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Radioactive Materials

Techniques Course

OESO Radiation Safety Division


Duke University Medical Center

Purpose
To give laboratory technicians useful and practical information on the basic
principles of radiation and how to handle radioactive materials in
order to maintain safety and compliance
Table of Contents
Topic

Radiation & Radioactivity


Radiation Interactions and Bioeffects
Radiation Sources and Background Radiation
Fundamentals of Radiation Protection
Radiation Dose Limits and Radiation Dosimetry
Radiation Detection & Measurement
Practical Aspects Radioactive Material Handling
Nuclide-Specific Information
Radiation Safety Program
Conclusion, Radiation Safety Contacts, and Resources

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I. RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVITY


Ionizing Radiation
Radioactive vs.
Radiation

What Is Radiation?
Ionizing

Non-Ionizing

ionizes [strips electrons


from] atoms; includes:

many other modes of


interaction; includes:

Particulate
-alpha
-beta
-neutron
- etc.

Radiation
Source

Electromagnetic

[radioactive
material or X-ray
device]
3

Irradiated
Material
Radiation
4

Ionizing radiation is radiation having sufficient energy to strip electrons from (or ionize) atoms or
molecules. Ionization forms ion pairs consisting of free electrons and a positively charged
nucleus. To strip an electron from an atom or to break a chemical bond requires a minimum
amount of energy, depending on the location of the electron or bond. To ionize a hydrogen
atom requires 13.6 electron-volts (eV) of energy. Nuclear transformations release energies in
the thousands to millions of eV and thus can cause many ionizations per transformation.

Nuclear Stability
Why Some Atoms Decay:
Nuclear Forces and Stability
Beryllium
Atom [6Be]

Forces acting on
6Be nucleus
n
p

n p n
nucleus

electrons

nuclear
force
proton
neutron
electrostatic
repulsion
5

This figure illustrates the electrostatic forces


on a stable, non-radioactive 6Be nucleus. The
protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus
are held together by the nuclear force. The
nuclear force is very strong, but only acts over
very short distances, roughly a couple of times
the radius of a proton. Electrostatic forces
also act on the nucleus, pushing the positively
charged protons away from each other. The
electrostatic force is much weaker than the
nuclear force, but acts over much longer
distances. Like charges repel and opposites
attract; hence the positively charged protons
repel each other and attract the negatively
charged electrons in the electron shells.

Neutrons have no electric charge, and therefore exert no electrostatic forces. Neutrons can be
thought of as the glue that holds the nucleus together, because without them, the protons
would fly apart. This is why all atoms larger than hydrogen have at least one neutron, and why
a stable nucleus must have about as many neutrons as protons. In fact, as the atomic number
Z increases, it requires more neutrons than protons to make the nucleus stable, so that the

heaviest stable nuclides have about 1.5 neutrons per proton. Although the decay of a
radioactive atom is a random process, the probability of its occurrence can be predicted.

The Curve of Nuclear Stability

Chart of the
Nuclides

N=Z

Unstable too
many protons

Unstable too
many protons

Z (number protons)

Z (number protons)

The Curve of
Nuclear Stability

N ? 1.5 Z

Unstable too
many neutrons

Unstable too
many neutrons

N (number of neutrons)

N (number of neutrons)

Stable nuclides have an ideal ratio of protons and neutrons to balance the competing nuclear
and electrostatic forces. If the ratio of protons to neutrons differs from this ideal ratio, the
nucleus becomes unstable and will undergo radioactive decay in order to achieve a more stable
ratio. Some nuclides must decay through a whole chain of radionuclides to reach a stable
configuration of protons and neutrons (e.g. radon progeny).

Radionuclide and Half-Life


Nuclide vs.
Radionuclide

Radioactive Decay
& Half-Life [T]

Nuclide - general term referring to any known isotope,


whether stable (about 290) or unstable (about 2200), of any
chemical element
Radionuclide an unstable (radioactive) nuclide

- Shleien (1998)

Nuclide Designation:
Z
Where:
A = the atomic mass (no. protons + no. neutrons)
Z = the atomic number (number of protons)
X = the symbol for the chemical element
Note: Physical/Chemical properties depend on Z!

Ao
1.0 __
_
A(t)/Ao

0
8

__
_
__
_
__
_
__
_
__
_
__
_
__
_

Decay Constant [] = 0.693/T


A(t) = Aoe-t = Aoe-(0.693/T)t
= Ao()t/T
Negative Exponential Decay Curve

1T 2T 3T
time

4T

5T

6T

Each radionuclide (a.k.a. radioisotope) decays at a specific rate per unit time. This rate can be
represented mathematically by a term called the half-life (T), which is not effected by physical
or chemical factors and has the units of time (e.g., seconds, days, years, etc.). A half-life is the
time required for half the original number of radioactive atoms in a sample to decay into atoms
of a different chemical element. Hence, the radioactivity of the sample will be half its initial
value in one half-life. The half-lives for some radioactive nuclides used in research are listed in
Table 1.

TABLE 1: Half-lives and Decay Constants for Selected Nuclides


ISOTOPE

HALF-LIFE (T)

Hydrogen-3

DECAY CONSTANT ()

12 years

Carbon-14

5730 years

0.0578/yr
0.000121/yr

Sulfur-35

88 days

0.00788/day

Iodine-125

60 days

0.0116/day

Phosphorous-32

14 days

0.0495/day

Phosphorous-33

25 days

0.0277/day

Chromium-51

28 days

0.0248/day

Activity

Radioactivity
Units
Activity Amount of radioactive material
curie (Ci): 3.7x1010 disintegration/second
1 Ci = a lot of of activity [based on 1 g radium]
adult human has ~0.1 Ci 14C

18671934
18591906

becquerel (Bq): 1 disintegration/second


1852-1908

1 Bq = tiny amount of activity [SI unit]


adult human has ~3,700 Bq

14C

1 Ci = 37 kBq = 2.22x106 dpm [disintegration/minute] 10

Amount of radioactive material is not generally measured in common units of mass or volume.
Instead, a quantity of radioactive material is measured in a unit based on the number of atoms
decaying per unit time or activity. The conventional unit for quantity of activity in the United
States is the curie (Ci), defined as that quantity of radioactive material in which 3.7 1010 (37
billion) atoms disintegrate per second. This definition was originally based on the decay rate of
one gram of radium-226. Note that like all units of activity, the curie specifies an amount of
radioactive material based on the number of radioactive disintegrations per unit time it
produces, not by mass or volume of material. Further, the term disintegrations per second
(dps) is not necessarily synonymous with the number of particles emitted by the radioisotope
per second, since some decays produce more than one type of radiation or particle per decay.
Since the curie is a large unit of activity, the terms millicurie (mCi) or microcurie (Ci) are most
often used, as shown below.

Another unit for quantity of activity is the disintegration per minute (DPM). The DPM
designation is very common in technical literature and facilitates conversion from radiation
detection instrumentation readouts in counts per minute (CPM) into units of activity (DPM). It is

important to distinguish between these units since a costly mistake can be made if units and/or
prefixes are confused.
1 Curie (Ci) = 3.7 1010 dps = 2.22 1012 DPM = 1000 mCi
1 millicurie(mCi) = 3.7 107 dps = 2.22 109 DPM = 1000 Ci
1 microcurie (Ci) = 3.7 104 dps = 2.22 106 DPM
The scientific community generally uses units of the metric or International System (SI). The
SI unit for activity is the becquerel (Bq), defined as one (1) disintegration per second (dps). The
conversions between Bq and Ci are shown below.

1 Ci = 3.7 1010 Bq or 37 GBq


1 mCi = 3.7 107 Bq or 37 MBq
1 Ci = 3.7 104 Bq or 37 kBq
Decay Equation
The activity (A) of a radioactive sample is related to the number of radioactive atoms (N) by the
decay constant () from the general decay equation:

A = N
Where

= (ln 2)/T
The following examples illustrate the decay equation:

Example 1:
Find the activity of 38 billion 32P atoms

No =
Ao =
=
=
=

38,000,000,000 atoms; (32P) = 0.0495 d-1


No
(0.0495 d-1)(3.8E10 atoms)
(1.88E9 decays/d) / [(24 hrs/d) (3600 s/hr)]
22,000 decays per second (Bq)

To convert to Ci,

(22,000 Bq) (1 Ci / 37,000 Bq) = 0.59 Ci


The decay of the radioactivity is then described by the same equation as the decay of the
number of radioactive atoms (see side 9):

A(t) = Ao e-t or, equivalently A(t) = Ao (1/2)(t/T)

Example 2:
Find the activity of a P-32 sample on August 1 if the original activity (Ao) was 1.5 mCi on July 6
of the same year. (T = 14 days). The elapsed time has been 26 days.

A(26 d) = 1.5 mCi e-(0.693/14 days) (26 days)

A(26 d) = 1.5 mCi (1/2)(26d/14d)

= 0.41 mCi

= 0.41 mCi

Specific Activity
Recall that the curie does not mention anything about the mass or volume of the radioactive
material in which the specified number of disintegrations per second occur. The concentration
of radioactivity (amount of activity per unit volume or mass) is called the specific activity. The
specific activity is used to determine the activity of a known volume withdrawn from the stock
bottle of radioactive material. When radioactive material is ordered from a supplier, the specific
activity as well as the total activity being ordered is normally given. Many radiolabeled
compounds are offered for sale in two or more specific activities. Generally higher specific
activity compounds are more expensive for a given isotope.
Radioactive contamination is generally more difficult to control when using higher specific
activities. Work with the lowest specific activity compounds possible for a given experiment.
The maximum specific activity possible for a given radionuclide is proportional to the decay
constant () for that nuclide and inversely proportional to the half-life. This is why for example
P-32 compounds (half-life = 14 days) can be produced with much higher specific activities than
C-14 compounds (half-life = 5730 years).
Commonly used expressions for specific activity include mCi/mg, mCi/ml, mCi/mMole, and
DPM/ml.

Radiation Types
Ionizing Radiation Types &
Penetrating Abilities

Principal Types of
Ionizing Radiation

- comes from heavy nuclei [Z > 82]

ELECTROMAGNETIC
Gamma () - photon
X-ray (X) photon

Radiation Source

PARTICULATE
Alpha () helium nucleus
Beta () electron
<250 keV max: "Low Energy Beta"
>250 keV max: "High Energy Beta"

Neutron (n) uncharged


Custom: categorize radionuclides by type of
radiation emitted

11

Paper [or dead layer of skin]

++

Plastic

ALPHA
h
hig

1 BETA

low

Lead or Concrete
Water

GAMMA & X-RAYS


0

0,

1 n
0

NEUTRON
12

Alpha Particle ()
An alpha particle originates in the nucleus of the atom and is composed of two protons and two
neutrons; basically, it is a helium nucleus. It is a fairly large particle and results from the decay
of relatively large atoms having 82 or more protons (Z > 82). When an isotope undergoes alpha
decay, the atomic mass (A) of the nucleus will be reduced by four and the atomic number (Z) by
two. An example of alpha decay is:
226
222
4
88 Ra 86 Rn + 2 He

Radium-226 emits an alpha particle and is transformed into Radon-222. The Radon-222 is also
unstable and emits an alpha particle. Usually after emitting an alpha particle, the new progeny
nucleus is left in an excited state and emits gamma rays as the nucleus progresses to the
resting state. The decay of radium leads to a chain of radioactive progeny products that
eventually produces a stable isotope of lead.
Alpha particles are mono-energetic (approximately 4 to 9 MeV each). The range (distance that
the radiation will travel) of an alpha particle is quite short, i.e., only a few centimeters in air. Due
to their short range and weak penetrating ability, detection of alpha particles requires specially
designed instrumentation.
Alpha-emitting radioactive material is not generally used in the research lab, except in consumer
products such as smoke detectors and static control devices.

