3
GCB 3
BTB 3
TO BCU
BAT XPR
RELAY
MN BAT RELAY
IDG
4
EPC 2
STBY PWR
SW
BAT
OFF
AUTO
STBY PWR
XPR RELAY
APU
GEN 2
AGCU
2
APB 2
BCU
2
STATIC
INVERTER
AC BUS 4
GCB 1
BTB 4
GCU
4
AC STBY
EXT
PWR
No 2
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
APU BAT
BUS
EXT
PWR
No 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
Page 3-157
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SHORT
HIGH
CURRENT
FLOW
LOAD
A Short Circuit
Figure 106
If the current flow caused by a short circuit at some section of a cable is left
unchecked, the heat generated in the cable will continue to increase until
something gives way. A portion of the cable may melt, thereby opening the
circuit so that the only damage done would be to the cable involved. However,
there is a probability that much greater damage would result; heat could char and
burn the cable insulation and that of other cables within the loom, and so causing
more short circuits and setting the stage for an electrical fire.
This failure is prevented by making sure that all insulation on the wires is in good
condition and strong enough to withstand the voltage of the power source.
Furthermore, all wiring should be properly secured with insulating clamps or other
devices so that they cannot rub against any structure and wear through the
insulation. To further protect the circuits the installation of protective devices,
such as Fuses and Circuit Breakers are used.
Page 3-158
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
3.34.1 Fuses
A fuse is a thermal device designed primarily to protect the cables of a circuit
against the flow of short-circuits and overloads currents. In its basic form, a fuse
consists of a low melting point fusible element or link, enclosed in a glass or
ceramic casing. This casing not only protects the element, but also localizes any
flash, which may occur when Fusing. The link or fusible element is made of
either:
1. Lead.
2. Lead/Tin.
3. Tin/Bismuth.
Or some other low melting temperature alloy. When the current flowing through a
fuse exceeds the capacity of the fuse, the metal strip melts and breaks the circuit.
The strip must have low resistance, and yet it must melt at a comparatively low
temperature. When the strip melts, it should not give off any vapor or gas that will
serve as a good conductor, because this would create an arc between the melted
ends of the strip. The metal or alloy used must be of a type that reduces the
tendency towards arcing.
Fuses are generally enclosed in glass or some other heat-resistant insulating
material to prevent an arc from causing damage to electrical equipment or other
parts of the aircraft. Fuses in aircraft are classified as:
1. Cartridge Type.
2. Plug-in Type.
3. Clip Type.
All types are easily inspected, removed and replaced.
3.34.2 Current Limiters
Current Limiters are essentially a Slow-blow fuse. That is, when the circuit
becomes overloaded, there is a short delay before the metal links melts and
disconnects the circuit. This is because the link is made of copper, which has a
higher melting point than the alloys used in other types of fuse. The current
limiter will carry more than its rated capacity and will also carry a heavy overload
for a short time. They are designed to be used in heavy-power circuits where
loads may occur of such a short duration that they will not damage the circuit or
equipment. The capacity of a current limiter for any circuit is so selected that the
current limiter will always interrupt the circuit before an overload has had time to
cause damage.
Page 3-159
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 107 shows some typical aircraft fuses and current limiters.
LIGHT DUTY
FUSES
FUSE HOLDER
FU S IB LE
E LE M E N T
TE R M IN A LS
HEAVY DUTY
FUSES
CURRENT LIMITER
Page 3-160
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
TYPICAL
CIRCUIT BREAKER
CIRCUIT BREAKER
WITH A MANUAL TRIP
BUTTON
Circuit Breakers
Figure 108
They are used for the protection of cables and components and, since they can
be reset after clearance of a fault, they avoid some of the replacement problems
associated with fuses and current limiters. Furthermore, close tolerance trip time
characteristics are possible because the manufacturer, to suit the current ratings
of the element, may adjust the linkage between the bi-metallic element and the
trip mechanism.
