503163

research-article2013

JMQ90410.1177/1077699013503163Journalism & Mass Communication QuarterlyJung et al.

Theorizing Technology Use

From Access to Utilization:

Factors Affecting
Smartphone Application
Use and Its Impacts on
Social and Human Capital
Acquisition in South Korea

Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly

90(4) 715735
2013 AEJMC
Reprints and permissions:
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DOI: 10.1177/1077699013503163
jmcq.sagepub.com

Jaemin Jung1, Sylvia Chan-Olmsted2,

and Youngju Kim3

Abstract
This study examines the mobile divide from the perspective of perception of
information and knowledge inequity due to smartphone usage, exploring factors that
may influence the use of smartphone applications and assessing discrepancies in social
and human capital due to usage differences. A survey of smartphone users revealed
that gender, age, personal innovativeness, and consumption skills were significant
predictors of the frequent use for applications. Simply having more smartphone
applications does not contribute to increases social or human capital; it is usage of
these apps that makes a difference.
Keywords
smartphone applications, consumption skills, mobile divide, social capital, human capital

The digital divide, which refers to the gap between people with effective access to
computers and the Internet and those with limited or no access, has been a subject of
discussion in many countries.1 Although the term initially was used most frequently in
1Korea

Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul, Korea

of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
3Korea Press Foundation, Seoul, Korea
2University

Corresponding Author:
Youngju Kim, Korea Press Foundation, Seoul, Korea.
Email: kyj@kpf.or.kr

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the context of physical access to computers, it now refers not only to the inequity in
computing/networking hardware ownership, but also to inequity between groups of
people in terms of skills and resources necessary to fully utilize information and communication technology (ICT). As newer and more sophisticated ICT devices are introduced and adopted, it is essential to continuously monitor not only the unequal access
to ICT technologies that are becoming mainstream in society, but also possible discrepancies in the capability to use such technologies between segments of people. In
other words, the concern for digital inequity must extend beyond the haves and
have-nots to the gap between those who have rudimentary services and those with
advanced services and those who can and cannot.2
One of the fastest-spreading ICT devices in the last decade has been the mobile
phone. Beyond regular phone calls and short message service (SMS) exchanges, this
ICT device, in the form of the so-called smartphone, is now also a personal multimedia
device.3 A recent national survey by Pew revealed that cell phones have become a
portal for a growing list of activities.4 For instance, more than 80% of the owners use
their phones to send/receive text messages, more than 50% to access the Internet or
send/receive email, more than 40% to record video or download apps, and 30% to look
for medical information or do some forms of online banking.
According to ComScore,5 a leading digital measurement company, the penetration
rate of smartphones in the United States passed 50% in late 2012. Comparatively,
more than 60% of the population in South Korea already owned a smartphone in 2012
and the penetration rate would reach 90% by the end of 2013.6 In fact, the Korea
Communication Commission predicts that Korea would have the worlds largest
smartphone ownership because of the countrys well-built wireless network system,
abundant handset choices, and a cultural propensity toward ICT products.7 The diffusion of smartphones in South Korea, therefore, provides an excellent context for
examining the patterns of smartphone use and their drivers, and for deriving insights
into the potential trajectory and social consequences in other growing mobile
societies.
As mobile access becomes essential in a society, the lack of access to mobile broadband and other relevant applications could lead to social drawbacks similar to those of
the digital divide rooted in unbalanced access to wired broadband Internet. In addition,
because smartphones are different from conventional mobile phones, with an array of
mobile content and services available via applications (including news, weather,
games, music, messaging, social networking sites [SNS], etc.), the skills, knowledge,
and ability to use such applications is also important when discussing the potential of
a mobile divide in an increasingly mobile society.
It was predicted that by the end of 2014, mobile users would have downloaded 185
billion applications, with revenues totaling $58 billion.8 With a growing array of applications and increasingly complex functionalities, it is plausible that the use of smartphone applications may differ based on individual characteristics, such as
socioeconomic status, personal innovativeness, and consumption skills. Furthermore,
because smartphones are increasingly serving as a conduit to useful communication
and information, disparities in smartphone application use in terms of quantity of

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Jung et al.

application ownership (i.e., breadth) and usage frequency (i.e., depth) may contribute
to a divide among groups of people.
This study examines the issue of mobile divide from the perspective of information
and relational inequity due to smartphone usage, assuming that smartphones are
becoming an essential means of accessing information and communications for most
members of a society. Specifically, the study explores the factors that may play a role
in the differential usage of smartphone applications. It then assesses discrepancies in
social and human capital due to differences in mobile application usage. Such an
investigation is important to identifying potential sources of the mobile divide and
possible means of reducing the gap.