Beta Particle ()
A beta particle originates in the nucleus. In the most common type of beta decay, a neutron
decays into a proton plus an electron. Because the mass of the parent neutron is slightly higher
than the mass of the proton/electron pair, the difference in mass is converted to energy (E =
mc2). This mass difference is shown in Table 2.
TABLE 2: Masses of Sub-atomic Particles1
PARTICLE

ATOMIC WEIGHT
UNITS

Proton

1.007276

Electron

0.000549

Proton + Electron

1.007825

Neutron

1.008665

Changes in the nuclear forces before and after the decay release additional energy. The
electron created in beta decay acquires some of this energy and is ejected from the nucleus as
what we call beta radiation; a beta particle is simply an energetic (high speed) electron.
n p+1 + 1 +
1

From 1986 Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants as listed in Table 2.10 of Shleien, B.
ed. The Health Physics and Radiological Health Handbook, Silver Spring, MD, 1992, pp. 31-35.

Beta emission is accompanied by a neutrino () or an anti-neutrino () massless, uncharged


forms of radiation that carry off a random fraction of the transformation energy. Betas are not
mono-energetic like alphas. A sample of beta emitting radioactive material will emit a
continuous spectrum of beta energies from zero up to some maximum value (E-max)
characteristic of the specific radioisotope. Text references generally quote the E-max values,
but the average beta energy is approximately 1/3 of E-max.
Most beta decays are accompanied by gamma emission. However, the radioisotopes used in
biomedical research are usually pure beta emitters which do not emit gammas. Several of
these pure beta emitters are shown in Table 3.
TABLE 3: Some Pure Beta Emitting Radionuclides2
E-MAX
(KEV)

ISOTOPE

E-AVG
(KEV)

Hydrogen-3

18.6

Carbon-14

156.5

49

Sulfur-35

167.5

48

Phosphorous-33

248

76

Phosphorous-32

1710.4

694

Beta Decay
An example of beta decay is the
transformation of carbon-14 into nitrogen-14.
The 14C beta may have any energy from
zero to 156 keV; the anti-neutrino carries off
the difference between the beta energy and
156 keV.

All Together Now:


14N + (low energy; 156 keV max) [T=5730
y]

14C

32S + (high E; 1,710 keV max)


= 14.3 days]

32P

[T

- values taken from Shleien (1998)

13

A beta particles range in air is approximately


3.69 meters (12 feet) per MeV. Betas have
a much shorter range in denser material
such as tissue.

Gamma Rays()
Gamma radiation is not itself a mode of radioactive decay, as are alpha and beta decay.
Instead, gamma emission accompanies some forms of radioactive decay. Gamma radiation is
a form of electromagnetic radiation which originates in the nucleus as a result of radioactive
decay. Like all electromagnetic radiation, gamma rays travel at the speed of light and have no
mass and no electric charge. In contrast to the continuous energy spectra created by beta and
some X-ray emission, gamma radiation is mono-energetic and emitted at characteristic
2

Shleien, B., ed. The Health Physics and Radiological Health Handbook, Silver Spring, MD, 1989, p. 165.

energies. The gamma energy spectrum of a given radioactive decay is analogous to a persons
fingerprint and can be used to identify a particular radioisotope.
Gamma-emitting material, like beta emitters, finds prevalent use in medical and research
procedures as labeled chemical compounds (tracers) and as the basis for various treatment
techniques. Due to the lack of charge and mass, gamma radiation is highly penetrating and has
an extremely long range. For example, electromagnetic radiation formed in the sun can reach
the earth.

X-rays
What About X-rays?
BREMSSTRAHLUNG X-RAYS
high speed
electron
target nucleus
[e.g. tungsten]

X-rays

CHARACTERISTIC X-RAYS

hole at lower orbital


X-ray

electron falls into


lower orbital

14

X-rays are electromagnetic radiation photons


similar to gamma rays except they originate
in the electron cloud surrounding the nucleus
rather than the nucleus itself. X-ray radiation
takes two forms: characteristic X-rays and
bremsstrahlung radiation.
X-ray radiation is considered penetrating
radiation because it does not have a charge
or mass. The range of X-ray radiation, like
gamma radiation, can be a quite long.

Characteristic X-rays
Electrons are constantly orbiting an atom at specific energy levels called shells. When an
electron is ejected from an inner energy shell (particularly the K or L shells) an electron from a
higher energy level will drop into the vacancy. An electron vacancy in the K-shell is filled by
another orbital electron, resulting in the emission of an X-ray equal to the difference between
the two energy levels. Characteristic X-rays are mono-energetic.

Characteristic
X-ray photon

Nucleus
Lower energy orbital
Higher energy orbital

Characteristic X-ray Production

Bremsstrahlung Radiation
Bremsstrahlung or braking radiation are X-rays emitted when high-speed, charged particles
suffer rapid change in speed or direction. When a beta particle passes close to a nucleus of an
absorbing material, the strong attractive forces cause the beta particle to deviate sharply from
its original path. This change in direction causes the emission of bremsstrahlung X-ray
radiation. As the atomic number (Z) of the absorbing material increases, more bremsstrahlung

X-ray radiation will be emitted. This form of X-ray radiation is not mono-energetic, but forms a
continuous energy spectrum.

Bremsstrahlung

X-ray photon

Nucleus

Bremsstrahlung X-ray Production

Positron Emitters
Another form of beta decay occurs when a proton plus some nuclear binding energy transforms
to a neutron and a positively charged beta particle called a positron (+).
1 +1
1p

1
0n +

+1 +

{2-5}

The positron (positively charged electron) has the same mass as a negative electron, but has a
positive charge. Positron emission is always accompanied by the emission of neutrinos () and
may be accompanied by gamma emission. Sodium-22 is an example of a radionuclide which
decays by positron emission, as shown below.
22
11Na

22
10 Ne

+ +1 + +

{2-6}

A positron is often called anti-matter because it disappears when it encounters an electron


(normal matter). This is annihilation and results in the creation of two 511 keV photons emitted
in opposite directions, as the mass of the two particles is converted completely into
electromagnetic energy by Einsteins formula E = mc2. These characteristic 511 keV
annihilation photons indicate the presence of positrons.

Neutron Activation
In general, radiation cannot make a non-radioactive substance become radioactive. Thus, the
presence of radioactive materials or receiving an X-ray will not make surrounding materials
radioactive. However, exposure to a neutron source such as a nuclear reactor or
Californium-252 can make materials radioactive via neutron activation. This process involves
the absorption of one or more neutrons by the target nucleus, thereby creating a different
(usually unstable) nuclide. Nuclear reactors use neutron activation to produce many of the
radioactive materials used in medicine and research.

10

II. RADIATION INTERACTIONS AND BIOEFFECTS


Radiation Interactions
Radiation Interaction: Main
Chemical Effects in Tissue

Interactions of Radiation with


Matter

Primary reactions [within ~10-10 seconds of


passage of ionizing radiation] - Water molecule
dissociates into free radicals:

Ionization: ejection of orbiting electrons from


the atom - Gollnick (1994)

Excitation: raising of orbital electrons to higher


energy levels within the atom - Gollnick (1994)

H2O H + OH
Secondary reactions [subsequent 10-5 seconds]
H + H H2 (gas)

Activation: the process of making a material


radioactive by bombardment with neutrons,
protons, or other nuclear radiation - Shleien (1998)

H + OH H2O (water)
OH + OH H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide)
from Gollnick (1994)

15

16

In addition to ionizing atoms in the target material, ionizing radiation may also cause excitation,
in which an electron is merely raised to a higher energy level within the excited atom rather than
torn from the atom entirely, as with ionization. Excited atoms then emit a photon as the electron
drops back down into the lower energy state. Activation is covered in Chapter I.
These radiation interactions occur very rapidly in tissue, with ionized and excited atoms or
molecules returning to their ground state almost instantaneously. The effects on a molecular or
cellular level are dominated by chemically reactive species, primarily those created by the
dissociation of water molecules (e.g. hydrogen peroxide). Because many natural physiological
processes create these same reactive chemicals, the effects of low radiation doses are
indistinguishable from effects of many other normal cellular metabolic activities. Fortunately the
body has naturally developed mechanisms to repair the damage caused by these naturally
occurring metabolic and radiation-induced chemicals. Only when the amount of damage
exceeds the bodys natural repair capability are negative health effects possible.

Radiation Dose Units

U.S NRC Quality Factors (Q)

Units of Radiation Dose


Quantity
Exposure: ionization
per unit mass air; only
for gamma & X-ray

Unit
Old: roentgen [R] =
2.58x10-4 C/kgair
(C = coulomb)
SI: no SI unit

Applicability
Obsolete but still on
many direct reading
instruments;
1 R 1 rad

Absorbed Dose: energy Old: [rad] = 100 erg/g


absorbed per unit mass SI: gray [Gy] = 1 J/kg
1 Gy = 100 rad

Short term dose effects;


generally if dose >100 rad

Dose Equivalent:
absorbed dose
weighting factor

For latent effects (e.g.


cancer, genetic effects);
if dose <100 rad(1Gy)

Old: roentgen equiv. man


[rem]=radQ
SI: sievert [Sv]=GywR

- Shleien (1998); Gollnick (1994); NCRP 138 (2001)

(1 Gy)

Type of radiation

X-, gamma, or beta


Alpha particles, multiple-charged particles, fission
fragments & heavy particles of unknown charge