Page 3-161
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The mechanism is of the Trip-Free type; i.e. it will not allow the contacts of the
switch unit to be held closed while fault current exists in the circuit. The design
and construction of circuit breakers varies, but in general they consist of three
main assemblies:
1. A Bi-metallic element.
2. A contact type switch unit.
3. A mechanical latching mechanism.
A push-pull button is also provided for manual resetting after thermal tripping has
occurred, and for manual tripping when required to switch off the supply to a
circuit or system. The construction and operation of a circuit breaker is shown in
figure 109.
PUSH-PULL
BUTTON
CONTROL
SPRING TRIPS
MAIN CONTACT
MAIN
CONTACT
CONTROL
SPRING
LATCH
MECHANISM
OPERATES
THERMAL
ELEMENT
THERMAL
ELEMENT
OPENS
LATCH
MECHANISM
LOAD
SUPPLY
CLOSED CONDITION
TRIPPED CONDITION
Page 3-162
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
In the closed position; current passes through the switch unit contacts and the
thermal element, which in thus carries the full current supplied to the load being
protected. At normal current values, heat is produced in the thermal element, but
is radiated away fairly quickly, and after an initial rise in temperature remains
constant.
If the current should exceed the normal operating value due to a short circuit, the
temperature of the thermal element starts to rise and becomes distorted. This
distortion will eventually become enough to release the latch mechanism,
allowing the control spring to open the main contact, thus isolating the load from
the main supply. At the same time the push-pull button extends, exposing a
white band to indicate that the circuit breaker has operated.
After the circuit breaker has tripped, the distorted thermal element starts to cool
down and reverts to its original state. Once the fault causing the trip has been
rectified, the circuit can then be reset using the push-pull button.
In a three-phase a.c. circuit, triple-pole circuit breakers are used, and their
mechanisms are so arranged that in the event of a fault current in any one or all
three of the phases, all three poles will trip simultaneously. Similar tripping will
take place should an unbalanced phase condition develop as a result of a phase
becoming Open-circuited. The three trip mechanisms actuate a common pushpull button.
3.36 REVERSE CURRENT CUT-OUT RELAY
A reverse current cut-out relay is used principally in a D.C. generating system
either as a separate unit or as part of a voltage regulator (see section 3.11).
These circuit breakers are designed to protect power supply systems and
associated circuits against fault currents of a magnitude greater than those at
which cut-outs normally operate. Furthermore, they are designed to remain in a
Locked-out condition to ensure complete isolation of a circuit until a fault has
been cleared.
Page 3-163
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
RUBBER SHROUDED
SETTING HANDLE
MANUAL TRIP
BUTTON
TERMINAL
BLOCK
MAIN
TERMINAL
(BUSBAR)
MAIN
TERMINAL
(GENERATOR)
Reverse Current CB
Figure 110
It consists of a magnetic unit, the filed strength and direction of which are
controlled by a single-turn coil connected between the generators positive output
and the busbar via a main contact assembly. An auxiliary contact assembly is
also provided for connection in series with the shunt-field winding of the
generator. Opening both contact assemblies is controlled by a latching
mechanism actuated by the magnet unit under heavy reverse current conditions.
Page 3-164
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
CONSUMERS
GEN
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
CUT-OUT
LINE
CONTACTOR
REVERSE CURRENT
CIRCUIT BREAKER
Figure 111 shows the circuit arrangement for a Reverse Current CB.
Page 3-165
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3.36.1 Operation
Under normal current flow closing of the relay energises the line contactor, the
heavy-duty contacts, which connect the generator output to the busbar via the
coil, and main contacts of the normally closed reversed current circuit breaker.
The magnetic field set up by the current flow assists that of the magnetic unit,
thus maintaining the breaker contacts in the closed position. The generator shunt
filed circuit is supplied via the auxiliary contacts.
