Lecture #2

To understand a science it is necessary to know its history

-Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

History Remarks

1813 Telegraph Gauss&Weber

1861 Telephone Reis
1876 Telephone Bell (Bell System)
1877 First Finnish telephone connection in
Helsinki
1878 Microphone Edison (General Electric)
First Telephone Exchange in New Haven, USA
1865/6 Transatlantic Cables

History Remarks
1884 Radio Telegraph Popov
1892 First Automatic Telephone Exchange
in La Porte USA by Strowger
1896 Radio Telegraph Marconi
1898 First Automatic Telephone Exchange
in Germany
1918 Radio Carrier System /USA 1920
Radio Broadcasting

History Remarks
1927 TV Bell Labs

1929 TV BBC
1930 Coaxial cables

1931 Radiolinks
1937 PCM (64kbps) Reeves (Bell Labs)

1946 Cellular Radio (Bell Labs)

1947 Transistor (Bell Labs)
5

History Remarks
1957 Satellite data transmission
1961 Electronic Telephone Exchange
(Bell Labs)
1968 Digital Telephone Exchange GB
1969 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital

Network 2x64k+16k)
1970 Aloha-network (Hawaii)
6

History Remarks
1974 Packet and Circuit Switched data
networks (CCITT X.25 and X.21)
1974 Arpanet/ Internet DoD/USA
1976 Optical Fiber in data transmission
1977 Ethernet 10Mbps Xerox
1978 ISO/OSI + CCITT x.200
7

History Remarks
1972 Mobile Networks ARP

1981 Mobile Networks NMT Nordisk MobilTelefon

1984 MHS (Message Handling System) CCITT/ISO

ODA (Open Document Architecture) CCITT/ISO

1984 Intelligent Networks (AIN Series) Bellcore

1987 GSM (Groupe Special Mobile, CEPT) Global System for Mobile Communications

History Remarks

1989 HTTP/HTML in Cern by Tim Barners-Lee

1991 ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode 155 Mb/s)
1991 IN CS.1 (Intelligent Networks) by ITU and
ETSI
1994 WWW (World Wide Web)
1998 GPRS (General Packet Radio System)
2001 UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication
System)

PSTN
Review

Multiplexing

1900: 25% of telephony revenues went to copper mines

standard was 18 gauge, long distance even heavier

two wires per loop to combat cross-talk
needed method to place multiple conversations on a single trunk

1918: Carrier system (FDM)

5 conversations on single trunk

later extended to 12 (group)
still later supergroups, master groups, supermaster groups

1963: T-carrier system (TDM)

channels

timeslots

T1 = 24 conversations per trunk

later T3 = 28 T1s
still later SDH rates with 1000s of conversations per trunk

Strowger switch

History
1876 A. G. Bell telephone patent
1878 The first exchange constructed in La Porte, the US
could connect any two of the 21 subscribers
manual switching (!)

each user has its

own selector
no concentrators
expensive

via selectors

1892 first automatic exchange: Strowger Switch by

Almon B. Strowger: an undertaker in Kansas City
A 100 line
Strowger switch:

Long Distance Digital Connection

12

Telephony
The prefix tele refers to doing or moving something
over a distance
The root phone refers to sound, especially that
connected with speech
Thus the telephone is a device that transmits speech
over long distance
Telephony (te lef e n) is the science/technology
associated with the transmission of speech over long
distances

13

Telephony (Cont.)
Because an extensive phone system was
already in place, long distance computer
networks could use the phone system to
transmit data and avoid the expense of lying
down new transmission cables.
The divisions between telephony, telecommunications and computer networking
have become blurred.
14

The 8000 Hz decision

Most humans can hear sounds ranging in
frequency from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
But for purposes of digitizing and transmitting
speech, the telephone industry decided that they
wanted to represent accurately signals in a range
up to 4000 Hz.
Thus they opted for a sampling frequency of 8000
Hz (a la Nyquist).
A bandwidth of 3000 Hz was considered sufficient, but
it was upped to 4000Hz.

15

Period
Whereas the frequency (f) is the number of cycles
that go by in a set amount of time (usually a
second), the period (T) is the amount of time
required for a single cycle.
The frequency and period are reciprocals
f = (1/T) or T=(1/f)
If the sampling frequency is 8000 Hz, the
sampling period is 0.000125 s = 125 s
(microseconds) = (1/8000 Hz).

16

The other half of the problem

At the instant one is sampling, the signal can still take
on an infinite number of values.
Digitizing requires one to choose a discrete set of
allowed values.
For example, to digitize an image one can choose two
values (black and white) or allow for shades of gray or
allow for combinations of red, blue and green, etc.