1
20

Neutrons of unknown energy

10

High-energy protons

10

- from 10 CFR 20.1004; weighting factors from other


organizations ( e.g. ICRP, NCRP, ICRU) may differ

17

18

11

The roentgen was one of the earliest (1928) units used to measure exposure and measures
the amount of ionization produced in air by X-ray or gamma rays. By definition, 1 R = 2.58
10-4 coulombs/kilogram at standard temperature and pressure. It is important to note that the
unit of exposure is defined only for X or gamma rays and only for exposure in air. Thus, the
roentgen is a measure of the ability of photons to ionize air. One roentgen (R) is a rather large
exposure, so frequently the milliroentgen (mR) unit is used (1000 mR = 1 R). Many Geiger
counters and most ion chambers are calibrated to read out in terms of exposure rate, e.g.,
milliroentgen per hour (mR/hr). There is no international system (SI) unit for exposure.
Radiation deposits energy when absorbed by matter. This energy deposition leads to the
biological effect of ionizing radiation. By definition, the absorbed dose is the energy deposited
per unit mass. The unit of radiation absorbed dose is called the rad. One rad represents the
deposition of 100 ergs per gram of material. Unfortunately, the rad is difficult to measure and
must often be calculated from other measurements. However, for radiation protection purposes,
1 R = 1 rad, for X-rays or gamma rays. But, for beta radiations, 1 R equals some constant times
1 rad, where the constant is dependent upon the beta energy. For example: 1 R 2.6 rad for
P-32. Therefore, beta measurements with survey meters which read in R/hr or mR/hr must be
interpreted with care. The international system (SI) unit for absorbed dose is the gray (Gy)
one Gy = 100 rad.
The ultimate aim of a dose measurement system, from a radiation safety viewpoint, is to arrive
at a quantity appropriate for predicting biological response independent of the source of the
radiation. This goal is only partially achieved with the rad. For example, the biological effect is
much greater for alpha radiation than for beta or gamma radiation for a given absorbed dose (in
rad) to the biological system. This difference in the biological effectiveness of the radiation has
been attributed primarily to the fact that alpha radiation releases more energy and ionizes more
particles per unit path length traversed than beta or gamma although the path length is shorter
than that for beta or gamma radiations. In order to account for the different biological effects of
different radiation types, a quality factor (QF) has been introduced which is used to convert the
absorbed dose to a dose equivalent. Quality factors are shown in slide 18. The unit of dose
equivalent is the rem (Roentgen - Equivalent - Mammal.).
Most biomedical research laboratory situations involve only beta, gamma, or X-ray radiations.
For these radiations, the QF is equal to 1 so the dose equivalent (in rem) is equal to the
absorbed dose (in rad). The dose to tissue in air from exposure to one Roentgen is about 0.95
rad. Therefore, for X-ray and gamma radiation exposure, the following expression
approximates the dose equivalent:
1 R 1 rad = 1 rem [Low LET radiation]
One rem is a large unit; so, we usually work in terms of millirem (mrem),
where 1000 mrem = 1 rem. The SI unit for rem is the sievert (Sv) one Sv = 100 rem.

12

Radiation Bioeffects

Radiation Bioeffects
DETERMINISTIC

Severity increases with


radiation dose
Threshold ~50 - 100 rem
Dose & dose rate
dependent
Examples:

STOCHASTIC

Probability of occurrence
increases with radiation dose
Threshold ~10 rem, but
regulatory models assume no
threshold [ALARA!]
Examples:

Cataract induction
Cancer Induction
Epilation (hair loss)
Genetic Mutations
Erythema (skin reddening)
Developmental Abnormalities
Blood changes
Sterility
- NCRP 138 (2001); HPS (1995) Risk Assessment

19

Among the acute (immediate) effects generally


associated with high radiation exposure are
acute radiation sickness and skin erythema
(reddening) or desquamation (peeling). This
type to bioeffect (severity increases with dose)
is called deterministic.
Long-term effects may include increased
incidence of cancer, leukemia, birth defects,
cataracts, and shortening of life span. This
type to bioeffect (probability increases with
dose) is called stochastic.

Radiation is energy moving through space. Radiation dose occurs when that energy is
deposited in living cells. The chemical reactions and molecular changes caused by the addition
of this energy in turn effects our bodies. The dose, dose rate, type of radiation, exposure to
other hazardous materials, health, age, and even genetic predisposition may all contribute to
degree of bioeffect. Generally, the higher the dose and dose rate, the higher the probability of
biological effects. Therefore, all doses should be kept as low as possible, and it would be better
to receive any exposure gradually over a long period of time rather than all at once. In
biomedical research, the doses are generally so small that it is not possible to detect any effect.
A tremendous research effort has occurred over the last 40 years to determine the effects of
radiation on humans. Arguably, more research has been done on the effects of radiation than
on any other toxic or hazardous agent. All types of radiation (gamma, X-ray, beta, and alpha)
have been studied for both their internal and external hazards. Many groups of people with
known exposures (Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic-bomb survivors, early radiologists, patients
treated with radiation for ankylosing spondylitis and other diseases, radium dial painters, and
uranium miners) have been followed, and their health status reviewed. This research has
provided a large body of data covering radiation health effects.

Radiation Dose-Response Relationships


Deterministic Radiation
Effects

Cancer: incidence begins to increase in populations


acutely exposed to >10 rem [0.1 Sv], continues to
increase with increasing dose. BEIR V, 1990

Health Effect
Blood cell depression

Organ
Bone Marrow

Dose (rad)
50

Reversible skin effects


Permanent sterility

Skin
Ovaries

200
250 600

Vomiting
Temporary hair loss

GI
Skin

300
300 500

Genetic Effects: 100 rad of low-dose rate, low LET


radiation needed to double the incidence of genetic
defects in humans. -BEIR V, 1990; no human
hereditary effects seen at gonadal doses <0.5 Gy
(50 rad) NCRP 138 (2001)

Permanent sterility
Skin erythema

Testis
Skin

350
500 600

In Utero Irradiation: developmental & other effects


begin to increase at ~10 rem - NCRP 138 (2001)

- [Acute, low LET dose] NCRP 138 (2001)

Stochastic Effects

20

Conclusion: assessments of radiological risk


[should] be limited to dose estimates near and
21
above 10 rem. HPS Position Statement (1995)

13

Much of the known dose-effect data derives from rather high doses (on the order of 100 rad)
where the effects are well known and documented. At these high doses, health effects depend
not only on the total absorbed dose but also on the rate at which the dose is received and the
type of radiation. The effects of radiation exposure at low doses (say 10 mrad to 5 rad) are less
well known and probably masked by other factors. Unlike higher doses, there are no acute
(immediate) effects of small radiation doses, and the long-term effects (e.g., increase risk of
cancer) are difficult to clearly attribute to a specific cause. Because they are nearly impossible
to unambiguously detect, low dose-effects can only be estimated through extrapolation of high
dose-effect data. The National Academy of Sciences BEIR V (Biological Effects of Ionizing
Radiation 1990) report represents the scientific communitys consensus view on low-dose
effects. The position of the Health Physics Society (a nonprofit scientific professional society
dedicated to radiation safety) is that any quantification of health risks below an individual (above
natural background) dose of 5 rem in one year or 10 rem lifetime is scientifically unsupportable
because there is simply no compelling evidence of harmful health effects at lower doses3.
To be on the safe side, we assume extrapolation of high-dose data into the low-dose region
such that any exposure produces some effect; i.e., there is no threshold dose below which no
effects occur. In assuming that any amount of radiation dose, no matter how small, may be
harmful, we are obliged to keep our occupational radiation dose As Low As Reasonably
Achievable (ALARA). This no threshold theory of radiation dose-effect has driven the
ALARA concept which now forms the basis of radiation protection regulations.
Ionizing radiation is a weak carcinogen, and ample evidence shows increased incidence of
cancer in populations exposed to high doses. The BEIR V report estimates an increased risk of
cancer death of 0.8% (0.008) following an acute whole body radiation exposure of 10 rad
(10,000 mrad). The normal incidence of cancer death is about 16% (0.16) in the US. Hence an
acute radiation absorbed dose to the whole body of 10 rad would theoretically increase the risk
of cancer death from 16% to 16.8%. The report cautions that this estimate includes a large
degree of uncertainty, noting that ...the probability that cancer will result from a small dose can
be estimated only by extrapolation from the increased rates of cancer that have been observed
after larger doses, based on assumptions about the dose-incidence relationship at low doses.4
In other words, any increase in cancer incidence following a dose as low as 10 rad is so small it
has not yet been clearly detected; so, the increased risk of cancer is based on extrapolating the
discernible increases at higher doses down into the low-dose region.
Genetic effects are abnormalities occurring in the future children of individuals and in
subsequent generations. The BEIR V committee concluded that, based on available data, at
least 100 rad of low-dose rate, low LET radiation would be needed to double the incidence of
genetic defects in humans. The committee was careful to err on the side of safety in coming up
with this estimate, noting that their interpretation ...has the advantage of leading to risk

Health
Physics
Society
Radiation
http://hps.org/documents/radiationrisk.pdf

Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, Board on Radiation Effects Research, Commission
on Life Sciences, National Research Council, Health Effects of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation
[BEIR V], National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1990, pp. 161, 162.

Risk

in

Perspective

Position

Statement

(2001),

14

estimates that, if anything, are too high rather than estimates that subsequent data may prove to
be too low.5

Pregnant Radiation Workers

Pregnant Workers
You are not officially pregnant until you declare your
pregnancy at Employee Health.
Radiation Dose limit to fetus for entire gestation period
is 500 mrem.
Fetal badge will be issued to you, if requestedit is
changed out monthly.
A consultation about radiation doses to the fetus can
be set up with Dr. Robert Reiman (668-3186).
No need to stop radiation work.
Can be confidential.
22

Weve known since 1906 that rapidly dividing cells which are undifferentiated in their structure
and function, such as embryo/fetus cells, are generally more sensitive to radiation. The
embryo/fetus stage is the most radiosensitive part of our life cycle, especially during the first
three months after conception, when a woman may not know shes pregnant. When a pregnant
woman is exposed to radiation sources, her unborn baby may also be exposed.
Because of these factors, the National Council of Radiation Protection and Measurements
(NCRPM) and the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) recommend that
an occupationally exposed woman who may be pregnant take special precautions to limit
exposure, with a maximum permissible dose equivalent of 0.5 rem during the pregnancy.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and North Carolina regulations also establish dose
limits of 0.5 rem during the pregnancy. Fortunately occupational doses from the biomedical
research use of radioactive material generally fall far below this limit.
It is up to the female radiation worker to evaluate the possible risks of occupational radiation
exposure to a known or potential unborn child. The NRC recommends that she consider the
following facts to help make her decision:
1) The first three months of pregnancy are the most critical for radiosensitivity.

Ibid., p.68, 69.

15

2) In most work situations, the actual dose received by an unborn child would be less than the
mothers because her body provides some shielding.
3) The dose to the unborn child can be reduced by:
a) Decreasing the amount of time she spends in a radiation area
b) Increasing the distance between her and the source of radiation
c) Shielding her abdomen
4) If she becomes pregnant, she may ask her employer to reassign her to areas involving less
exposure to radiation.
5) When her occupational exposure is below the 5 rem/year limit, the risk to an unborn child
may be small in relation to the other day-to-day risks to the unborn during pregnancy.
Experts disagree on the exact amount.

6) There is no need to be concerned about sterility, i.e., loss of ability to bear children. The
radiation dose required to produce this effect is 40 times greater than the NRCs basic dose
limits for radiation workers (5 rem/year).
For more information on this important topic, contact Radiation Safety.

