Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Techniques Course
Purpose
To give laboratory technicians useful and practical information on the basic
principles of radiation and how to handle radioactive materials in
order to maintain safety and compliance
Table of Contents
Topic
Page
2
11
17
18
21
25
33
35
39
44
What Is Radiation?
Ionizing
Non-Ionizing
Particulate
-alpha
-beta
-neutron
- etc.
Radiation
Source
Electromagnetic
[radioactive
material or X-ray
device]
3
Irradiated
Material
Radiation
4
Ionizing radiation is radiation having sufficient energy to strip electrons from (or ionize) atoms or
molecules. Ionization forms ion pairs consisting of free electrons and a positively charged
nucleus. To strip an electron from an atom or to break a chemical bond requires a minimum
amount of energy, depending on the location of the electron or bond. To ionize a hydrogen
atom requires 13.6 electron-volts (eV) of energy. Nuclear transformations release energies in
the thousands to millions of eV and thus can cause many ionizations per transformation.
Nuclear Stability
Why Some Atoms Decay:
Nuclear Forces and Stability
Beryllium
Atom [6Be]
Forces acting on
6Be nucleus
n
p
n p n
nucleus
electrons
nuclear
force
proton
neutron
electrostatic
repulsion
5
Neutrons have no electric charge, and therefore exert no electrostatic forces. Neutrons can be
thought of as the glue that holds the nucleus together, because without them, the protons
would fly apart. This is why all atoms larger than hydrogen have at least one neutron, and why
a stable nucleus must have about as many neutrons as protons. In fact, as the atomic number
Z increases, it requires more neutrons than protons to make the nucleus stable, so that the
heaviest stable nuclides have about 1.5 neutrons per proton. Although the decay of a
radioactive atom is a random process, the probability of its occurrence can be predicted.
Chart of the
Nuclides
N=Z
Unstable too
many protons
Unstable too
many protons
Z (number protons)
Z (number protons)
The Curve of
Nuclear Stability
N ? 1.5 Z
Unstable too
many neutrons
Unstable too
many neutrons
N (number of neutrons)
N (number of neutrons)
Stable nuclides have an ideal ratio of protons and neutrons to balance the competing nuclear
and electrostatic forces. If the ratio of protons to neutrons differs from this ideal ratio, the
nucleus becomes unstable and will undergo radioactive decay in order to achieve a more stable
ratio. Some nuclides must decay through a whole chain of radionuclides to reach a stable
configuration of protons and neutrons (e.g. radon progeny).
Radioactive Decay
& Half-Life [T]
- Shleien (1998)
Nuclide Designation:
Z
Where:
A = the atomic mass (no. protons + no. neutrons)
Z = the atomic number (number of protons)
X = the symbol for the chemical element
Note: Physical/Chemical properties depend on Z!
Ao
1.0 __
_
A(t)/Ao
0
8
__
_
__
_
__
_
__
_
__
_
__
_
__
_
1T 2T 3T
time
4T
5T
6T
Each radionuclide (a.k.a. radioisotope) decays at a specific rate per unit time. This rate can be
represented mathematically by a term called the half-life (T), which is not effected by physical
or chemical factors and has the units of time (e.g., seconds, days, years, etc.). A half-life is the
time required for half the original number of radioactive atoms in a sample to decay into atoms
of a different chemical element. Hence, the radioactivity of the sample will be half its initial
value in one half-life. The half-lives for some radioactive nuclides used in research are listed in
Table 1.
HALF-LIFE (T)
Hydrogen-3
DECAY CONSTANT ()
12 years
Carbon-14
5730 years
0.0578/yr
0.000121/yr
Sulfur-35
88 days
0.00788/day
Iodine-125
60 days
0.0116/day
Phosphorous-32
14 days
0.0495/day
Phosphorous-33
25 days
0.0277/day
Chromium-51
28 days
0.0248/day
Activity
Radioactivity
Units
Activity Amount of radioactive material
curie (Ci): 3.7x1010 disintegration/second
1 Ci = a lot of of activity [based on 1 g radium]
adult human has ~0.1 Ci 14C
18671934
18591906
14C
Amount of radioactive material is not generally measured in common units of mass or volume.