For the phone system, it was decided that 256 values

would be allowed.
256 values can be represented by 8 bits.

17

Bandwidth on a Voice Circuit

Human hearing ranges from about 20 Hz to
about 14,000 Hz (some up to 20,000 Hz).
Human voice ranges from 20 Hz to about 14,000
Hz.
The bandwidth of a voice grade telephone circuit
is 0 to 4000 Hz or 4000 Hz (4 KHz).
Guardbands prevent data transmissions from
interfering with other transmission when these
circuits are multiplexed using FDM.
18

Bandwidth on a Voice Circuit

19

Bandwidth on a Voice Circuit

It is important to note that the limit on bandwidth is
imposed by the equipment used in the telephone
network.
The actual capacity of bandwidth of the wires in the
local loop depends on what exact type of wires were
installed, and the number of miles in the local loop.
Actual bandwidth in North America varies from 300
KHz to 1 MHz depending on distance.

20

A digital audio channel

So the telephone companys standard for
digital audio required
64,000 bits/second
= 8,000 samples/second 8 bits/sample
This 64 Kbps rate can be seen throughout
telephony and is known as DS0 (digital signal).

21

 Digital Signal 0 (DS0) is a basic digital signaling rate of

64 kbit/s, corresponding to the capacity of one voicefrequency-equivalent channel. The DS0 rate, and its
equivalents E0 and J0, form the basis for the digital
multiplex transmission hierarchy in telecommunications
systems used in North America, Europe, Japan, and the rest of
the world, for both the early plesiochronous systems such
as T-carrier and for modern synchronous systems such
as SDH/SONET.
The DS0 rate was introduced to carry a single digitized voice
call. For a typical phone call, the audio sound is digitized at an
8 kHz sample rate, or 8000 samples per second, using 8bit pulse-code modulation for each of the samples. This
results in a data rate of 64 kbit/s.

 Because of its fundamental role in carrying a single phone call,

the DS0 rate forms the basis for the digital
multiplex transmission hierarchy in telecommunications
systems used in North America.

To limit the number of wires required between two involved

in exchanging voice calls, a system was built in which
multiple DS0s are multiplexed together on higher capacity
circuits. In this system, twenty-four (24) DS0s are multiplexed
into a DS1 signal. Twenty-eight (28) DS1s are multiplexed into
a DS3. When carried over copper wire, this is the wellknown T-carrier system, with T1 and T3 corresponding to DS1
and DS3, respectively.

 Besides its use for voice communications, the DS0 rate

may support twenty 2.4 kbit/s channels, ten 4.8 kbit/s
channels, five 9.67 kbit/s channels, one 56 kbit/s
channel, or one 64 kbit/s clear channel.
E0 (standardized as ITU G.703) is the European
equivalent of the North American DS0 for carrying .
However, there are some subtle differences in
implementation. Voice signals are encoded for carriage
over E0 according to ITU G.711. Note that when a Tcarrier system is used as in North America, robbed bit
signaling can mean that a DS0 channel carried over that
system is not an error-free bit-stream. The out-of-band
signaling used in the European E-carrier system avoids
this.

T1 technology was developed by AT&T in 1957

and is used in America and Asia

T-carrier system
Bell introduced the first successful system
for digitized voice transmission using the
64 Kbps rate (DS0) in the 1960s.
The rate has been kept as a standard and
the basis for subsequent standards.
The US and Europe developed separate
standards.
The US standards were set up by ANSI
(American National Standards Institute).
25

DS-X Standards
Bit Rate

Multiplier
(CH)

T (US)

E (Eur.)

DS0

64 Kbps

DS1

1.544 Mbps

24

T1

2.048 Mbps

32

E1

DS1C

3.152 Mbps

48

DS2

6.312 Mbps

96

T2

8.448 Mbps

128

E2

C: concatenated
26

DS-X Standards (Cont.)

Bit Rate

Multiplier T (US) E (Eur.)

( CH)

34.368 Mbps

512

E3

DS3

44.736 Mbps

672

T3

139.264 Mbps 2048

E4

DS4/NA 139.264 Mbps 2176

DS4

274.176 Mbps 4032

T4

565.148 Mbps 8192

E5
27

Time Division Multiplexing

Multiplexing T1 streams into higher carriers.

T-carrier system
A T-1 line (1.544 Mbps), commonly used by
businesses to connect to their Internet service
provider (ISP), corresponds to 24 DS0 channels.
A T-3 line (44.736 Mbps) corresponds to 28 T-1 lines
or 672 (2428) DS0 and is commonly used by ISPs.
One can also lease a fractional T-1, in which one
rents some portion of the 24 channels in a T-1 line,
with the other channels going unused.