16

III. RADIATION SOURCES AND BACKGROUND RADIATION


Annual Dose to Member
of the U.S. Population
[NCRP 93 (1987)]

Radiation Sources
Natural Background
Industrial Use
Research Use
Medical Use
Military Use
Nuclear Power Plants

Cons umer
Produc ts
Nuclear 3% Other
< 1%
Medic ine
4%
Medical X-rays
11%

Artificial 18%

Cosmic
(Outer Space)
8%

Terrres trial
(Roc ks & Soil)
8%
Internal
(Inside Human
Body)
11%

23

Other Includes :
Occ upational 0.3%
Fallout
< 0.3%
Nuc lear Pow er 0.1%
Misc ellaneous 0.1%

Natural

(mrem)

Radon
Cosmic

200
27

Terrestrial:
-external
-internal

Radon
55%

Natural 82%

28
39

Artificial (mrem)
-Diag. X-rays
39
-Nuc. Med.
14
-Consumer Pro. 10
-Other
~1

TOTAL

~360
24

Ionizing radiation sources have many beneficial uses. Such sources are widely used to diagnose
and treat many diseases, including cancer. Radiolabeled compounds are indispensable in
research, and radioactive sources are used to measure tank levels, paper and steel thickness, and
other industrial quality control parameters. Other uses include sterilization of surgical equipment,
verifying pipe and weld integrity, food irradiation, airport and building security, power production
(with less CO2 emission than fossil fuel plants), etc. However, use of ionizing radiation sources
creates the potential for large occupational radiation doses. All radiation workers have an
obligation to prevent any unnecessary occupational radiation dose.
People have been exposed to ionizing radiation since first appearing on this planet. The
sources of this natural background radiation include cosmic rays, terrestrial radiation, and
internally deposited radioisotopes. The values for the first two depend upon where you live.
Cosmic radiation dose is larger at higher altitudes since there is less of the Earths atmosphere
for shielding. Areas with large local deposits of uranium or thorium entail a higher than average
terrestrial radiation component. The food we eat, the water we drink, and the air we breathe
contain such radioisotopes as tritium (hydrogen-3), carbon-14, and potassium-40, among
others, as well as uranium, thorium, and their radioactive progeny. The radioactive materials
are then deposited in our bodies. Slide 24 illustrates that 82% of the annual radiation dose to
the average member of the U.S. population comes from natural sources, and only 18% as a
result of human activities.

Radon
Radon is a naturally occurring, odorless, colorless, radioactive gas produced by the radioactive
decay of uranium and radium that occur in trace amounts in soil and rocks. Radon is chemically
inert which allows it to easily move through soil, rock, and building materials. Radon also
produces radioactive by-products (progeny) which adhere to dust particles in the air. These
decay products are part of the natural decay chain (progeny of Uranium 238, the most abundant
isotope of uranium found in nature). The lower part of this decay chain is shown in below.
226

Ra 222Rn 218Po 214Pb 214Bi 214Po 210Pb 210Bi 210Po 206Pb

Radium-226 Progeny to Lead-206, the stable (nonradioactive) end-product of the


Uranium-238 series.

17

IV. FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION PROTECTION


Protection Against External and Internal Radiation Hazards
Radiation Protection
Fundamentals

Internal vs External
Radiation Hazards

ALL RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL:

Irradiation [external source]

CONTAMINATION CONTROL
Universal Precautions & monitoring; block intake

Contamination [still external,


but can be absorbed]

EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS:


TIME

Intake [incorporation via


inhalation, ingestion, skin
absorption, or via wounds,
etc.]

DISTANCE
SHIELDING
25

26
*

A key concept needed for understanding radiation protection is the distinction between internal
and external hazards. An internal hazard arises once radioactive material gets inside the body,
while an external hazard comes from radioactive material outside the body. All radionuclides
become internal hazards if taken into the body by inhalation, ingestion, or skin absorption.
However, whether a particular radiation source can pose an external hazard hinges on a very
practical consideration: the ability of the radiation to penetrate the bodys dead layer of skin.
Slide 12 (page 5) shows the penetrating ability of various ionizing radiation types. Note that
alpha particles and low energy (<250 keV) beta particles cannot penetrate the dead layer of
skin. This means that radioactive materials emitting only alphas or low energy betas CANNOT
for all practical purposes pose an external radiation hazard. So long as such radioactive
material remains outside the body, the dead layer of skin shields the living tissue and there is
effectively no radiation dose. Happily, most of the radionuclides commonly used in biomedical
research e.g. 3H (tritium), 14C, 33P, and 35S - are low energy beta emitters and therefore do not
present external radiation hazards. Instead, the same universal precautions that protect against
all other hazardous materials also protect against these nuclides.
The radiation from high energy (>250 keV) beta emitting nuclides (e.g. 32P), gamma emitters
(e.g. 125I), and X-ray devices can penetrate the dead layer of skin and damage the living tissue
underneath. Therefore these radiation sources pose an external radiation hazard, i.e. can
cause harm even when the material is outside of the body. Protection against external radiation
hazards is afforded by the appropriate use of time, distance, and shielding.

18

Time
Radiation Protection: Time

The total dose received from a source


presenting an external radiation hazard will
depend on the total time spent near the
source. Therefore, the time spent near such a
source should be as short and effectively used
as possible.

Limit time near source


Dose = (dose rate)x(time)
Reducing the time by will reduce the
dose by
27

Distance
Radiation Protection:
Distance

Using Distance to Reduce


Dose Rate
Example:
100 uCi 125I gives 274 mrem/hr @ 1 cm
Whats the dose rate at 10 cm?

Increase distance from source


Inverse square law: D2=D1(d1)/(d2)

D = [(274 mrem/hr)*(1cm)2]/(10 cm)2


= 2.74 mrem/hr @ 10 cm (4 inches)

Doubling the distance will reduce the dose


rate by
28

If a source contains an external radiation,


NEVER handle it with your fingers; ALWAYS
use tongs or forceps

29

A good way to reduce the exposure to external radiation is to use distance. Much of the time,
distance alone is enough to reduce the exposure rate from beta emitters to a background level.
X-ray and gamma ray radiation usually approximate point sources, and the radiation from such
a point source will obey what is called the inverse square law. This law means that, as the
distance to a point source is doubled, the exposure rate is reduced by a factor of four.

19

Radioactive Material Handling: Additional Precautions

Pipetting Techniques

Secondary Containment

No mouth pipetting
Make sure tip is securely attached
Hold tip at an angle, against the inside
wall of the vessel, if possible
Glide the control button smoothly and
slowly
Place, do not shoot, contaminated tips
into waste containers

Good practice:
Handle RAM only on
absorbent paper in spill
trays
Store RAM in primary
and secondary
containment (e.g. stock
vial inside ziploc bag)
31

32

Tiny volumes of radioactive material can contain large amounts of activity. This is particularly
true of some high specific activity compounds routinely used in biomedical research, for which
aerosol droplets too small to be seen by the unaided eye can carry millions of DPM.
Radioactive material handlers unfamiliar with this aspect of radioactive material use often find
themselves mystified by the appearance of radioactive contamination where there was no
visible indication of a spill or leak. Some key principles for preventing the spread of this invisible
radioactive contamination include:

Secondary containment: Handle radioactive material on absorbent (diaper) paper in


spill trays to prevent contamination of lab benchtops. Store radioactive material
containers inside secondary containers (e.g. Ziploc bags or snap seal plastic
containers).

Proper liquid transfer techniques: Pipetting creates tiny micro aerosols, clouds of
liquid droplets too small to be seen yet potentially carrying detectable amounts of
radioactive material. Ensure that the tip of the pipette is inside, rather than simply
above, the container the material is being transferred to. Similarly, eject disposable
pipette tips into the inside of an appropriate radioactive waste container rather than
ejecting from above the waste container and letting the tips drop some distance into the
waste container.

Disposable glove use: Check gloved hands frequently for contamination, while working
with radioactive material, and change disposable gloves often. Remove disposable
gloves and wash hand BEFORE touching telephones, keypads, doorknobs, light
switches, lab notebooks & pens, or any other commonly handled items.

20

V. RADIATION DOSE LIMITS AND RADIATION DOSIMETRY


Annual Occupational Dose Limits and ALARA
Annual Dose Limits (rem)
10 CFR 20.1201
Total Effective Dose Equivalent [TEDE]: Sum of DDE,
WB for external & TODE for internal, to the whole body
[head/neck/torso region of the body]

ALARA: NRCs view


5

ALARA (acronym for "as low as is


reasonably achievable") means making
every reasonable effort to maintain
exposures to radiation as far below the dose
limits in this part as is practical consistent
with the purpose for which the licensed
activity is undertaken

OR
Total Organ Dose Equivalent [TODE]: Sum of DDE and
CDE to any single organ or tissue other than eye lens

50

Skin [SDE,WB & SDE,ME]

50
15

Lens of the Eye [LDE]


Embryo/Fetus (Declared Pregnant) & Minor [TEDE]
General Public [TEDE]

0.5
0.1

10 CFR 20.1003
33

34

Occupational dose (of ionizing radiation) means the dose received by an individual in the course
of employment in which the individuals assigned duties involve exposure to radiation or
licensed radioactive material. Occupational dose does not include dose received from
background radiation, as a patient from medical practices, from voluntary participation in
medical research programs, or as a member of the general public.
The Occupational Dose Limits (see slide 33) are set well below radiation levels known to
produce acute health effects. Under normal operating conditions, State and Federal regulations
do not permit individual occupational exposure to exceed the occupational dose limits. Although
regulations specifying maximum occupational dose limits are intended to minimize risk of injury
or ill effects, occupational radiation exposure must be kept As Low As Reasonably
Achievable (ALARA).

External Radiation Dose Monitoring


Dosimetry Monitoring External
Laboratories using H-3, C-14, P-33, S-35,
and/or Ca-45 - no monitoring required.
Laboratories using P-32 - a finger ring
dosimeter is required.
Laboratories using gamma emitters (Cr-51,
I-125, I-131, etc), irradiator(s), and/or
analytical x-ray equipment - whole body
dosimeter is required.
35

36

External dose is that portion of the dose equivalent received from sources outside the body.

21

NOTE: Only radiation having sufficient energy to penetrate the dead layer of skin can
contribute to external radiation exposure. For this reason, low-energy beta radiation
(such as that emitted by hydrogen-3 {tritium}) and alpha radiation do not contribute to
external radiation dose.
Four basic principles for reducing external exposure are time, distance, shielding, and
contamination control. Therefore, follow these simple rules to minimize your external radiation
exposure:
a)
b)
c)
d)

Minimize exposure time to radiation sources.


Maximize distance from the radiation source.
Place shielding material between you and the radiation source.
Minimize radioactive contamination of work areas by employing rigorous contamination
control techniques.

Measurement of external radiation dose can be accomplished by means of personnel dosimetry


monitors such as thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD) badges, film badges, and pocket ion
chambers. External dose can also be estimated by measuring exposure or dose rate using
direct reading instruments such as ion chamber or microrem survey meters and calculating
dose from exposure time.
Three categories of external radiation exposure are defined:
a) Deep-Dose Equivalent [DDE]: For whole body [head, trunk (including male gonads),
arms above the elbow, and legs above the knees] external exposure, the dose
equivalent at a tissue depth of 1 cm (1000 mg/cm)
b) Shallow-Dose Equivalent [SDE]: For external exposure of the skin of the whole body
[SDE, WB] or the maximally exposed extremity [SDE, ME], the dose equivalent at a
tissue depth of 0.007 cm (7 mg/cm)
c) Lens of the Eye Dose Equivalent [LDE]: For external exposure of the lens of the eye,
the dose equivalent at a tissue depth of 0.3 cm (300 mg/cm)

Internal Radiation Dose Monitoring

Dosimetry Monitoring Internal


Thyroid Bioassay - after radioiodine use:
Usage
Benchtop
Fume Hood
Glove Box

Volatile forms
Non-volatile
1 mCi
10 mCi
10 mCi
100 mCi
100 mCi
1000 mCi

Urine Bioassay - after using 100 mCi/month of


3H (tritium) in unsealed form
You must contact Radiation Safety to conduct
37
urine bioassays!