Instead, a quantity of radioactive material is measured in a unit based on the number of atoms
decaying per unit time or activity. The conventional unit for quantity of activity in the United
States is the curie (Ci), defined as that quantity of radioactive material in which 3.7 1010 (37
billion) atoms disintegrate per second. This definition was originally based on the decay rate of
one gram of radium-226. Note that like all units of activity, the curie specifies an amount of
radioactive material based on the number of radioactive disintegrations per unit time it
produces, not by mass or volume of material. Further, the term disintegrations per second
(dps) is not necessarily synonymous with the number of particles emitted by the radioisotope
per second, since some decays produce more than one type of radiation or particle per decay.
Since the curie is a large unit of activity, the terms millicurie (mCi) or microcurie (Ci) are most
often used, as shown below.
Another unit for quantity of activity is the disintegration per minute (DPM). The DPM
designation is very common in technical literature and facilitates conversion from radiation
detection instrumentation readouts in counts per minute (CPM) into units of activity (DPM). It is
important to distinguish between these units since a costly mistake can be made if units and/or
prefixes are confused.
1 Curie (Ci) = 3.7 1010 dps = 2.22 1012 DPM = 1000 mCi
1 millicurie(mCi) = 3.7 107 dps = 2.22 109 DPM = 1000 Ci
1 microcurie (Ci) = 3.7 104 dps = 2.22 106 DPM
The scientific community generally uses units of the metric or International System (SI). The
SI unit for activity is the becquerel (Bq), defined as one (1) disintegration per second (dps). The
conversions between Bq and Ci are shown below.
A = N
Where
= (ln 2)/T
The following examples illustrate the decay equation:
Example 1:
Find the activity of 38 billion 32P atoms
No =
Ao =
=
=
=
To convert to Ci,
Example 2:
Find the activity of a P-32 sample on August 1 if the original activity (Ao) was 1.5 mCi on July 6
of the same year. (T = 14 days). The elapsed time has been 26 days.
= 0.41 mCi
= 0.41 mCi
Specific Activity
Recall that the curie does not mention anything about the mass or volume of the radioactive
material in which the specified number of disintegrations per second occur. The concentration
of radioactivity (amount of activity per unit volume or mass) is called the specific activity. The
specific activity is used to determine the activity of a known volume withdrawn from the stock
bottle of radioactive material. When radioactive material is ordered from a supplier, the specific
activity as well as the total activity being ordered is normally given. Many radiolabeled
compounds are offered for sale in two or more specific activities. Generally higher specific
activity compounds are more expensive for a given isotope.
Radioactive contamination is generally more difficult to control when using higher specific
activities. Work with the lowest specific activity compounds possible for a given experiment.
The maximum specific activity possible for a given radionuclide is proportional to the decay
constant () for that nuclide and inversely proportional to the half-life. This is why for example
P-32 compounds (half-life = 14 days) can be produced with much higher specific activities than
C-14 compounds (half-life = 5730 years).
Commonly used expressions for specific activity include mCi/mg, mCi/ml, mCi/mMole, and
DPM/ml.
Radiation Types
Ionizing Radiation Types &
Penetrating Abilities
Principal Types of
Ionizing Radiation
ELECTROMAGNETIC
Gamma () - photon
X-ray (X) photon
Radiation Source
PARTICULATE
Alpha () helium nucleus
Beta () electron
<250 keV max: "Low Energy Beta"
>250 keV max: "High Energy Beta"
11
++
Plastic
ALPHA
h
hig
1 BETA
low
Lead or Concrete
Water
0,
1 n
0
NEUTRON
12
Alpha Particle ()
An alpha particle originates in the nucleus of the atom and is composed of two protons and two
neutrons; basically, it is a helium nucleus. It is a fairly large particle and results from the decay
of relatively large atoms having 82 or more protons (Z > 82). When an isotope undergoes alpha
decay, the atomic mass (A) of the nucleus will be reduced by four and the atomic number (Z) by
two. An example of alpha decay is:
226
222
4
88 Ra 86 Rn + 2 He
Radium-226 emits an alpha particle and is transformed into Radon-222. The Radon-222 is also
unstable and emits an alpha particle. Usually after emitting an alpha particle, the new progeny
nucleus is left in an excited state and emits gamma rays as the nucleus progresses to the
resting state. The decay of radium leads to a chain of radioactive progeny products that
eventually produces a stable isotope of lead.
Alpha particles are mono-energetic (approximately 4 to 9 MeV each). The range (distance that
the radiation will travel) of an alpha particle is quite short, i.e., only a few centimeters in air. Due
to their short range and weak penetrating ability, detection of alpha particles requires specially
designed instrumentation.