When the generator is being shut down, or a failure of its output occurs, the
reverse current resulting from the drop in output to a value below that of the
battery flows through the circuit. The cut-out relay will operate and de-energise
the line contactor, which takes the generator off line. Under these conditions, the
reverse current circuit breaker will remain closed, since the current magnitude is
much lower than that at which it will operate.
If the cut-out or line contactor failed to open, then the reverse current would
continue to flow towards the generator, and in addition to its motoring effect on
the generator, it would also reverse the generator field polarity. The reverse
current passing through the circuit breaker coil would continue to increase, thus
its magnetic field strength would also increase until the latch mechanism opened.
This would isolate both the main and auxiliary contacts of the circuit breaker.
Note; the breaker must be reset after the circuit fault has been cleared.
Page 3-166
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
GEN
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
VOLTAGE
SENSING
COIL
OVER VOLTAGE
RELAY
SENSING
COIL
SHUNT
FIELD
LINE
CONNECTOR
D.C. BUSBAR
The methods used vary between aircraft systems and also on whether they
supply D.C. or A.C. Figure 112 shows an overvoltage relay method of protection
for a D.C. system.
Overvoltage Relay
Figure 112
MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 3 ISSUE 7 - 01/02/11
Page 3-167
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3.37.1 Operation
The relay consists of a number of contacts connected in all essential circuits of
the generator system, and mechanically coupled to a latching mechanism. The
mechanism is electromagnetically controlled by a sensing coil and armature
assembly, the coil being connected in the generators shunt field circuit and in
series with a resistor, the resistance of which decreases and the current through
it is increased.
Under normal regulated voltage conditions, the sensing coil circuit resistance is
high enough to prevent generator shunt-field current from releasing the relay
latch mechanism, and so the contacts remain closed and the generator remains
connected to the busbar. If an open circuit occurs in the regulator voltage coil
sensing line, shunt field current will increase. Because of the inverse
characteristics of the relay sensing coil resistor, the electromagnetic filed set up
by the coil causes the latch mechanism to release all the relay contacts to the
open position, thereby isolating the system from the busbar.
After the fault has been cleared, the contacts are reset by depressing the push
button.
Page 3-168
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11.6
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL POWER
TO
BUSBAR
GEN
GB TRIP
RELAY
INVERSE
TIME DELAY
S1
OVERVOLTAGE
DETECTOR
GENERATOR
CONTROL RELAY
S2
GENERATOR
FIELD
O.V. LIGHT
RELAY
28V
DC
28V
DC
FIELD SUPPLY
FROM VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
Page 3-169
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The purpose of the inverse time delay is to prevent nuisance tripping under
transient conditions. Figure 114 shows the principle of operation of the inverse
time delay.
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
160V
GB
TR
IP
145V
130V
0.1 SECS
0.55 SECS
1 SEC
TIME
Page 3-170
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 11
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
ABTR
CBX APU
AC EBTR
ACR
AIR
APC
APPR
APTC
ASC
ASCR
ASR
B.
BCR
BIC
BPC
BPO WR
BTC
BTCR
D.
DC BTC
DC EBPC
DC EBTC
DC EPR
DC GR
E.
EBTC
EIC
EPC
EPIR
EPPR
EPRR
GC
CR
GCU
GHBC
GHR
GLC
GLPPR
GPCU
GPPR
GPTC
GSBC
galley contactor
generator control relay
generator control unit
ground handling bus contactor
ground handling relay
generator line contactor
galley power pilot relay
ground power control unit
generator power pilot relay
generator power transfer contactor
ground service bus contactor
H.
HSOR
In equipment panel
I.
IDG
On engines
G.
In GPCU
In GPCU
In GCU 1/ 2/ 3
In flight compartment
In equipment panel
In flight compartment
Page 3-171
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
O....OIR....
In relay box 1/ 2
P.
PMG
POR
PRR
TFR
TPR
TRU
T.