22

Internal radiation dose is that portion of the dose equivalent received from radioactive material
taken into the body through inhalation, ingestion, skin absorption, or entry through cuts or
wounds.
To minimize internal exposures, prevent the deposition of radioactive material in the body by
strict observance of good lab procedures and by keeping the work environment within the
permissible levels of contamination specified in this manual.
Internal radiation dose assessment results should be expressed in terms of committed dose
equivalent [CDE] and/or committed effective dose equivalent [CEDE] when determining
compliance with occupational dose limits.
a) Committed Dose Equivalent [CDE]: The dose equivalent to organs or tissues of
reference that will be received from an intake of radioactive material by an individual
during the 50 year period following the intake
b) Committed Effective Dose Equivalent [CEDE]: The sum of the products of the
weighting factors applicable to each of the body organs or tissues that are irradiated
and the committed dose equivalent [CDE] to these organs or tissues
Several techniques are available for measurement of internal radiation dose. These methods
include measurement of radionuclides in air, the body, and excreta.
a)

Measurement of Airborne Radioactive Material Concentrations in Work Areas:


Registered Radiation Users are generally prohibited from handling volatile, gaseous,
aerosolized, or otherwise airborne radioactive material outside of specially designated
and properly operating fume hoods. Therefore, the concentration of airborne
radioactive material in the workplace is normally not significantly different from
background, and measurements of airborne radioactive material concentrations is
generally not appropriate for the assessment of internal dose.

b)

Measurement of Quantities of Radionuclides in the Various Organ Systems Using


Sophisticated Radiation Detection Equipment: An example of this technique is
measurement of the quantity of radioactive iodine in the body by means of a thyroid
scan. The measured activity is then converted into a committed dose equivalent, which
in turn is used to calculate the committed effective dose equivalent. Typically, radiation
workers must conduct a thyroid scan any month their use of radioactive iodine [e.g. 125I
or 131I] exceeds 1 mCi.

c)

Measurement of Quantities of Radionuclides Excreted from the Body: The quantity


of radioactive material excreted from the body can be measured by means of urine
bioassays. The measured concentration of radioactivity in the urine can be used to
calculate the effective dose equivalent for the corresponding intake of radioactive
material. Typically, radiation workers must submit bioassay samples any month their
use of radioactive material in a volatile form exceeds 5 mCi of 14C or 35S, or 100 mCi of
3
H.

Summation of Internal and External Radiation Dose Monitoring Results


If regulations require that a worker have both internal (committed effective dose equivalent
[CEDE] and external (deep dose equivalent [DDE]) exposures monitored, then the workers
internal and external occupational radiation doses must be added together to calculate the Total
Effective Dose Equivalent [TEDE]. If only internal monitoring is required or if only external
monitoring is required, then the internal and external doses need not be summed.

23

a) Internal dose must be monitored if the worker is likely to receive in one year an intake in
excess of 10 percent of the applicable ALIs (Annual Limit on Intake) in Table 12-1,
columns 1 and 2, of Appendix B to 10 CFR 20.1001 20.2401, or for declared pregnant
women, if they are likely to receive, in one year, a committed effective dose equivalent
[CEDE] in excess of 50 millirem.
b) External dose must be monitored if the worker is likely to receive in one year, from
sources external to the body, a dose in excess of 10 percent of any of the applicable
occupational dose limits, or if the individuals enter a high (dose rate in excess of
100 millirem/hr @ 30 cm from the source/surface) or very high (500 rads/hr @ 1 m from
the source/surface) radiation area.
Because this institutions policy on dosimetry monitoring often meets or exceeds the regulatory
criteria above, this policy may specify monitoring of workers who do not meet the regulatory
criteria. In such cases, the act of monitoring a workers external and/or internal dose does not
necessarily constitute a requirement that these doses must be summed when calculating the
Total Effective Dose Equivalent [TEDE]. The Radiation Safety Officer will determine whether an
individual users Total Effective Dose Equivalent [TEDE] is required to include both external and
internal occupational dose.

24

VI. RADIATION DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT


Radiation Detection Mechanisms
Because ionizing radiation cannot be
detected by the unaided senses, various
types of detection instruments must be used
to evaluate the level of radiation and/or
amount of radioactive material in an area.
The proper instrumentation is essential for
the accurate measurement of these
quantities.

Means of Detecting Ionizing


Radiation

Ionization (e.g. gas-filled detectors)


Chemical Changes (e.g. film)
Physical Changes (e.g. track etch)
Calirometric Changes (calorimeter)
Activation [for neutrons]
38

For most applications, ionization detectors


(such as the gas-filled and scintillation
detectors discussed below) suffice.

Common Detector Types

Gas Filled Detectors


Type

Pros

Scintillation Detectors

Cons

Type

Pros

Cons

Ion Chamber Reliable/simple;


detects low E [~20
keV] photons; meas.
exposure; high range

Warm up ~ 5 min
Response time ~10s
Sensitive ~0.1 mR/hr
[high pressure helps]

NaI

Proportional
Counter

Counting gas; rarely


used [unfamiliar]

Tissue Equiv. dose equivalent


Fragile, less
Organic
rate (rem/hr,Sv/hr) sensitive than NaI

Good energy
resolution, etc.

Geiger
Reliable, easy to use;
Mueller [GM] prompt response;
very common

Over responds @ low


E [< ~100 keV]; nonlinear photon E
response; saturation

Various
Others
39

Reliable, easy to
use; detects low E
photons [~2 keV],
very sensitive

Optimize specific
performance
characteristic

Fragile;
hydroscopic; does
NOT provide dose
rate information

Compromises on
sensitivity, energy
dependence,
ruggedness
40

Gas-Filled Detectors
This design includes ion chambers, gas flow proportional counters, and Geiger-Mueller
detectors. These instruments rely on the detection of ionization in gases by radiation to provide
charge carriers within the gas-filled chamber. These charge carriers (ions) then carry an electric
current between the anode and cathode of the detector. The instruments electronics convert
this measured current flow to appropriate units, such as CPM or mR/hr. These systems
generally consist of a gas-filled chamber containing an electrode, a voltage supply, a resistor,
and an ammeter (current flow meter).
Ion Chambers: The simplest and lowest voltage instruments of this type are ionization
chambers or ion chambers. These portable instruments usually use regular air at atmospheric
pressure as gas in the detector, although some special designs may use other gases. Ion
chambers are primarily used to measure radiation exposure or exposure rate.

25

Proportional Counters: Proportional counters operate at somewhat higher voltages than ion
chambers and employ special gases such as argon-methane mixtures. The name of this
detector type is derived from the fact that, although the current flow measured by the meter
electronics is greatly amplified by an avalanche effect within the gas-filled chamber, the
response nonetheless remains proportional to the initial ionization in the detector. Proportional
counters are available in both portable and fixed installations, but they are rarely used in
biomedical research labs.
Geiger-Mueller Detectors: The popularity of Geiger-Mueller (GM) detectors stems from this
designs sturdiness, reliability, and low cost. The typical thin-end window GM or pancake GM
(PGM) survey meter is adequate for detecting high-energy beta particles and high-energy
gamma rays. Some of the radionuclides that may be adequately monitored by use of a GM
survey meter are P-32, I-131, Co-57, Tc-99m, Sr-90, Cr-51, and Na-22.
While the GM survey meter can detect larger quantities of radioactive material, it is not sensitive
enough for smaller amounts of some radionuclides. For example, large amounts of C-14, S-35,
or P-33 in a small area may be detected by a thin-end window GM survey meter; but when the
amount of activity is spread over a large area or there is a small quantity of the material in one
spot, the survey meter may not detect the activity. Similarly, GM meters can only detect
relatively large quantities of I-125; therefore, I-125 users are encouraged to use more sensitive
(i.e., higher efficiency) instruments. Finally, in very high radiation fields, GM tubes become
saturated and stop responding at all. Such intense radiation fields are very unlikely in the
biomedical research environment; but users should remember to turn the meter on prior to
entering a radiation area so as to recognize this saturation effect in the unlikely event such high
radiation levels are ever encountered.

Scintillation Detectors
A variety of solid scintillator detectors are available as portable radiation detection instruments
and in larger, more sensitive stationary designs such as gamma counters. These devices are
useful for low-energy gamma radiation and are becoming more popular for monitoring beta
radiation. They are much more efficient than GM meters. Low-energy gamma detectors are
recommended for monitoring such gamma emitters as I-125. Liquid scintillation counters are
highly recommended for monitoring C-14, S-35, and P-33.
The most sensitive radioactive material detection technology readily available to biomedical
researchers is liquid scintillation counting. In contrast to small portable systems, liquid
scintillation counters are generally relatively large, immobile, and expensive. This technology
involves putting the radioactive sample (e.g., research compound, metabolism product, or wipe
test) into a vial containing liquid scintillation cocktail. The cocktail contains chemicals that
convert some of the radioactive decay energy into light pulses (scintillations), which are then
detected by very sensitive photomultiplier tubes within the counter. Because the radioactive
sample is in intimate contact with the detection medium (the liquid scintillant), even very weak
radiation can be readily detected. Radionuclides which may be detected by a survey meter, but
which are more adequately measured in a liquid scintillation unit in order to obtain adequate
sensitivity, include C-14, S-35, P-33, and Ca-45. Radionuclides that may only be detected by
liquid scintillation counting methods include H-3 and Ni-63. Only non-RCRA [Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act - USEPA] regulated LSC cocktails should be used; ensure your
LSC fluid is on the list of non-RCRA LSC cocktails on the NCHPS page at:

www.nchps.org/HPsandRadusers.htm

26

Radiation Instrumentation Configuration & Selection


Configurations of
Radiation Detectors

Instrument Selection
Step 1: Decide why measurement taken!

Portable Survey Meters: Geiger counters, ion


chambers, hand-held scintillators, etc.

Dose Rate Measurement

Personal Dosimeters TLD & film badges, pocket


ion chambers, electronic personal dosimeters
[EPD]

Contamination Survey
Quantifying Radioactivity

Fixed Instruments liquid scintillation counters,


gamma counters, gas flow proportional counting
chambers, multi-channel analyzer spectroscopy
systems, well counters, whole body counters,
portal monitors, gamma cameras
41

Nuclide Identification
Note: Standardize facility instrumentation if possible!
42

Before selecting the correct instrument, the application must be considered:


1) Type of radiation and the energy range of the radiation to be monitored; i.e.: alpha or beta
particles; gamma rays or X-rays; low energy or high energy
2) The purpose for which the measurement results will be used, such as:
a) Locating contamination
b) Evaluating external radiation hazard (i.e., checking for adequate shielding)
c) Measurement of radiation absorbed doses, exposure rates, dose equivalents, etc., from
a source or in a specified area
d) Quantifying the amount (activity) of radioactive material in a sample
e) Nuclide identification

Efficiency
For locating contamination or quantifying activity, knowing the efficiency of the detector for the
radiation(s) of interest is critical. Efficiency CPM/DPM; a detector with 50% efficiency would
produce 100 CPM per 200 DPM of activity in the measured sample. Table 4 shows
approximate efficiencies of various detectors reported by manufacturers for various nuclides.