Literature Review
Individual Characteristics Affecting Smartphone Application Use
Demographics. Most studies on the digital divide have focused on factors that affect
the state of the divide between groups or countries in the use of computers or the Internet. Access to and use of the Internet differ by socioeconomic status factors, such as
gender, income, race, education, and location.9 Bikson and Panis10 identified a significant disparity in the use of network services by age, income, and education. Many
studies have also found a negative relationship between Internet usage and level of
education.11
Demographic variables have frequently been linked to innovation adoption. Earlier
adopters tend to have more years of formal education and higher income than later
adopters.12 In the case of media technology adoption, age was negatively related to
adoption.13 Gender is also often considered a critical factor because male and female
users tend to consider innovation use as achieving different ends.14 In adoption studies
pertaining to mobile technologies, women often had less access to mobile phones in
developing countries than their male counterparts.15 Furthermore, Kwon and Chon16
found that gender is a significant determinant in mobile TV adoption. Other studies
have shown some dissimilarities between genders with respect to online platform preferences and motives.17 Prior studies on computer technology adoption found that
males were more likely to adopt computers in early stages.18 Because smartphone
applications are in the early stage of diffusion, it is hypothesized that differences in the
use of applications are influenced by ones demographic status. Thus:
H1a: Younger, more educated, higher-income, and male respondents will download more smartphone applications.
H1b: Younger, more educated, higher-income, and male respondents will use
smartphone applications more frequently.
Personal innovativeness.Rogers19 defined innovativeness as the degree to which an
individual is relatively early, compared with others in the social system, to adopt an
innovation. Hirschman20 conceptualized innovativeness as the desire and willingness

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to try new things and different experiences, and to take risks. Agarwal and Prasad
expanded the personal innovativeness construct into the domain of information technology, as the willingness of an individual to try out any new information technology.21 Furthermore, Dabholkar and Bagozzi22 measured the trait of innovativeness
from the perspective of novelty seeking, or the degree to which an individual is receptive to new ideas and makes innovation decisions independent of the communicated
experiences of others. Empirical studies on media technology adoption have largely
confirmed the predictive power of innovativeness vis--vis novelty seeking.23
The current study adopts the construct of personal innovativeness, as assessed by
the personality traits of novelty seekers and risk takers. In the context of smartphone
applications, users who are more innovative are expected to explore more new apps at
the apps stores, be willing to download or even pay for more apps, and use diverse
types of applications more frequently. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are
proposed:
H2a: Personal innovativeness will relate positively to the ownership of more smartphone applications.
H2b: Personal innovativeness will relate positively to the frequent use of smartphone applications.
Consumption skills.Scitovsky24 introduced the concept of skilled consumption,
asserting that enjoyment of novelty requires learning. Just like production skills enable
an individual to become more productive, consumption skills enable individuals to
become more productive in their use of products and services. In fact, consumption
skills are prerequisites to the full enjoyment of many activities. Scholars have discussed the concept of consumption skills for newer communications technology.25
The more a product or service changes, the more users have to alter their consumption
patterns. For example, transition from watching over-the-air TV to a basic cable subscription is continuous consumption with a slightly altered consumption pattern.
Meanwhile, using interactive services such as gaming or home shopping on TV
requires more dramatic changes on the part of the audience.26 Newly introduced products typically attract a large number of users very quickly because of their novelty
value. However, there may be diminishing interest when one lacks adequate consumption skills.27
As communications technology grows in complexity, adequate skills for consumption become even more critical. A smartphone will not be smart if its user does not
have the skills to utilize its smart features. Van Dijk28 emphasized the importance of
digital skills, especially in the use of the Internet.29 In the context of smartphone application usage, users with a higher level of consumption skills are likely to enjoy the
benefits of diverse applications and are more inclined to try different applications.
Accordingly, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H3a: Smartphone consumption skills will relate positively to the ownership of
more smartphone applications.