Note:
Page 3-172
In GCU 1/ 2/ 3
All relays are located in the electrical power centre unless mentioned.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PART 4
CONTENTS
4
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
Page 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
Page 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
LIGHTS
Lighting is important in the safe operation of aircraft and aircraft systems and falls
into two main groups:
4.1 EXTERNAL LIGHTING
1. Navigation Lights to mark the extremities of an aircraft and give
position reference.
2. Flashing lights to mark the position of an aircraft.
3. Landing and taxiing lights for forward and lateral illumination.
4. Lights to illuminate wings for ice inspection.
5. Illumination to assist in the evacuation of passengers and crew in
the event of an emergency landing.
4.2 INTERNAL LIGHTING
1. Lights to illuminate consoles/control panels.
2. Lights for passenger compartments and information signs.
3. Warning lights to indicate system-operating condition.
4. Emergency lighting.
Page 4-1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
110
140
110
140
Page 4-2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Navigation/Position Lights
Figure 2
Page 4-3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 4-4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
EXTEND
D
A
LIGHT
115V
400Hz
M
B
RETRACT
C
G
Page 4-5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 4-6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AC BUS 1
OFF
ANTI-COLL
CONTROL
PANEL
WARNING
LIGHT
PWR
ANTI-COLLISION TOP
NOISE FILTER
TIMING CCT
VOLTAGE
DOUBLER
CCT
VOLTAGE
DOUBLER
CCT
STORAGE CCT
STORAGE CCT
ANTI-COLLISION
BOTTOM
TRIGGER CCT
Page 4-7
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SPREAD
BEAM
NARROW
BEAM
Page 4-8
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 4-9
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Emergency Lights
Figure 9
Page 4-10
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
RUNWAY
TURNOFF
LANDING
E
X
T
E
N
D
RETRACT
ENGINE START
STROBE
OFF
TAXI
L
L ON R
OUTBOARD
APU
OFF
L ON R
INBOARD
OFF
OFF
OFF
ON
ON
BOTH
IGN
L
POSITION
ON BAT
ANTI
COLLISION
WING
WHEEL
WELL
OFF
OFF
OFF
ON
ON
ON
OFF
ON
ON
ON
START
RUNWAY
TURNOFF
LANDING
E
X
T
E
N
D
RETRACT
L ON R
OUTBOARD
OFF
TAXI
R
OFF
OFF
ON
ON
L ON R
INBOARD
STROBE
OFF
ANTI
WHEEL
WING
WELL
POSITION COLLISION
ON BAT
OFF
OFF
OFF
ON
ON
ON
OFF
ON
ON
Page 4-11
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Cargo/Service Lighting
Figure 11
Page 4-12
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
OFF
ELEC
RACK
LOWER
NOSE
ON
OFF
E/E
ON
A/C
BAY
OFF
RIGHT
A/C
ON
28V
GRND
SERV
BUS
OFF
LEFT
A/C
ON
OFF
AFT
ACCESS
APU
BAY
ON
ACCESSORY
BAYS
OFF
TAIL
CONE
ON
Page 4-13
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FLOOD
DOME WHITE
PANEL
BRIGHT
BRIGHT
DIM
OFF
OFF
OFF
BRIGHT
CIRCUIT BREAKER
BRIGHT
OFF
PANEL
BRIGHT
OFF
LIGHTS
TEST
BRT
DIM
MAP
PANEL
BRIGHT
BRIGHT
BACKGROUND
MAP
BRIGHT
BRIGHT
AFDS FLOOD
BRIGHT
BRIGHT
OFF
OFF
PANEL
OFF
OFF
OFF
OFF
Page 4-14
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 14 shows the rear flight compartment and circuit breaker panel
illumination.