27

TABLE 4: Detector Efficiencies for Various Radiation


TYPE OF RADIATION

DETECTOR TYPE

EFFICIENCY/NUCLIDE

Low Energy Gamma

NaI (TI) Scintillator

80 - 90% / I-125

Gamma

Geiger-Mueller (GM)

5 - 10%

Beta

Thin End Window GM

10% / C-14
45% /Sr-90

Pancake GM

10% / C-14, S-35


60% / Sr-90

Plastic Scintillator

16-20% / C-14, S-35


85-88% / Sr-90

Liquid Scintillator

30-60% / H-3
67-85% / C-14, S-35
90-98% / P-32

The efficiency is a conversion factor to convert measurements (in CPM) performed on an


instrument to an activity (in DPM). Remember that the efficiency will be both instrument and
isotope specific. Also, background must be subtracted from the measured CPM value of the
sample, and consistent units must be used throughout all calculations. The following equation
integrates all of these concepts and can be used to convert from CPM to Ci.

Activity (Ci) = [(CPMsample CPMBackground)/efficiency] x (4.505x10-7 Ci/dpm)


It is important to subtract the background count rate (CPMBackground) from the sample count rate
(CPMSample), particularly when attempting to measure the radioactivity in very low level (near
background) samples. To determine the background count rate B (CPMBackground), a blank or
background sample must be prepared and counted. When conducting contamination survey
wipe tests, for example, a clean (unused) wipe is counted, and the results of this measurement
are used for B.

Dose Rate Measurements and Contamination Surveys


Contamination Survey

Dose Rate Measurement


Best: Ion Chamber or Tissue
equivalent organic scintillator [a.k.a.
microrem, microsievert]

Purpose: to locate any possible areas of


unwanted radioactive material

OK for Emergency Response: PGM


[pancake Geiger counter]

GM will detect: P-32, I-125 (large quantities),


S-35, P-33, C-14

High Dose Rate or precise X & gamma


radiation: ion chamber

H-3: a wipe test must be performed

Beta Dose Rate: complex; accurate


measurement requires special
instruments. GM gives ballpark

43

44

A survey meter used to measure radiation dose-related quantities (e.g., mR/hr, rem, mrem/hr,
etc.) must not only be capable of such measurements, it must also be properly calibrated and

28

measurement results must be interpreted with care to arrive at meaningful conclusion. Given
the complexity of dosimetric measurements, they should normally be left to Radiation Safety
staff, who maintain the appropriate instrumentation and expertise.
Contamination Surveys are discussed in greater detail in the discussion of wipe test analysis
later in this chapter.

Quantifying Activity, Nuclide Identification and Geiger Mueller Detectors

For Quantifying Activity &


Nuclide ID

More on Geiger Counters

Liquid Scintillation Counter: Alpha, beta &


gamma emitting nuclides; e.g. urine
bioassay

End Window: less popular but OK

Gamma Counter: gamma emitting


nuclides

Side Window: [energy compensated]


rare but handy

Well Counter [NaI]: gamma emitters

Detects alpha, beta & gamma but


not technically a dose rate
instrument
GMs over respond to low E photons

Low E Gamma Detector: thyroid bioassay


Newer Portable MCAs: on site, real time
analysis
45

Most common portable survey meter


Pancake GM: large detector face

46

Pancake GMs good for contamination survey but not the best for dose rate

Energy compensated GMs are not for low energy photons

Instruments calibrated for photons are not calibrated for betas unless specifically
indicated
- from Shleien (1998), p. 11-17

Survey Meter Operation


Before Use:

Dont use an unfamiliar instrument; always "learn" an instrument in a non-operational setting


and become comfortable with it's peculiarities.

Dont use an out-of-calibration instrument; if it's out of date, put it out of service. Survey
meters are calibrated (or given operational check) annually by Radiation Safety; fixed
instruments are calibrated by user per manufacturers recommendations.

Dont cover detector with disposable glove, cling wrap or plastic to prevent contaminating it
(slide 47)

29

Turn it on

before entering suspected radiation area

Perform battery check

Perform HV check if present

Perform operational check [check source]; ideally, compare meter reading with reference
value written on meter to verify check source reading hasnt changed.
(slide 48)

Using the Instrument:

Turn to proper setting; note [background] reading in area known to be free of radiation
sources Turn speaker on if so equipped

Hold the detector about 1 inch from the surface to be surveyed and move about 1
inch/second

During prolonged use, regularly check the condition of the batteries

Notify area users of results; emphasize changed or extraordinary conditions


(slide 49)

After Meter Use:

When finished, repeat battery, HV, & operational [check source] checks to verify meter is still
working properly; Then turn the meter OFF!

If documentation is required: Record all results - if not on paper, it wasn't done! Include
date, location, instrument model & S/N, and your name; Develop pre-printed forms
(slide 50)

Portable survey meters equipped with Geiger Mueller or solid scintillator detectors are generally
very reliable and simple to operate. Following the guidance above to obtain useful and credible
measurement results.

Removeable Contamination

Removable vs Fixed
Contamination
Removable contamination refers to contamination
that is deposited on the surface of structures,
areas, objects or personnel that can readily picked
up or wiped up by physical or mechanical means
during the course of a survey or decontamination
efforts (i.e. it come up on wipe test)
Fixed contamination is bound to the contaminated
surface and not easily removed.
Labs using low-energy (<250 keV) beta emitters
(e.g. 3H, 14C, 35S) and certain other nuclides must
perform periodic removable contamination (wipe)
51
surveys

Removable Contamination
Surveys
Purpose: detecting & quantifying removable
contamination on surfaces
Literature: Wipe, Wipe Test, Swipe, Smear
Area: Generally 100 cm (e.g. a square ~4/side)
Collection Materials:
- Absorbent Media: filter paper, cotton tipped swab
(Q-tip), exotic material (translucent or
dissolving media)
- Dry or Wet (solvents: H2O, alcohol, detergent)

52

30

How to Conduct a Wipe Test


Survey

Collection Efficiency

Wipe an area that is 100 square centimeters,


approx. 4 x 4 inches.

Depends on surface and molecule (e.g. glucose


easily removed, nucleotides adhere strongly), NOT
radionuclide
In most cases, collection enhanced by wetting
wipe (factor of 2+)

Be SURE to
wear gloves!

No significant difference between solvents


(Klein et al, 1992; study involving 14C-glucose, 32P-GTP, & 3H2O)

Store the wipes in an envelope or vial and


count them as soon as possible.

If collection efficiency unknown, assume 10%


(ISO 7503, 1988)

Duke Removable
Contamination Limits

Counting Efficiency

Media

54

53

Net DPM on wipe per


100cm

Action taken by lab


personnel

less than 220

No action required

93.20.5

220-11,000

Clean area; repeat wipe(s)

83.70.8

87.71.3

11,000-110,000

67.95.8

73.42.3

Clean area; repeat wipe(s),


notify RSO to verify clean-up

>110,000

Cease RAM. Notify RSO.


Immediate cleanup under RSO
supervision.

3H

14C

32P

None

43.11.8

97.51.6

101.31.4

Clean Filter

29.15.6

94.24.8

94.60.6

Dirty Filter

7.60.2

84.84.8

Clean Swab

5.80.8

Dirty Swab

2.80.6

(Klein et al, 1992)

56

55

Analysis of Removeable Contamination (Wipe Test) Samples

How to Conduct a Wipe Test


Survey
Make a map of the area you intend to wipe test.
Number each point you wish to wipe.
Obtain absorbent material, i.e. filter paper, cotton
swab, and number each piece.
Wipe bench-tops, door knobs, ref/frz handles,
floor, sinks, equipment, anything that could be
contaminated.
Count wipes in liquid scintillation counter [LSC
will detect ALL nuclides] or (for gamma emitting
nuclides only) gamma counter
57

Liquid Scintillation Counter


[LSC]
Sample Preparation
Use labeled filter paper or other absorbent
material and wipe area (100 cm2 minimum)
Place wipe in a LSC vial, fill with LS fluid
(enough to cover wipe) & cap
Place an unused wipe (blank) into a vial, add
LS fluid, & cap to make a background vial
Load sample vials & background vial into LSC
rack and place in the counter
Select proper LSC program & count samples

58

31

LSC Pitfalls

Gamma Counter

Negative result (sample count rate similar to


background) means No significant radioactivity in
sample
Positive result (sample count rate above background)
may mean:
Photoluminescence (in CPMA; fades in minutes)
or
Chemoluminescence (in CPMA; fades over hours)
or
Radioactivity - channel depends on radiation
energy; for biomedical research nuclides, T long
enough that counts will be about the same a day 59
later

ONLY good for gamma-emitting nuclides (e.g. 125I,


131I, 51Cr)
No LS fluid required (easier & cheaper to prepare
& dispose of samples!)
Still need a background vial [unused wipe (blank)
in a vial]
Load sample vials & background vial into gamma
counter
Select proper program & count samples
NO false positives with gamma counter

60

Counting Statistics
Counting statistics and error estimation are beyond this texts scope, but some general rules
can reduce the counting error (standard deviation) of measurement results.
Note that since counting error is proportional to the square root of the total number of counts
acquired, a good rule of thumb is to count long enough to accumulate 10,000 counts, thereby
reducing counting error to ~1%. For example, a sample producing ~1,000 cpm in a liquid
scintillation counter should be counted for 10 minutes to accumulate ~10,000 counts. The
counting error is then:

Counting Error (counts) = (total counts) = (10,000 cts) = 100 cts


Counting Error (CPM) = (100 cts)/(10 minutes) = 10 CPM
Percent Error = (100 cts/10,000 cts) or (10 CPM/1,000 CPM) = 0.01 = 1%
As noted on page 25, in the real world background must be subtracted from measurement
results to find the actual count rate. If S is the net count rate due to the sample alone (i.e. S =
CPMSample CPMBackground) and the count time for the sample and background blank are Ts and
Tb respectively, then the count rate error is given by:

Counting Error = {[(S + B)/Ts] + (B/Tb)}


Total count time T is optimized (error minimized) when divided between Tb and Ts as follows:

Ts/Tb (optimal) = [(S+B)/B]


If T is optimized this way, then the counting error is given by:

Counting Error (CPM) = {[(S+B) + (B)]/ST}


When S is much larger than B (high count rate), the counting error (in CPM) for a given
optimized counting time (T) is approximated by:

Error (CPM) 1/(ST)

[for S >> B]

If S >> B, design experiments to maximize S to minimize counting error (and/or reduce T). If B
>> S (low count rate), the counting error (in CPM) for a given counting time (T) is approximately:

Error (CPM) (4B/ST)

[for B >> S]

If B >> S, experiments should be designed so as to maximize the ratio of S/B.

32

VII. PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL HANDLING


Specific Activity Revisited
Radioactive Contamination:
Sense of Scale: How many dpm can fit
in a microliter?