29

A leased line
Unlike dial-up connections, a leased line is always
active. It is a permanent telephone connection
between two nodes.
Usually used by businesses to connect distant
offices.
Typically one pays a fixed monthly rate based on
the distance between the nodes and the speed of
the circuit.
The line is used exclusively by the lessee, so the
carrier can assure a given level of quality.

30

T1 and T3
T1 and T3 lines are entirely digital.
They use pulse code modulation (PCM) and TimeDivision Multiplexing (TDM).
They provide full duplex capability by using four wires
two wires (one for signal and one for return) for receiving
two for sending

Originally the four wires were two twisted pair wires,

but now they can be coaxial cable, optical fiber, or
even wireless media like digital microwave.

31

http://www2.rad.com/networks/200
3/e1_t1/e1_t1/frame.htm
Each frame has only one sample from each channel.

T1 Carrier

The T1 carrier (1.544 Mbps).

193 X 8000 = 1.544 Mbps

T1 Carrier
193rd bit is used for frame synchronization : a
pattern of 010101 is looked for --- analog
nodes cannot generate this pattern, digital
users can but the chances are less.

Signaling(control) information in T1
Notice : 8000 bps signaling information : too much :
two possible approaches to reduce this :
Common channel signaling : use of 193rd bit for signaling in
alternate frames say odd frames and for data in even
frames.
Channel-associated signaling : each channel has its own
private signaling subchannel one of the eight user bits in
every sixth frame is used for signaling

T1 for Voice

36

T1 Frame
T1 can be used for voice or for data transmission.
Voice signals are sampled at 8000 Hz and each
sample is encoded using 8 bits.
With 24 such channels being multiplexed (TDM),
a 192-bit frame (24 channels 8 bits/channel) is
sent every 125s.
One bit separates consecutive frames, so each
frame is actually a 193-bit block.
The 193 bits/frame multiplied by 8,000
frames/sec yield 1.544 Mbps data rate.
37

T1 (Cont.)
T1 lines typically use copper wire and within or even
between cities (metropolitan areas).
A T1 Outstate System has been developed for longer
distances between cities.
It's probable that your Internet access provider is
connected to the Internet as a point-of-presence
(POP) on a T1 line owned by a major telephone
network.
POP: Locations where an Internet Service Provider offers
access to its network.

38

E1 Carrier
32 channels : 30 for data + 2 for signaling
Each group of four frames provides 64 bits of
signaling : half for channel specific + half for
frame sync
Capacity : 32 X 8 X 8000 = 2.04 Mbps

E1

A 2.048 Mbps point-to-point dedicated,

digital circuit provided by the telephone
companies in Europe. E1 is the European
counterpart of the North American T1 line, which
transmits at 1.544 Mbps, and E1 and T1 lines can
be interconnected for international use. E2
through E5 lines provide multiple E1 channels.

An E1 line uses two wire pairs (one for

transmit, one for receive) and time division
multiplexing (TDM) to interleave 32 64-Kbps
voice or data channels.

Signal

Rate

E0

64 kbit/s

E1

2.048 Mbit/s

E2

8.448 Mbit/s

E3

34.368 Mbit/s

E4

139.264 Mbit/s

E5

564.992 Mbit/s

T-carrier and ENorth American

Japanese
Carrier Systems
Level zero (Channel
64 kbit/s (DS0)
64 kbit/s
data rate)
1.544 Mbit/s (DS1)
1.544 Mbit/s
First level
(24 user channels)
(24 user channels)
(T1)
(Intermediate level, 3.152 Mbit/s
US. hierarchy only) (DS1C) (48 Ch.)
Second level
Third level
Fourth level
Fifth level

6.312 Mbit/s (96

Ch.), or 7.786
Mbit/s (120 Ch.)
44.736 Mbit/s
32.064 Mbit/s
(DS3) (672 Ch.) (T3) (480 Ch.)
274.176 Mbit/s
97.728 Mbit/s
(DS4) (4032 Ch.)
(1440 Ch.)
400.352 Mbit/s
565.148 Mbit/s
(DS5) (5760 Ch.)
(8192 Ch.)
6.312 Mbit/s
(DS2) (96 Ch.) (T2)

European (CEPT)

64 kbit/s
2.048 Mbit/s
(32 user channels)
(E1)

8.448 Mbit/s
(128 Ch.) (E2)
34.368 Mbit/s
(512 Ch.) (E3)
139.264 Mbit/s
(2048 Ch.) (E4)
565.148 Mbit/s
(8192 Ch.) (E5)