Page 4-15
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PILLAR
LAMPS
BRIDGE
LIGHTING
GROUND
CONNECTION
LAMP
ELECTRICAL
SUPPLY
INNER
WEDGE A
PILLAR
LIGHTING
INSTRUMENT
DIAL
OUTER
WEDGE B
BLACK
PAINT
WEDGE LIGHTING
Page 4-16
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ANTI-ICE
ENG
HYD
OVERHEAD
DOORS
AIR COND
MASTER
CAUTION
FIRE
WARN
PUSH TO RESET
PUSH TO RESET
FIRE
WARN
MASTER
CAUTION
PUSH TO RESET
PUSH TO RESET
FLT CONT
ELEC
IRS
APU
FUEL
OVHT/DET
CAPTIANS PANEL
Page 4-17
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CEILING LIGHTS
DEFUSER PANELS
MID AISLE
SIGN
EXIT
PASSENGER
LIGHT PANEL
WINDOW
LIGHTS
CEILING
LIGHTS
EMERGENCY
EXIT DIRECTION
INDICATORS
Page 4-18
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Reading Lighting.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
PUSH
INSIDE
PUSH LI
FEVEST
LIFE VEST
STORAGE
NO SMOKIN
FASTEN SE
AT BELT
READING
LIGHTS
READING
LIGHT
SWITCHES
AUDIO
SPEAKER
OXY MASK
STORAGE
Page 4-19
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DC BUS 1
DC BUS 2
AC BUS 1
AC BUS 2
16 S
DELAY
RH
OTHER
PASSENGER
LTS
LH
FLT
DECK
SW
ATT
CALL
N/S LIGHTS
F/S LIGHTS
READ LT
TOUCH
CONTROL
READ LT
CALL
READ
Page 4-20
N/S Lights
F/S Lights
S/R Read Lt
=
=
=
No Smoking Lights
Fasten Seat Belt Lights
Set/Reset Reading Lights
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DC BUS 2
CALL
READ
ATT
CALL
READ LT
TOUCH
CONTROL
READ LT
N/S LIGHTS
F/S LIGHTS
TO/FROM
OTHER PASS
PANELS
PASS TO ATT
PA
SYSTEM
LAV TO ATT
ATT TO ATT
ATT CALL
LAVATORY
PILOT TO ATT
ATT TO PILOT
Operation of a switch in either lavatory will call an attendant in similar fashion and
from which lavatory the call was made is identified at the Area Call Lights Aft
and Fwd stations.
Page 4-21
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FLOOR TRACK
LIGHTING
EXIT
SIGNS
Page 4-22
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
LAMP
ASSEMBLY
TRACK
COVER
FLOOR TRACK
EXIT
EXIT
INDICATOR
Page 4-23
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
OFF.
2.
ARMED.
3.
ON.
ARMED
Is the normal in-flight position of the switch. A warning light, NOT
ARMED is displayed if the switch is in the OFF or ON position during flight.
ON
The battery packs are not charged. 6V lights ON even though main electrical
power available and normal lights are also ON.
OFF
The battery packs are charged. 6V lights remain OFF even in the event off main
electrical power loss.
Page 4-24
AC BUS 2
OFF IND
AC BUS 1
OFF IND
GSBC 1
28V DC
STANDBY
LIGHTS
DC BUS 1
CABIN/
ENTRANCE
28V DC
EXIT SIGNS
PASS DOOR LT
ESCAPE HATCH LT
CEILING LT
TOILETS
EMER
POWER
EMER DC BUS
DN
R LG
UP
EXIT
LTS
ON
EMER LIGHTS
UP
BATTERY POWER
SUPPLY UNIT
(BPSU)
NORM
Page 4-25
SCR 1
ARMED
EMERGENCY LIGHTS
Q1
OFF
ON
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The following explains the operation of the circuit in Figure 24 with the selector
switch in the ARMED position.
The battery power supply units supply electrical power to the emergency lights (6Volt) and the inverters of the floor proximity emergency lighting when the
transistor Q 1 is on (conducting).