The Invisible Menace

As noted in Chapter IV, volumes of


radioactive material that are too small to
see with the naked eye can nonetheless
lead to easily detectable contamination.
For example, an invisible droplet of material
Average adult: ~0.1 Ci (220,000 dpm) each 14C & 40K
with the readily available specific activity of
Typical Northern/Southern blot probe specific
the Amersham blot probe noted in this slide
activity: 2 x 109 dpm/g [www1.amershambiosciences.com]
could contain a billion dpm of activity
smallest visible speck (unaided eye) ~1 g
easily detectable and far exceeding the
61
allowable contamination limits of this
institution!
Many radioactive material users have accidentally discovered a subtle characteristic of high
specific activity radiolabeled compounds: contamination of work surfaces can occur even when
there was no visible indication of a spill or leak. Awareness of this aspect of radioactive material
use helps in understanding the importance of the practical guidance in Chapter IV on how to
avoid such contamination. Knowing the ease with which radioactive contamination can occur
and spread also underscores the necessity of monitoring the workplace both during and after
radioactive material use. Finally, a discussion of radioactive contamination leads well into the
next topic: Decontamination.
Max. specific activity inversely proportional to T
Sp. Act. = [(ln2)xmass(g)]/[Tx atomic mass]
- Pure 3H (12.3 y): 9,650 Ci/g (2.1x1016 dpm/g)
- Pure 32P (14.3 d): 286,500 Ci/g (6.4x1017 dpm/g)

Spills and Decontamination


Before Clean-up of Spills
[Decontamination]

Is it a Minor or Major Spill?


Depends on number & severity of people
affected, nuclide & amount spilled,and likelihood
of spreading of contamination
Contact Radiation Safety if:

Alert people in immediate area and close off the


spill area; Keep uninvolved people OUT!
Volatile radioactive materials: close room
windows & doors; leave fume hoods on to
exhaust contaminated air

- wipe test indicates >110,00 dpm on a wipe


- accidental RAM intake
- personal contamination

Monitor all individuals before they leave the area;


pay close attention to shoes

See AUs SOP for other requirements


When in doubt call Radiation Safety

Attend to injured or contaminated persons &


extinguish fires FIRST before cleaning up spill

62

Assemble clean up supplies & PPE

63

The final Chapter of the Duke Radiation Safety Manual covers emergency procedures, including
injuries or accidents, major spills, and fires:
www.safety.duke.edu/RadSafety/manual/chap12.asp#SecA
All radioactive material users should be familiar with this brief, one-page part of the Radiation
Safety Manual. Printing and posting that Manual page in radioactive material use areas is also
a good practice.

33

Materials Needed for Decontamination

PPE for Decontamination

Decontamination Supplies
Plastic bags

Caution Radioactive Material tape


Absorbent material (paper towels, blue pads)
Decon detergent (rad con)
Rope or Tape

Disposable gloves
Shoe covers
Lab coat
Safety goggles

Portable survey meter (must have)


Materials for taking wipes (must have)
64

65

Assemble all necessary supplies before beginning a major decontamination project.

Decontamination Techniques

Decontamination Waste

Decontamination
Work from the outside of the spill inward [least
contaminated to most contaminated areas]
Place absorbent material (e.g. paper towels or
blue pads) over liquid spills.

Use forceps to pick up paper towels


Place towels in a plastic bag
Seal the bags for transfer to a rad waste
container.
Be sure to add contaminated gloves or
other contaminated disposable material
to rad waste container.

Place dampened towels over spills of solid


materials; be careful NOT to breathe any dust
coming from the spilled material.
Be sure towel dampening solution will not react
chemically with the spilled material
Wipe test/survey and repeat cleaning until no
contamination found

66

67

Spill Clean Up
Documenting
Clean-up of Spills
DOCUMENT EVERYTHING!
Draw a map and take extensive wipes
of the entire area, remembering to
include floors, equipment, handles, etc.
Document final survey, showing area
free of contamination
Keep all documentation in your labs
files
68

Spill clean up can be a difficult and tedious


chore, particularly if large volumes of liquid or
high specific activity material is involved.
Often effective clean up involves repeated
cleaning of the contaminated surface many,
many times to get the contamination below the
levels specified in the Radiation Safety
Manual. However, following these procedures
will make the job easier, and as always, when
in doubt you can contact Radiation Safety for
advice and assistance.

34

VIII. NUCLIDE-SPECIFIC INFORMATION


This chapter provides radiation safety
guidance about some of the most commonly
used radionuclides in biomedical research.

Nuclide-Specific Information
3H
14C
32P
33P
35S

For more Information on


these and other nuclides,
Nuclear Safety Data Sheets
[NSDS] at:
http://www.nchps.org/HPsand
Radusers.htm

For additional information on these and other


nuclides, check the on line Nuclide
Information Library at the NC Health Physics
Society web site shown in slide 69.

125I

69

Hydrogen-3 [3H]; also known as Tritium

3H

[Tritium]

Least Radiotoxic Nuclide (~60 rem/Ci THO


water); ~10 pCi/L naturally in surface waters
Weak (18.6 keV max) Beta:
- Not external hazard
- Not detected by survey meter; need LSC
12.3 year T; persistent contamination & waste
Hydrogen can change position on labeled
molecule, exchange with solvent & migrate
Radiochemical decomposition ~1-3%/month (may
be faster if frozen); compounds good for ~1 year
70

Tritiums weak beta radiation provides both


enhanced safety and practical problems.
3

H has very low radiotoxicity; the average


adult would have to drink about 80 mCi of
tritiated water to approach the 5 rem annual
occupational dose limit for radiation workers.
The lack of an external radiation hazard
eliminates any shielding concerns with 3H; its
only a hazard if taken internally. However,
tritiums very weak beta radiation cannot be
easily detected, obliging users to increased
vigilance against contamination. Finally,
hydrogen is a fairly mobile chemical element,
so contamination eventually appears outside
of almost any sealed high activity container,
creating chronic contamination issues.

35

Carbon-14
14C

[Carbon-14]

Low Radiotoxicity (~2 mrem/uCi ingested);


naturally ~0.7 pCi 14C per gram C in live tissue
Low Energy (156 keV max) Beta:
- Not external hazard
- Detectable with survey meter & LSC
5730 year T; persistent contamination & waste
Stably bound to labeled compounds
Radiochemical decomposition ~1-3%/year; stored
compounds good for several years
71

Phosphorous-32 [32P]

14Cs beta radiation is energetic enough to


allow surface contamination detection by GM
survey meters, yet too weak to present an
external radiation hazard for all practical
purposes. Carbon -14 Radiolabeled research
compounds tend to be quite stable chemically.
14
Cs long half-life limits maximum specific
activity but gives these compounds much a
longer shelf life than most other nuclides. The
long half life also makes contamination issues
more severe (they will NOT simply decay
away) and significantly increases the cost of
waste disposal.

32

32P

[Phosphorous-32]

Moderate Radiotoxicity (ingestion: ~30 mrem/Ci


to bone marrow, 9 mrem/Ci CEDE)
High Energy (1,710 keV max) Beta:
- External hazard; 3/8 inch plastic stops beta but
may also need to shield Bremsstrahlung X-rays
- Easily detectable with survey meter & LSC
14.3 day T; use quickly - gone in ~5 months
Stably bound to labeled compounds; non-volatile;
white vinegar cleans up most contamination
Radiochemical decomposition ~2%/week; stored
(-20C) compounds good for several weeks.
72
pH<7.5 decomposes > 1%/day

Ps high-energy beta makes this nuclide very


easy to keep track of in the lab but also
necessitates shielding. Use low atomic
number (Z) materials ( inch plastic) for
shielding 32P to minimize the intensity of the
resulting bremsstrahlung X-rays. Additional
high Z material (e.g. lead) may be needed
outside the plastic to stop the resulting X-rays
(note: the plastic stops ALL of the betas; any
radiation detected outside the plastic is X-rays,
so additional plastic wont help much). Wear a
ring dosimeter and use time & distance (e.g.
forceps to manipulate stock vials) when
handling this nuclide.

Phosphrous-33 [33P]
33

33P

[Phosphorous-33]

Low to Moderate Radiotoxicity (ingestion: ~2


mrem/Ci to bone marrow, 1 mrem/Ci CEDE)
Low Energy (248 keV max) Beta:
- Not quite an external hazard; no need to shield
or wear dosimetry badges
- Easily detectable with survey meter & LSC
25.3 day T; use soon - gone in ~10 months
Stably bound to labeled compounds; non-volatile;
white vinegar cleans up most contamination
Radiochemical decomposition ~1%/week; stored
(-20C) compounds good for several weeks.
73
pH<7.5 decomposes > 1%/day

Ps medium-energy beta offers a good


compromise between ease of detection and
safety. This nuclides 248 keV beta is near
the conventional definition of a high-energy
beta (250 keV) so intimate contact with stock
vials should be avoided. That said, 33P is
easily detected with a GM survey meter yet
requires no shielding or dosimetry monitoring.

36

Sulfur-35 [35S]
35

35S

[Sulfur-35]

Low Radiotoxicity; ingested ~0.7 mrem/Ci CEDE


Low Energy (167 keV max) Beta:
- No external hazard; no shield/dosimetry badges
- Easily detectable with survey meter & LSC
87 day T; fairly long
Labeled compounds slightly volatile during
- 35S-methionine & -cysteine metabolism (cover
cell culture with charcoal-impregnated paper)
- Thawing (open stock vial in hood)
Radiochemical decomposition ~2%/week @-80C
74
but >10%/week @ (-20C); colder is better

Ss beta radiation is energetic enough to


allow surface contamination detection by GM
survey meters, yet too weak to present an
external radiation hazard for all practical
purposes. Some 35S compounds (e.g. amino
acids cysteine & methionine) tend to volatilize
slightly over time; thaw and open these
compounds in a fume hood. Similarly, volatile
metabolites from 35S-labeled cells can produce
small but bothersome contamination in
incubators, etc; cover such cell cultures with
carbon-impregnated filter paper to eliminate
this problem.

Iodine-125 [125I]
125

125I

[Iodine-125]

High Radiotoxicity due to thyroid uptake


(ingestion: ~1273 mrem/Ci to thyroid)
Low Energy (35 keV max) Gamma:
- External hazard; Shield (0.02 mm Pb HVL) &
wear dosimetry badges for mCi amounts
- Detectable with survey meter & LSC
60 day T
Volatile if pH<7 and during iodinations
Radiochemical decomposition varies by
compound, storage temperature & pH; average
75
~5%/month @ 4 C

Is very weak gamma radiation is energetic


enough for GM survey meters to detect
shielding inadequacies, but more sensitive
methods (e.g. wipe tests or gamma detector
probes) are needed to locate surface
contamination detection. 125I does present an
external radiation hazard, so shielding (thin
lead sheets) and dosimetry monitoring is
needed. Some 125I compounds (e.g. Sodium
Iodide and generally any radioiodine
compound in acidic solution; keep the pH > 7!)
tend to volatilize over time. Iodinations must
be conducted only in designated fume hoods
specified in the AUs SOP for that purpose.

General Precautions
1. Maintain your occupational exposure to radiation As Low As Reasonably Achievable
[ALARA].
2. Ensure all persons handling radioactive material are trained and authorized by the AU.
3. Review the nuclide characteristics on (reverse side) prior to working with that nuclide.
Review the protocol(s) authorizing the procedure to be performed and follow any additional
precautions in the protocol. Contact the responsible AU to view the protocol information.
4. For nuclides presenting external hazards (e.g. 32P, 125I), plan experiments to minimize
external exposure by reducing exposure time, using shielding and increasing your distance
from the radiation source. Reduce internal and external radiation dose by monitoring the
worker and the work area after each use of radioactive material, then promptly cleaning up
any contamination discovered. Use the smallest amount of radioisotope possible so as to
minimize radiation dose and radioactive waste.