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H3b: Smartphone consumption skills will relate positively to the frequent use of
smartphone applications.
Smartphone use and social capital. The eventual aim of this study is to assess whether
the usage of smartphone applications is associated with certain inequalities.30 Most
literature on the digital divide addresses inequity in terms of technological opportunities, such as physical access to computers, networks, and other technologies. The
notion of social inequality is rarely examined.31 Social capital, broadly referred to as
the resources accumulated through interpersonal or group relationships,32 is the core
motive and outcome of social activities. At a macro level, Putnam33 elaborated on
social capital as a collectively produced and owned entity, often taken to be represented by norms, trust, and social cohesion (network), which accelerate coordination
and cooperation for the mutual interest of a community. Other scholars34 focused on
social capital as an additional pool of resources for the individual that enable him/her
to attain his/her goals. In other words, at the individual level, social capital is the benefit, such as the information or support that one receives from ones relationship with
others.35 Furthermore, Bourdieu and Wacquant defined social capital as the actual or
virtual resources gained by possessing a durable network of mutual acquaintance
and recognition.36
Social media such as Facebook and Twitter require bidirectional confirmation for
continuous contact with online friends. Researchers have emphasized the importance of
Internet-based linkages for the formation of ties, which serve as the foundation of bridging social capital. Because online relationships may be supported by technologies like
distribution lists, photo directories, and search capabilities, it is possible that new forms
of social capital and relationship building will occur in online social media sites.37 As
more social media migrate into the mobile platform, the social capital accumulated in the
online space can be realized in the mobile context. In a sense, smartphone applications
have the potential to enable a user to be connected anytime and anywhere, thus increasing his/her social capital. In fact, recent surveys found that above 40% of cell phone
owners use a social networking site on their phone and 28% do so every day.38
Empirical studies have highlighted the possible positive effect of SNSs on social
capital.39 Steinfeld, DiMicco, Ellison, and Lampe40 suggested that the intensity of SNS
use is closely linked to contacting new friends and bridging social relationships.
Williams41 also argued that convenient interfaces on SNSs may open new possibilities
for enhancing social capital. Given that empirical evidence suggests that intensive
SNS usage significantly affects social capital,42 it is likely that smartphone usage,
which is closely associated with SNSs, may affect social capital. A recent study demonstrated that smartphone usage has a direct effect on social capital.43 However, as
there are many kinds of mobile applications, such as gaming and productivity apps, it
is unclear if the ownership or frequent use of smartphone apps is indeed linked to
social capital acquisition. Therefore, the following questions are posited.
RQ1: After controlling for other variables, does the ownership of more smartphone
applications predict the acquisition of more social capital?

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RQ2: After controlling for other variables, does more frequent use of smartphone
applications predict the acquisition of more social capital?
Smartphone use and human capital. Human capital theory suggests that knowledge
provides individuals with opportunities to increase their cognitive abilities, leading to
more productive and efficient activities.44 Previous knowledge assists in the integration and accumulation of new knowledge, as well as incorporating and adapting to
new situations.45 Thus, individuals may increase their knowledge as a result of education, training, and other informal learning opportunities from experiences and information exchange with others. Theoretically, a broad array of formal and informal
learning opportunities can all contribute to an increase in human capital.
As discussed earlier, many social and economic benefits may accrue from a citizens greater access to and usage of ICT. For example, the Internet can significantly
enhance ones human capital by increasing his or her access to education and training.46 The acquisition of human capital in the context of the smartphone can be seen
from two perspectives: the access to informal information with no space/time limitations; and the additional mobile access point for formal learning opportunities. Both
may lead to an increase in human capital, according to human capital theory.47 Though
earlier management studies measured human capital in terms of explicit knowledge,
such as total years of formal education,48 recent scholars suggested that human capital
is also the result of practical learning that takes place on the job, as well as nonformal
education.49 It is plausible that the opportunities to acquire instant information and
new ideas with smartphone apps may broaden ones human capital. Pew reported that
as many as 64% of U.S. smartphone owners get their news and 31% visited government websites for information over the phone.50 As online education is picking up
steam, most formal learning materials for distant education are now configured to be
accessible via smartphones. In fact, researchers found that smartphones have been
used as pedagogical tools to develop a ubiquitous learning environment.51 Nevertheless,
as in the case of social capital, there are many kinds of mobile apps, and the use of
Angry Birds would contribute little to ones knowledge. Thus, the following questions
are examined.
RQ3: After controlling for other variables, does the ownership of more smartphone
applications predict the acquisition of more human capital?
RQ4: After controlling for other variables, does more frequent use of smartphone
applications predict the acquisition of more human capital?