Transistor Q1 comes on when the gate in the supply unit has:
1.Logic zero at the inverting input and;
2.Logic one at the non-inverting input
To have logic one at the non-inverting input, the Silicon Controlled Rectifier
SCR 1 must be on. This occurs when there is a positive voltage on pin B (ARM).
As long as 28 Volt is on pin A (CHARGE and HOLD-OFF), the internal batteries
are charged and logic one at the inverting input of the gate keeps the transistor
off.
When the voltage is removed from pin A and B, there is a logic zero at the
inverting input and a logic one from the internal batteries at the non-inverting
input. This turns the transistor on and the emergency lights and floor proximity
emergency lighting comes on.
The only way to switch off the emergency lights is to put 28 Volt on pin C
(DISARM). This reverse biases the Silicon Controlled Rectifier SCR 1.
Note: The voltage at pin B, necessary to arm the emergency lights, can also be
supplied by the battery power supply unit itself, through pin K (6 Volt) and
the attendant switch or EMER LIGHT rotary selector in the ON position.
WARNING
Minimum use of the battery packs (testing etc) must be made. The battery packs
take up to 20 hours to recharge.
Page 4-26
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 4-27
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
Page 4-28
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PART FIVE
CONTENTS
5
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
Page 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
Page 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 5-1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FAULT
ACTIVATE
FAULT
ACTIVATE
MFC 1
MFC 1A
STATUS
MFC 1B
STATUS
INPUTS
INPUTS
MFC 1A
MFC 1B
OUTPUTS
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
OUTPUTS
ELECTICAL
POWER
ELECTICAL
POWER
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
Page 5-2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MFC
1A
1B
2A
2B
FAULT
FAULT
FAULT
FAULT
OFF
OFF
OFF
OFF
F F
MFC
DATA
BUS
F F
BITE
LOADED
NORM
FLT
WOW & L/G
ERS
MFC
DOORS
BOOTS
PTA/ERS
MISC
MAG
IND
TEST
NAV
1
BRK
FLT
CTL
Page 5-3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 5-4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The failure codes are all listed in the aircraft maintenance manual. Table 1
shows an example of the code/failure relationship.
SYSTEM: WOW/L/G
CODE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
2
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
1
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
DEFINITION
Right Main Gear Prime DnLk Prox Switch Fail
Nose Gear Prime DnLk Prox Switch Fail
Left Main Gear Prime DnLk Prox Switch Fail
Right Main Gear Sec DnLk Prox Switch Fail
Nose Gear Sec DnLk Prox Switch Fail
Left Main Gear Sec DnLk Prox Switch Fail
Left Main Gear WOW 1 Prox Switch Fail
Nose Gear WOW 1 Prox Switch Fail
Right Main Gear WOW 1 Prox Switch Fail
Left Main Gear WOW 2 Prox Switch Fail
Nose Gear WOW 2 Prox Switch Fail
Right Main Gear WOW 2 Prox Switch Fail
F
F
F
Page 5-5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 5-6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
POWER
POWER
UP
UP
RESET
RESET
PROTECTION
PROTECTION
INITIALIZE
INITIALIZE
CONTROL
CONTROL
INPUT
INPUT
OUTPUT
OUTPUT
OPERATIONAL
OPERATIONAL
BITE
BITE
Page 5-7
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 5-8
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 5-9
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
5.1.4 Operation
Self-contained In-flight monitoring and ground test capabilities are provided for
the main FMS components. Each major FMS component contains
comprehensive tests for itself, its sensor inputs, and other interfaces. In-flight
data is automatically stored for analysis on the ground through the BITE system.
BITE is controlled via the FMS Control Display Unit, CDU. The FMS display will
display (in plain English), system status for all systems under test. The operator
simply selects from a menu of test options and inputs interactive responses via
the CDU. BITE runs the test and provides corrective action diagnostics. The
system is designed for line maintenance fault isolation to a single line
replacement unit (LRU), within minutes. The BITE system will also carry out
system verification; to check interfaces after corrective maintenance action.