Alpha-emitting radioactive material is not generally used in the research lab, except in consumer
products such as smoke detectors and static control devices.
Beta Particle ()
A beta particle originates in the nucleus. In the most common type of beta decay, a neutron
decays into a proton plus an electron. Because the mass of the parent neutron is slightly higher
than the mass of the proton/electron pair, the difference in mass is converted to energy (E =
mc2). This mass difference is shown in Table 2.
TABLE 2: Masses of Sub-atomic Particles1
PARTICLE
ATOMIC WEIGHT
UNITS
Proton
1.007276
Electron
0.000549
Proton + Electron
1.007825
Neutron
1.008665
Changes in the nuclear forces before and after the decay release additional energy. The
electron created in beta decay acquires some of this energy and is ejected from the nucleus as
what we call beta radiation; a beta particle is simply an energetic (high speed) electron.
n p+1 + 1 +
1
From 1986 Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants as listed in Table 2.10 of Shleien, B.
ed. The Health Physics and Radiological Health Handbook, Silver Spring, MD, 1992, pp. 31-35.
ISOTOPE
E-AVG
(KEV)
Hydrogen-3
18.6
Carbon-14
156.5
49
Sulfur-35
167.5
48
Phosphorous-33
248
76
Phosphorous-32
1710.4
694
Beta Decay
An example of beta decay is the
transformation of carbon-14 into nitrogen-14.
The 14C beta may have any energy from
zero to 156 keV; the anti-neutrino carries off
the difference between the beta energy and
156 keV.
14C
32P
[T
13
Gamma Rays()
Gamma radiation is not itself a mode of radioactive decay, as are alpha and beta decay.
Instead, gamma emission accompanies some forms of radioactive decay. Gamma radiation is
a form of electromagnetic radiation which originates in the nucleus as a result of radioactive
decay. Like all electromagnetic radiation, gamma rays travel at the speed of light and have no
mass and no electric charge. In contrast to the continuous energy spectra created by beta and
some X-ray emission, gamma radiation is mono-energetic and emitted at characteristic
2
Shleien, B., ed. The Health Physics and Radiological Health Handbook, Silver Spring, MD, 1989, p. 165.
energies. The gamma energy spectrum of a given radioactive decay is analogous to a persons
fingerprint and can be used to identify a particular radioisotope.
Gamma-emitting material, like beta emitters, finds prevalent use in medical and research
procedures as labeled chemical compounds (tracers) and as the basis for various treatment
techniques. Due to the lack of charge and mass, gamma radiation is highly penetrating and has
an extremely long range. For example, electromagnetic radiation formed in the sun can reach
the earth.
X-rays
What About X-rays?
BREMSSTRAHLUNG X-RAYS
high speed
electron
target nucleus
[e.g. tungsten]
X-rays
CHARACTERISTIC X-RAYS
14
Characteristic X-rays
Electrons are constantly orbiting an atom at specific energy levels called shells. When an
electron is ejected from an inner energy shell (particularly the K or L shells) an electron from a
higher energy level will drop into the vacancy. An electron vacancy in the K-shell is filled by
another orbital electron, resulting in the emission of an X-ray equal to the difference between
the two energy levels. Characteristic X-rays are mono-energetic.
Characteristic
X-ray photon
Nucleus
Lower energy orbital
Higher energy orbital
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
Bremsstrahlung or braking radiation are X-rays emitted when high-speed, charged particles
suffer rapid change in speed or direction. When a beta particle passes close to a nucleus of an
absorbing material, the strong attractive forces cause the beta particle to deviate sharply from
its original path. This change in direction causes the emission of bremsstrahlung X-ray
radiation. As the atomic number (Z) of the absorbing material increases, more bremsstrahlung
X-ray radiation will be emitted. This form of X-ray radiation is not mono-energetic, but forms a
continuous energy spectrum.
Bremsstrahlung
X-ray photon
Nucleus
Positron Emitters
Another form of beta decay occurs when a proton plus some nuclear binding energy transforms
to a neutron and a positively charged beta particle called a positron (+).
1 +1
1p
1
0n +
+1 +
{2-5}
The positron (positively charged electron) has the same mass as a negative electron, but has a
positive charge. Positron emission is always accompanied by the emission of neutrinos () and
may be accompanied by gamma emission. Sodium-22 is an example of a radionuclide which
decays by positron emission, as shown below.