Method
Data and Sample
A professional survey company was employed to conduct an online survey in Korea
during May 2011, and a small online shopping coupon (approximately $5) was given
as an incentive. Participants were recruited from national online consumer panels

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maintained by the leading market research company in Korea. The national consumer
panels contained about 640,000 panelists, proportionally representing the Korean population by gender and age. A total of 1,572 panelists were contacted initially. After
excluding 870 nonsmartphone owners from the pool, 702 respondents completed the
online survey. To ensure that the sample characteristics did not skew toward the typical early adopter profiles (e.g., younger males), a quota sampling of subgroups by
gender (male and female) and age (21-30, 31-40, 41-50, and above 50) was used to
distribute the samples equally into the subgroups. The quota process continued until a
sample of 360 subjects for final analysis was reached.52

Measurement
Demographics. Participants age, gender, and level of education were assessed. Their
monthly household income was also measured, using a scale from less than one million Korean won (approximately US$1,000) to more than 7 million Korean won.
Personal innovativeness. The personal innovativeness construct was measured using a
5-point Likert-type scale anchored by 1 (strongly disagree) and 5 (strongly agree) with
the following statements: (1) I like to try to new products, (2) I like to learn about new
ideas, and (3) I am willing to take risks to try new things.53
Smartphone consumption skills. Smartphone consumption skills were assessed based on
the concept of digital skills introduced by van Deursen and van Dijk.54 Following their
approach, we identified seven items that may measure the skills for smartphone use.
The seven items were pretested to confirm the appropriateness of the skills. Specifically, the respondents were asked whether they had the ability to use each of the seven
typical functions of a smartphone: (1) I can send and receive email via smartphone, (2)
I can use SNS such as Facebook or Twitter via smartphone, (3) I can engage in interactive gaming via smartphone, (4) I can use an SMS application such as Whats app via
smartphone, (5) I can edit video clips via smartphone, (6) I can send email with a voice
recording attachment via smartphone, and (7) I can purchase and install paid applications via smartphone. Consumption skills were coded 1 for yes and 0 for no and
each individuals summed score was between 0 and 7.
Smartphone use (ownership and frequent use). This study measured degree of ownership and level of apps usage. To assess degree of ownership, the total number of applications downloaded on each respondents smartphone was used. Because smartphone
users may download a number of applications, but use some applications infrequently,
we also examined how much the participants used specific types of applications. As
there are above 700,000 apps for each major mobile platform (i.e., Android and
Apple), it is impractical to measure frequency of usage for individual apps. Therefore,
a category system was adopted to simplify the measurement of usage level and to differentiate the different types of mobile apps.

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The Mobile Marketing Association (MMA) grouped apps into five categories:
communication (including news), games, multimedia, utilities, and travel.55 The Korea
Communications Commission (2012) classified all apps into fourteen categories,
including utilities, maps/navigation, music, games/entertainment, and communication.56 The Google Play store has twenty-six categories of applications, while Apples
App Store has twenty-three categories. For the purpose of this study, the MMA classification system was compared with the Korean Google Play and Apple categories
and revised to include: news/information; entertainment (e.g., games, photos, music,
video, etc.); communication (e.g., SNS, messaging, etc.); location-based-services
(LBS) (e.g., navigation, Foursquare, etc.); utilities (e.g., productivity-enhancing services such as scheduling, bar code scanning, address books, etc.); and commerce (e.g.,
ticketing, shopping, banking, etc.). The usage on the six categories of applications was
then measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale from 1 (use rarely) to 5 (use very often).
Social capital. According to Putnam,57 bridging social capital occurs when individuals from different backgrounds make connections between social networks. These
individuals often have only tentative relationships, but what they lack in depth, they
make up for in breadth. As a result, bridging may broaden social horizons or open up
opportunities for information or new resources. By contrast, bonding social capital
occurs when strongly tied individuals, such as family and close friends, provide emotional or substantive support for one another. The individuals with bonding social
capital have little diversity in their backgrounds, but have stronger personal connections. Chang and Zhu reported that perceived bridging social capital has remarkable
influence on users satisfaction and continuance intention of SNS, but perceived bonding social capital has none.58
Because the degree of network building was the focus in measuring the construct of
social capital here, Williams bridging online social capital scale was adopted.59
Specifically, the following three statements were measured using a 5-point Likert-type
scale: (1) I have increased communication with others using smartphone applications,
(2) I have increased intimacy with others by using smartphone applications, (3) I have
expanded personal relationships with others by using smartphone applications.
Human capital. Various studies have attempted to examine the concept of human
capital as the degree of formal education.60 However, no specific scales have been
used to measure human capital in a nonformal educational setting. Because the construct of human capital here focused on the acquisition of information, knowledge,
and other learning opportunities regardless of formality, this study proposed the following three items to assess the participants human capital in a smartphone usage
context using a 5-point Likert-type scale: (1) I have acquired more information and/
or knowledge ever since I started using smartphone applications, (2) I have learned
many more new things ever since I started using smartphone applications, and (3) I
have had more education/learning/training opportunities ever since I started using
smartphone applications.