Page 5-10
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DISK STORAGE
DISK STORAGE
429 BUS
INTERFACE
POWER
PROG
CHNG
COMP
RDY
XFER
R/W
FAIL
SPARE
FUSE
PROG
CHNG
COMP
RDY
XFER
R/W
FAIL
LINE
FUSE
ON/OFF
Page 5-11
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 5-12
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ENGINE
MONITORING
RECORDER
OFF
AIRCRAFT
ANALYSIS
Page 5-13
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The first British application of engine health monitoring was on BEA Trident
aircraft. Initially simple discrete inputs giving the engine parameters were
monitored and recorded on a suitable on-board recorder. This data was then
removed from the aircraft for the necessary analysis using ground-based
equipment.
5.3.1 Low Cycle Fatigue
The availability of cheap microprocessors in the early 1970's enabled a further
development to be embodied. This has allowed more precise measurements and
calculations to be made of which "Low Cycle Fatigue" is a typical example. The
Low Cycle Fatigue Counter (LCFC), receives inputs from the engine for such
parameters as engine speed (NL and NH) of compressors and turbines. It then
processes this information to calculate engine damage cycles. These damage
cycles are not related to actual damage but more a measure of the component
life being consumed by these critical items.
5.3.2 Health & Usage Monitoring (Hum)
Typical parameters monitored by modern HUM systems are:
1. Engine Speed.
2. Engine Temperature.
3. Engine Pressure.
4. Engine Torque.
5. Accelerations.
6. Vibration Levels.
7. Aircraft Stress.
Page 5-14
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A typical HUMS is shown at Figure 7. The engine and other health parameters
are conditioned and converted into suitable digital format for use by the
microprocessor. After the necessary calculations and algorithms have been
executed the data is stored in non-volatile memory until conclusion of the flight.
The data is then extracted by means of a suitable "Data Transfer Unit" (DTU).
PROCESSOR
MONITORED
PARAMETERS
INPUT
SIGNAL
CONDITIONING
HUMS
ALGORTHIMS
DATA
BUS
INTERFACE
NON-VOLATILE
MEMORY
HUMS
DATA
TRANSFER
UNIT
OFF
AIRCRAFT
ANALYSIS
HUMS
Figure 7
5.3.3 Structural Monitoring
When an aircraft comes into service, the manufacturer will have calculated its life
as the number of cycles (take-off - flight - landing) it will achieve. This is normally
in the region of 10s of thousands of cycles, with say an average flight time. The
aircrafts life in hours is calculated by taking an average flight time, this could be
1 hours. Therefore to calculate the aircrafts life in hours simply multiply the
average flight time by the number of cycles, e.g. 1 hours X 60,000 cycles =
90,000 hours life.