37

5. Keep an accurate inventory of radioactive material, including records of all receipts,


transfers & disposal. Perform and record regular lab surveys.
6. Provide for safe disposal of radioactive waste by following institutional Waste Handling &
Disposal Procedures. Avoid generating mixed waste (combinations of radioactive,
biological, and chemical waste). Note that lab staff may not pour measurable quantities of
radioactive material down the drain.
7. If there is a question regarding any aspect of the radiation safety program or radioactive
material use, contact Radiation Safety.

Good Laboratory Practices


1. Wear disposable gloves and a lab coat when handling radioactive material. Remove &
discard potentially contaminated gloves & lab coats prior to leaving the area where
radioactive material is used.
2. Clearly outline radioactive material use areas with tape bearing the legend "radioactive".
Cover lab bench tops where radioactive material will be handled with plastic-backed
absorbent paper; change this covering periodically and whenever it's contaminated.
Alternatively cover benches with thick plastic sheeting (i.e., painters drop cloth), periodically
wipe it clean and replace it if torn.
3. Label each unattended radioactive material container with the radioactive symbol, isotope,
activity, and, except for waste, the unique inventory control number (from the web-based
inventory system). Place containers too small for such labels in larger labeled containers.
4. Handle radioactive solutions in trays large enough to contain the material in the event of a
spill.
5. Never eat, drink, smoke, handle contact lenses, apply cosmetics, or take/apply medicine in
the lab; keep food, drinks, cosmetics, etc. out of the lab entirely. Do not pipette by mouth.
6. Never store [human] food or beverages in refrigerators/freezers used for storing
radioisotopes.
7. Prevent skin contact with skin-absorbable solvents containing radioactive material.
8. Fume hoods and biological safety cabinets for use with non-airborne radioactive material
must be approved (through the AUs protocol) and must be labeled "Caution Radioactive
Material".
9. All volatile, gaseous, or aerosolized radioactive material must be used only in a properly
operating charcoal and/or HEPA filtered fume hood or Biological Safety Cabinet bearing a
Caution Airborne Radioactivity hood label, unless otherwise specified in writing by the
Radiation Safety Officer. In particular, radioactive iodination must be performed only in
these specially designed fume hoods. The Radiation Safety Officer (through a protocol)
must approve all such use.
10. Take special precautions when working with radioactive compounds that tend to become
volatile [e.g. 35S labeled amino acids, 125I - iodine tends to volatilize in acidic solutions].
These precautions may include: using the materials only within an approved fume hood,
protecting the house vacuum system with primary and secondary vapor trapping devices,
and covering active cell cultures with carbon-impregnating paper.
11. Use sealed containers and appropriate secondary containment to carry radioactive material
between rooms. Notify Radiation Safety staff before taking any radioactive material off site.

38

IX. RADIATION SAFETY PROGRAM

Lab Authorization Status:

Brief Overview: RS Policy


Authorization
Training
Ordering/receipt/inventory & Possession
Limit Compliance
Security/Storage
Transfer, Shipment, and Disposal
76

Active Status: Lab must keep up to date on


training, inventory, wipe records, etc. Lab may
currently store and/or use RAM.
Inactive Status: Lab may not have any RAM in
the lab, stored or otherwise. Lab does not have
to stay up to date on training, inventory, wipes,
etc. You still have a license to write grants, etc.
Terminated: The lab no longer has a radiation
license. A full close out from Radiation Safety
77
must be completed to terminate a license.

Few substances entail the regulatory burden associated with radioactive material. Every step in
the life cycle of radioactive material purchase, shipment, transport, receipt, possession,
storage, use, transfer, and finally, disposal is regulated by a variety of local, state, federal, and
international agencies. The policies reviewed in this chapter summarize the programs
implemented by this institution to ensure safety and demonstrate compliance with these many
different legal requirements. By adhering to these rules, radiation users will minimize the
institutions financial and legal problems associated with their radioactive material use.

Radiation Safety Training


INITIAL
All: RS Orientation for New Laboratory Workers
(on line)
AUs & Lab Managers: RS Orientation for Lab
Directors/Managers (classroom only see RS
web site)

ANNUAL
Radiation Users: RS Update for Laboratory
Workers (on line or classroom)
Non-Using AUs & Lab Managers: RS Update for
Non-Users (on line)
78

39

Receipt of Radioactive Material


Receipt of RAM

Store the material in a secure location.

Inspect the inner contents of the


package and report discrepancies to
the Radiation Safety Division.

79

Inventory Tracking
An area of particular regulatory focus in recent
years has been inventory control. For a
variety of reasons, regulatory agencies expect
licensees like Duke to account for every item
on radioactive inventory and every bit of
regulated radioactive material. Meticulous
tracking by each user is therefore essential to
maintaining compliance.

Inventory
Labs must update their inventory
through the Radiation Safety Inventory
website on a monthly basis.
www.safety.duke.edu/RadSafety/web_inventory
/default.asp
80

Radioactive Material Security and Storage

RAM Security/Storage
Radioactive Material is
a weapon of mass
Disruption
Security is a primary
regulatory focus
Simple Rule: if youre
not next to it, lock it up!
81

Sadly, public perception regarding


radioactive materials ensures that even
innocuous quantities can and have
created unwarranted hysteria. This
psychological aspect of radioactive
material makes it a very effective terrorist
weapon of mass disruption. Therefore
regulatory agencies demand that
regulated quantities of radioactive
material be secured at all times against
unauthorized access. Clearly, we all
benefit from keeping RAM secure.

40

Disposal of Radioactive Material

Disposal of RAM

Disposal of RAM

Each waste barrel submitted for


disposal must be accompanied by a
waste disposal sheet for documenting
the half-life category, nuclide(s),
activity, and the date each bag of
waste was added to the barrel.

82

Segregate by physical form:


dry solids
aqueous liquids
animal carcasses
scintillation vials
mixed wastes
lead containers

Disposal of RAM

Disposal of RAM

Segregate by half-life: dry solids and


aqueous liquids (color coded labels)

Half-life < 30 days, i.e.

32 P, 33 P, 131 I,

and

Segregate by half-life: animal


carcasses (color coded labels)

51 Cr.

83

Half-life between 30 days and 90 days,


i.e. 125 I and 35 S.
Half-life > 90 days, i.e. 3 H, 14 C, and 45 Ca

84

Half-life < 30 days, i.e. 32P, 33P, 131I, and


51Cr.
Half-life between 30 days and 115 days,
i.e. 125I, 35S, 113Sn
Half-life > 115 days, i.e. 3H, 14C, and
45Ca
85

Ordering of Radioactive Material

Ordering
Radiation must be ordered through
Radiation Safety either by:
Online form (preferred method)
Fax
Email
Never order directly from vendor
86

41

Possession Limit Compliance

Possession Limit Compliance

Possession Limit Compliance

AUs have a maximum activity limit


allowed for each isotope
Know the possession limits of your lab
before ordering RAM
Exceeding the possession limit will
delay receiving RAM and possibly delay
experiments
87

Vendors may send more than the ordered


amount of RAM to compensate for decay
Packages of P-32 may contain double the
amount ordered
Can cause a lab to be over their possession
limit
Possession limit: 10 mCi of P-32
Ordered Amount: 10 mCi of P-32
Amount received: 20 mCi of P-32
88

Transfer of Radioactive Material

Transfer of RAM

The Authorized User must notify (e.g.


by e-mail) the RSO before any transfer
of RAM takes place, either between
Duke Authorized Users or with outside
facilities.

89

During their 2003 inspection of Duke, a


NC Radiation Protection Section
inspector cited this institution because a
researcher in one AUs lab had given a
stock vial to a colleague within another
AUs lab without notifying Radiation
Safety contrary to Radiation Safety
Manual policy.
Preventing such discrepancies is quick,
easy, and free just e-mail Radiation
Safety!

Shipment of Radioactive Material

42

Shipment of RAM

Must comply with both NC and US


Department of Transportation
(USDOT) regulations
All radioactive shipments and
transport within or from Duke
University must receive prior approval
from Radiation Safety (Complete
online shipment form)

Shipment of RAM

Radiation sources or equipment containing


sealed sources of radioactive material shall
not be transferred, donated, sold or
discarded without notification of and
approval by the Radiation Safety Officer.

Transport of radioactive material off-campus


by Duke employees as checked baggage
on public conveyances is prohibited.

90

91

Radiation Safety Audit Program

RS Audit Program

Most-Cited Items

On-site review of radiation safety in


laboratories authorized for radioactive
material use
Elements of Program
Check laboratory records
Check survey meters to ensure that they are
operable
Observe radiation safety techniques
Conduct area laboratory survey

Three Most Cited Violations

Missing/overdue wipe tests

20%

25%
Missing training/operational
documentation &/or
untrained workers

55%

92

Inventory records
missing/overdue

93

43

X. CONCLUSION & RESOURCES

Resources:

Conclusion & RS Contacts


Working with radiation requires good common
sense safety practices! It wont hurt you unless
you abuse it!

Duke University Radiation Site:


www.safety.duke.edu/RadSafety/main.asp

QUESTIONS? Call us:

RS Manual

Ordering: Terry Mangum: 668-3184 or


Brian Gibbs: 668-3182
Inventory: Giao Nguyen: 668-3185
Dosimetry (badges): Lauren Trevathan:
668-3155
RAM Waste: Env. Programs: 684-2794

Forms
Radioactive Material Inventory
Radioactive Material Ordering
and much more!
94

Nuclide Safety Data Sheets [NSDS] On-Line:


www.nchps.org/nsds.htm
95

References
Amersham. Guide to the self-decomposition of radiochemicals. Buckinghamshire, Englad: Amersham
International plc, 1992.
Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, Board on Radiation Effects Research,
Commission on Life Sciences, National Research Council, Health Effects of Exposure to Low Levels of
Ionizing Radiation [BEIR V], National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1990
Gollnick, D. A. Basic radiation protection technology, 3rd ed. Altadena, CA: Pacific Radiation Corporation,
1994.
Health Physics Society. Risk assessment (Position Paper). McLean, VA: Health Physics Society, 1995.
[On Line}. Available: http://www.hps.org/documents
International Commission on Radiological Protection. 1990recomendations of the International
Commission of Radiological Protection, ICRP Publication 60, Annals of the ICRP 21. New York: Elsevier
Science. 1991.
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Ionizing radiation exposure of the
population of the United States. Washington, DC: NCRP Report No. 93; 1987.
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Management of terrorist events involving
radioactive material. Washington, DC: NCRP No. 138; 2001.
Shleien, B., et al, Eds. Handbook of Health Physics and Radiological Health, 3rd ed., Baltimore, MD:
Williams & Wilkins, 1998.
Stringer, L., et al, Weapons of Mass Destruction: Management for Medical Personnel [course text, class
jointly sponsored by FEMA, SORT, NC Em. Management, & Wake Forest U. Med. Ctr], Greenville, NC,
Feb. 22, 2002.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 10 C.F.R. 20.1004; January 1, 2002.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. NMSS Licensee Newsletter [NUREG/BR-0117] No. 01-4.
Washington, DC: January 2002.

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