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Results
Descriptive Statistics
The average age of the sample was 38.6. In terms of gender, 50.7% were male. The
age division distributions were as follows: 20s = 24.7%; 30s = 25.3%; 40s = 25.0%;
and above 50 = 25.0% (as specified by the quota sampling process). In terms of education, 17.7% of the respondents were high-school graduates, 8.7% had post-graduate
degrees, and the remaining 73.7% were college students or had a bachelors degree.
Monthly household incomes ranged from less than 2 million Korean won (approximately US$2,000) to above 7 million won.
Participants have been using smartphones for an average of 8.1 months, with smartphone ownership history ranging between 1 and 36 months. The participants have
downloaded approximately 44 applications, with a range from 5 to 192. The average
application usage for the six application categories were news/information (3.72),
entertainment (3.92), communication (4.14), LBS (3.54), utility (3.93), and commerce
(2.89). The summated consumption skill score for the seven specific functions of
smartphones was 5.08, with a range of 0 to 7. For multiple-item variables, all the variables were reliable: innovativeness (Cronbachs = .863), social capital ( = .899),
and human capital ( = .802). Following are the mean and standard deviation of the
items measuring social and human capital. Social capital: item 1 (M = 3.58, SD =
0.84); item 2 (M = 3.43, SD = 0.84); item 3 (M = 3.58, SD = 0.86). Human capital: item
1 (M = 3.81, SD = 0.77); item 2 (M = 3.50, SD = 0.83); item 3 (M = 3.39, SD = 0.85).

Validation of Scales
Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to test the validity of the scales. The convergent and discriminant validity of each variable was examined using the procedure
suggested by Fornell and Larcker (i.e., measuring the reliability of each measure/construct),61 and the average variance was extracted (AVE) for each construct. According
to Hair et al.,62 a measurement item loads highly if its loading coefficient is above 0.5.
This analysis showed that most items had factor loadings higher than 0.8, which
Fornell and Larcker63 consider to be very significant. Each item loaded significantly
on its underlying construct (p < .001 in all cases). The composite reliabilities (CR) are
well above the desirable level, .70,64 and AVE of each construct are all higher than .70,
indicating good reliability.65 (See Table 1)
To examine discriminant validity, this study compared the shared variance among
constructs with the AVE from the individual constructs. The shared variance between
constructs was lower than the AVE from the individual constructs, confirming discriminant validity. The overall fit of the measurement model is satisfactory, with all
relevant goodness of fit indices greater than .90 (GFI = .957, AGFI = .920, NFI = .960,
TLI = .962, CFI = .975). Similarly, there is no evidence of misfit as the RMSEA
showed a moderate level of .073, complying with the cutoff point suggested by previous studies.66 The standardized RMR was also very good, at .042, well below the

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Table 1. Validation of Scales (Convergent Validity Test).

Unstandardized
HC1
HC2
HC3
SC1
SC2
SC3
Inno1
Inno2
Inno3

1.000
1.621
1.522
1.000
1.084
1.071
1.000
1.053
1.156

SE

CR

.154
.146

10.491
10.421

.060
.059

18.004
18.184

.073
.077

14.487
14.983

Standardized

AVE

CR

.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000

.593
.874
.845
.829
.878
.887
.796
.816
.858

.889

.876

.924

.926

.890

.887

CR = composite reliabilities; AVE = average variance was extracted; HC = human capital; SC = social
capital; Inno = innovativeness.

Table 2. Predicting the Total Number of Applications Downloaded.

Predictor variable

t-value

Gender
Age
Education
Income
Innovativeness
Consumption skill
R2

.018
.244
.077
.059
.154
.142

0.310
4.018***
1.288
0.927
2.617**
2.250*
.107

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

threshold for a good overall fit. In short, the model demonstrated adequate reliability,
convergent validity, and discriminant validity.