Page 5-15
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FDR
ARINC 429
ANALOGUE
AIRCRAFT
SYSTEMS
ANALOGUE
DISCRETES
ARINC 573
ARINC 629
FAULT
MONITORING
DFDAU
AIMS
FDR System
Figure 8
Page 5-16
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MAT KEYBOARD
MAT KEYBOARD
SLOT
MAINTENANCE ACCESS
TERMINAL (MAT)
FLIGHT COMPARTMENT
REAR RIGHT SIDEWALL
Page 5-17
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 5-18
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MAT DUAL
DISK DRIVE
MAT DISPLAY
MAT CURSOR
CONTROL DEVICE
POWER SUPPLY
MODULE
BRIGHTNESS
CONTROL
CURSOR CONTROL
DEVICE
Page 5-19
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
LINE
MAINTENACE
EXTENDED
MAINTENANCE
OTHER
FUNCTIONS
HELP
N77701
TBC1234 KBFI/KMWH
LEG STATRT WAS 1753Z 07 JUL 00
THIS DATA IS FROM LEFT CMCF
MAINTENANCE
MESSAGE DATA
STATUS
NOT ACTIVE
1948z 07JUL00
PFD FLAG
REPORT
ACTIVE
1948z 07JUL00
ACTIVE
1941z 07JUL00
GO BACK
ERASE
FAULT
Page 5-20
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PMAT
SELECTION
SWITCHES
POWER
SWITCH
CURSOR
CONTROL
PMAT RECEPTACLE
LCD
DISPLAY
KEYBOARD
DISK
DRIVE
Page 5-21
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AIRPLANE CONDITION
MONITORING SYSTEM
(ACMS)
ACMS REPORTS
ACMS REPORTS
ACMS
XXXX REPORTS
XX X XX XXXXXXX
XXXXX
XXXX XX X XX XXXXXXX
XXXXX XXXX XX XXXXXXX
XXXXX
XXXX XX
XX X XX XXXXXXX
XXXXX XXXX XX XXXXXXX
XXXXX
X X XXXXXXXXXXXXX
XX XXXX XX XXXXXXX
XXXXX
XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXX
XX X XXXXX
XXXXXXXXXX
X XXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX XXXX
XXXX XXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXX
XXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX
XXXX
XXXX XXX XX XXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX
XXXX
XXXXXXX
XXX XX XXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXX
XX XXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX X X X X
XXXXXXX
XXXXXXX X X X X
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX X X X
XXXXXXX
XXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXX
XXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX
XXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX
ACMF
XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX
PDF
CMCF
QAR
AIMS
FMCF
DCMF
TMCF
FDCF
TA
DA
DFDAF
Page 5-22
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The ACMS receives data from the Airplane Conditioning Monitoring Function
(ACMF) which is located in the left-hand AIMS cabinet. The ACMS is accessed
through formats on the Maintenance Access Terminal (MAT), Portable
Maintenance Access Terminal (PMAT) or the side displays on the flight deck.
The ACMS can if required be programmed by the user airline to carry out custom
features. Figure 14 shows the general arrangement of ACMS.
RH
DISPLAY
LH
DISPLAY
QAR
MAT
FLIGHT COMPARTMENT
PRINTER
PMAT
A
I
R
C
R
A
F
T
FLIGHT CONTROL
ARINC 629 BUS (3)
SDU
VHF
TX/RX
SYSTEMS
ARINC 629 BUS (4)
ARINC 429
ANALOG
DISCRETES
Page 5-23
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 5-24
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PRESS
SPARE DISK
POWER ON
OPTICAL QAR
DISPLAY
DISPLAY
PENNY
&
GILES
FAIL
LOW CAPACITY
MAINTENANCE
EJECT
MADE IN
U.K.
Page 5-25
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 5-26
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The IOMs transfer data between the software functions in the AIMS CPMs and
external sources. The CPMs supply the software/hardware to do the
calculations. There are four types of CPMs:
1. CPM/COMM Core Processor Module/Communication.
2. CPM/ACMF - Core Processor Module/Aircraft Condition Monitoring
Function.
3. CPM/B - Core Processor Module/Basic.
4. CPM/GG - Core Processor Module/Graphics Generator.
Figure 16 shows the AIMS system (Boeing777).
AIRCRAFT CONDITION
MONITORING SYSTEM
(ACMS)
FLIGHT DATA
RECORDER SYSTEM
(FDRS)
FLIGHT MANAGEMENT
COMPUTING SYSTEM
(FMCS)
PRIMARY DISPLAY
SYSTEM
(PDS)
CENTRAL MAINTENCE
COMPUTING SYSTEM
(CMCS)
THRUST MANAGEMENT
COMPUTING SYSTEM
(TMCS)
DATA COMMUNICATION
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
(DCMS)
AIMS System
Figure 16
Page 5-27
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Page 5-28
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FAIL
PAPER
CUT
SLEW
RESET
TEST
TOP VIEW
SIDE VIEW
Page 5-29
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 5
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
Page 5-30