Influence of Individual Characteristics on Smartphone Application Use

Multiple regression analyses were performed to test the proposed hypotheses. In terms
of H1a, the result shows that age ( = .244) was negatively related to the total number of applications downloaded (see Table 1). The younger user segment generally
owns more smartphone applications. On the other hand, gender, education, and income
were insignificant. In addition, personal innovativeness (H2a) ( = .154) and consumption skills (H3a) ( = .142) were significant in their effects on the number of
applications downloaded. The regression model showed a significant model fit (F =
5.84, p .001) and explained approximately 10.7% of the total variance.
Regarding the degree of smartphone apps usage, models for each specific application type showed significant fit and explained more than 10% of the total variance (see
Table 2). Among the demographic variables, only gender ( = .137) was significant

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.137
.090
.097
.049
.157
.049

2.334*
1.468
1.621
0.778
2.483*
0.781
.099

.079
.319
.036
.024
.021
.181

1.398
5.374***
0.622
0.934
0.336
2.940**
.150

t-value

t-value

Note. LBS = location-based services.

+p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Gender
Age
Education
Income
Innovativeness
Consumption skill
R2

Entertainment

News/info

Table 3. Predicting the Frequent Use of Applications.

.144
.315
.051
.064
.221
.243

2.712***
5.701***
0.941
1.110
3.858***
4.238***
.261

t-value

Communication

.003
.005
.045
.029
.336
.108

0.046
0.090
0.775
0.481
5.526***
1.766+
.163

t-value

LBS

.172
.054
.052
.018
.215
.145

2.942**
0.890
0.871
0.284
3.419**
2.292*
.104

t-value

Utility

.124
.019
.072
.031
.294
.263

2.241*
0.327
1.269
0.518
4.943***
4.409***
.199

t-value

Commerce

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for predicting the degree of news/information applications use. That is, male respondents showed higher use of news/information applications. Personal innovativeness
( = .157) was also significant in predicting higher use of news/information applications. However, consumption skill was not a significant predictor. The regression
model showed a significant model fit (F = 5.40, p .001) and explained approximately 9.9% of the total variance.
Age ( = .319) was found to be significant for predicting the degree of entertainment-related application use. The younger segment showed a higher degree of entertainment application use. Interestingly, and unlike for news/information applications,
personal innovativeness was not a significant variable here. On the other hand, consumption skill ( = .181) was significant in predicting the degree of entertainment
application use. The regression model showed a significant model fit (F = 8.65, p = <
.001) and explained approximately 15.0% of the total variance.
The next type of smartphone applications involves performing communicationrelated functions, such as messaging or SNS. Age ( = .315) and gender ( =
.144) were found to significantly predict the degree of communication application
use. The younger group used communication applications on their smartphones
more frequently. Females showed a higher degree of usage for communicationrelated applications; this result differed from that obtained for news/information
applications. Personal innovativeness ( = .221) and consumption skill ( = .243)
were significant predictors for the use of communication applications. The regression model showed a significant model fit (F = 17.23, p .001) and explained 26.1%
of the variance.
None of the demographic variables was significant in predicting the degree of LBS
application use. However, personal innovativeness ( = .336) and consumption skill
( = .108) were significant in predicting the use of LBS-related applications. It should
be noted that consumption skill was statistically significant only at a marginal level
(p = .079). The regression model showed a significant model fit (F = 9.49, p .001)
and explained 16.3% of the variance.
Only gender ( = .172) was significant in predicting the frequent use of utilityrelated smartphone applications. That is, females used utility applications more frequently. Personal innovativeness ( = .215) and consumption skills ( = .145) were
related significantly to the degree of utility application use. The regression model
showed a significant model fit (F = 5.96, p .001) and explained 10.4% of the
variance.
The last type of application tested was mobile commerce. Gender ( = .124) was
found to be a significant variable in predicting the degree of commerce applications
use. Females showed a higher degree of commerce application use. Personal innovativeness ( = .294) and consumption skills ( = .263) were significant in predicting
transaction-related application use. The regression model showed a significant model
fit (F = 12.17, p .001) and explained 19.9% of the variance. Overall, the models
predicting the level of usage for each application type were significant and showed
partial support for the suggested hypotheses.

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Table 4. Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Predicting Social and Human Capital.
Social capital

Demographics
Gender
Age
Education
Income
Consumption skills
Innovativeness
# of owned apps
News/info
Entertainment
Communication
LBS
Utility
Commerce
R2
Adjusted R2
Model fit (F)

Human capital

R2

R2

.038*
.049
.197**
.009
.112
.192**
.284***
.010
.105*
.002
.456***
.066
.077
.027

.140***
.233***

.019
.021
.098
.056
.091
.230***
.369***
.002
.170**
.067
.200**
.046
.053
.076

.411
.384
15.348***

.225***
.118***

.361
.332
12.447***

Note. LBS = location-based services; Gender: 0 = male, 1 = female

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Social and Human Capital

Hierarchical multiple regressions were performed to examine the research questions
addressing the relationship between smartphone apps use and the acquisition of social
and human capital. Three variable blocks were entered at different steps. The demographic block (i.e., gender, age, education, and income) was entered first as control
variables, followed by individual characteristics (i.e., consumption skills and innovativeness), and smartphone applications use (i.e., the total number of apps downloaded
and the usage level for each apps category). The models resulting from the hierarchical
multiple regressions showed good model fit (see Table 4).
In the first hierarchical regression equation for predicting the acquisition of social
capital, the model showed R2 value of 41.1 %. Among the demographic block, age
( = .197, p < .01) was the only significant variable. This was consistent with the
finding that younger people are more active in using smartphone applications. After
individual characteristics were entered, the model increased to 14.0 % of the variance.
Consumption skills ( = .192, p < .01) and innovativeness ( = .284, p < .001) were
significant. Respondents with higher consumption skills and who were more innovative acquired more social capital through smartphone use. Finally, when the smartphone applications use variables were entered, the model increased to 23.3% of the

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variance. However, the result did not show a significant relationship between the apps
ownership and the acquisition of social capital (RQ1). On the other hand, there seems
to be some relationship between the frequent use of certain applications and the acquisition of social capital (RQ2). Specifically, more frequent use of communicationrelated applications ( = .456, p < .001) resulted in the creation of more social capital,
followed by the use of news/information applications ( = .105, p < .05). Other types
of applications were not significant predictors of ones social capital.
In the second hierarchical regression equation for predicting the acquisition of
human capital, the model yielded 36.1% of the variance. Demographics were not significant in predicting the acquisition of human capital. The individual characteristics
block increased to 22.5% of the variance. Like the case of social capital acquisition,
people who have higher consumption skills ( = .230, p < .001) and more innovative
personalities ( = .369, p < .001) tend to acquire more human capital. Lastly, the
smartphone applications use variables added 11.8% of explained variance in predicting the acquisition of human capital. The result also did not show a significant relationship between the total number of applications downloaded and the acquisition of
human capital (RQ3). On the other hand, the frequent use of certain applications did
lead to the acquisition of more human capital (RQ4). More frequent use of communication applications ( = .200, p < .01) was most significant in affecting the acquisition
of more human capital, followed by news/information applications ( = .170, p < .01).
Other types of applications usage were not significant in predicting acquisition of
human capital.

Conclusion and Discussion

Using a survey of smartphone users in South Korea, a country with one of the highest
smartphone penetration rates, this study examined the effects of several individual
characteristic variables on the use of smartphone applications in terms of the breadth
(total number of applications downloaded) and depth (the level of applications usage
by types). Subsequently, based on the notion of digital divide, the study explored the
possibility of a mobile divide reflecting unequal access to smartphone applications.
Specifically, the differences in social and human capital acquired as a result of the
smartphone applications usage were analyzed.
Smartphone users who are younger, more innovative, and have higher consumption
skills tend to download more smartphone applications. Regarding the usage, frequency, gender, age, personal innovativeness, and consumption skills were significant
predictors, whereas the level of education and income played no significant role in this
process.
Specifically, male respondents used news/information applications more frequently, whereas female respondents used communication, utility, and commerce
applications more frequently. Previous studies on new technology adoption have suggested that women are more hesitant to use new devices in the early stages, owing to
tech anxiety.67 The findings here point to the possibility that the observed gender differences in technology adoption might be attributed more to differences in functional

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preferences of the technology between males and females than different levels of tech
anxiety. The findings also correspond to previous studies conclusion that women prefer online person-to-person communication more than men, and women use social
media for relational purposes more frequently than their male counterparts.68
Consistent with previous new media adoption studies, this study empirically validated the effect of personal innovativeness in the context of smartphone application
use. Personal innovativeness is predictive of heavier use of all applications, except for
entertainment-related applications. The result also showed that consumption skill was
statistically significant in predicting more frequent use of most application types.
Interestingly, the only exception here is news/information-related applications. The
findings imply that use of entertainment apps on the mobile platform was not seen as
novelty seeking, while consumption of news/info apps was perceived as relatively
easier and common.
The results of the study differ from some previous new media and technology adoption studies in that socioeconomic/demographic variables were not influential in the
adoption of this mobile ICT. Instead, personal innovativeness and consumption skills
are much more powerful predictors. The negligible effect of socioeconomic status
might be the result of the business model adopted by the mobile apps market, which
offers many free and inexpensively priced applications, as well as trials and free lite
version apps. In addition, many people increasingly regard mobile phones as a necessity, not a luxury item.69 Thus, in cases where there is high perceived value of a technology (or associated technology) but limited cost burden, perhaps it is more
appropriate to examine digital inequity from the perspective of skill sets and experiences rather than socioeconomic status.
This study also explored the issue of a mobile divide in the context of smartphone
applications use. The results show that having more smartphone applications does not
contribute to the increase of social or human capital. It is the usage of the apps that
makes a difference. In addition, not all mobile apps are created equal. The frequent use
of communication apps and, to a lesser degree, news/information apps, was most
likely to increase ones social capital. This points to a potential form of mobile divide
due to inequity in bridging social capital, where individuals make connections
between social networks and broaden their social horizon through the use of communication-related apps.
In the case of human capital, the usage level of communication and news/information
applications contributed to its acquisition. News/information applications were especially influential in this regard. Just as the Internet can significantly enhance ones
human capital by increasing access to knowledge and information, imbalance in
smartphone apps usage, especially in those applications that are news/information
based, can create potential digital disparity in human capital in an increasingly mobile
society.
It is important to note the significance of consumption skills in building ones
social and human capital in the context of smartphone applications usage. Considering
that current smartphone users are relatively early adopters who will continue to
enhance their smartphone consumption skills, the mobile divide between current users

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and late adopters is an emerging reality. In essence, the result of this study reaffirms
the importance of ICT skills in the debate on the digital divide. In other words, it
echoes the concern that the digital divide must be examined beyond the haves and
have-nots to identify the gap between those who have rudimentary service and
advanced service and those who can and cannot.70 As our society becomes more
mobile, the lack of consumption skills for mobile devices may eventually impede certain segments of the population, such as the older generation, from achieving an adequate level of social and human capital. Certainly, this kind of disparity can be
overcome with educational efforts. In essence, smartphone usage can play a role in
enhancing ones social and human capital. The growing ubiquity of mobile phones
means that the potential of a mobile divide should be viewed beyond the question of
access, to include the use of functional mobile applications on the device. Because of
the different nature of the mobile platform and apps business models, it is also fruitful
to scrutinize the consumption acts in addition to the ownership of applications.
In spite of its exploratory nature, this study has some limitations. First, it did not use
systematic random sampling, but purposively assigned the ratios of gender and age
group evenly to avoid oversampling typical early adopters (e.g., younger males).
Regarding level of education, most of the respondents in this study are highly educated. As such, the results of this study have to be interpreted with caution. Second, the
current study categorized smartphone applications into six categoriesnews/information, entertainment, communication, LBS, utility, and commerceto measure the
degree of use for each type of applications. Although definitions and examples of each
application type were provided to the participants during the survey, the categorization
was dependent on the respondents perceptions. In addition, the Likert-type scale measure of usage level may be more indicative of the subjective applications use than the
actual use. Finally, because of the exploratory nature of the study, we did not utilize
the structural equation model following previous theory testing. Only three constructs
(i.e., personal innovativeness, social capital, and human capital) were measured with
multiple items, and the remaining variables were assessed using nominal or single
items. Therefore, no SEM was performed. It is suggested that a more thorough structural modeling approach, which articulates the relationship between various attributes
affecting smartphone apps use, and subsequent acquisition of social and human capital, be conducted in the future.
To move from perceived usage to actual usage, future research may use behavioral
log tracking data to measure the use of applications by conducting an actual assessment of the applications used during a certain timeframe. Furthermore, the measurement of social capital should be improved in future studies. Although social capital is
composed of network, trust, and norms, this study focused only on the dimension of
the network (cohesion) capital of smartphone users. From the perspective of human
capital, this study focused on general learning, with no specific measures of more
formal educational/training opportunities. As more educational materials are disseminated via the smartphone platform, future research may add formal education and
learning dimensions to the assessment of human capital. Lastly, this study examined
only the effects of smartphone applications on the mobile divide. Future studies may

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expand the concept of the mobile divide to include other mobile devices such as iPads,
tablet PCs, and e-readers.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.

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