22
11Na
22
10 Ne
+ +1 + +
{2-6}
Neutron Activation
In general, radiation cannot make a non-radioactive substance become radioactive. Thus, the
presence of radioactive materials or receiving an X-ray will not make surrounding materials
radioactive. However, exposure to a neutron source such as a nuclear reactor or
Californium-252 can make materials radioactive via neutron activation. This process involves
the absorption of one or more neutrons by the target nucleus, thereby creating a different
(usually unstable) nuclide. Nuclear reactors use neutron activation to produce many of the
radioactive materials used in medicine and research.
10
H2O H + OH
Secondary reactions [subsequent 10-5 seconds]
H + H H2 (gas)
H + OH H2O (water)
OH + OH H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide)
from Gollnick (1994)
15
16
In addition to ionizing atoms in the target material, ionizing radiation may also cause excitation,
in which an electron is merely raised to a higher energy level within the excited atom rather than
torn from the atom entirely, as with ionization. Excited atoms then emit a photon as the electron
drops back down into the lower energy state. Activation is covered in Chapter I.
These radiation interactions occur very rapidly in tissue, with ionized and excited atoms or
molecules returning to their ground state almost instantaneously. The effects on a molecular or
cellular level are dominated by chemically reactive species, primarily those created by the
dissociation of water molecules (e.g. hydrogen peroxide). Because many natural physiological
processes create these same reactive chemicals, the effects of low radiation doses are
indistinguishable from effects of many other normal cellular metabolic activities. Fortunately the
body has naturally developed mechanisms to repair the damage caused by these naturally
occurring metabolic and radiation-induced chemicals. Only when the amount of damage
exceeds the bodys natural repair capability are negative health effects possible.
Unit
Old: roentgen [R] =
2.58x10-4 C/kgair
(C = coulomb)
SI: no SI unit
Applicability
Obsolete but still on
many direct reading
instruments;
1 R 1 rad
Dose Equivalent:
absorbed dose
weighting factor
(1 Gy)
Type of radiation
1
20
10
High-energy protons
10
17
18
11
The roentgen was one of the earliest (1928) units used to measure exposure and measures
the amount of ionization produced in air by X-ray or gamma rays. By definition, 1 R = 2.58
10-4 coulombs/kilogram at standard temperature and pressure. It is important to note that the
unit of exposure is defined only for X or gamma rays and only for exposure in air. Thus, the
roentgen is a measure of the ability of photons to ionize air. One roentgen (R) is a rather large
exposure, so frequently the milliroentgen (mR) unit is used (1000 mR = 1 R). Many Geiger
counters and most ion chambers are calibrated to read out in terms of exposure rate, e.g.,
milliroentgen per hour (mR/hr). There is no international system (SI) unit for exposure.
Radiation deposits energy when absorbed by matter. This energy deposition leads to the
biological effect of ionizing radiation. By definition, the absorbed dose is the energy deposited
per unit mass. The unit of radiation absorbed dose is called the rad. One rad represents the
deposition of 100 ergs per gram of material. Unfortunately, the rad is difficult to measure and
must often be calculated from other measurements. However, for radiation protection purposes,
1 R = 1 rad, for X-rays or gamma rays. But, for beta radiations, 1 R equals some constant times
1 rad, where the constant is dependent upon the beta energy. For example: 1 R 2.6 rad for
P-32. Therefore, beta measurements with survey meters which read in R/hr or mR/hr must be
interpreted with care. The international system (SI) unit for absorbed dose is the gray (Gy)
one Gy = 100 rad.
The ultimate aim of a dose measurement system, from a radiation safety viewpoint, is to arrive
at a quantity appropriate for predicting biological response independent of the source of the
radiation. This goal is only partially achieved with the rad. For example, the biological effect is
much greater for alpha radiation than for beta or gamma radiation for a given absorbed dose (in
rad) to the biological system. This difference in the biological effectiveness of the radiation has
been attributed primarily to the fact that alpha radiation releases more energy and ionizes more
particles per unit path length traversed than beta or gamma although the path length is shorter
than that for beta or gamma radiations. In order to account for the different biological effects of
different radiation types, a quality factor (QF) has been introduced which is used to convert the
absorbed dose to a dose equivalent. Quality factors are shown in slide 18. The unit of dose
equivalent is the rem (Roentgen - Equivalent - Mammal.).
Most biomedical research laboratory situations involve only beta, gamma, or X-ray radiations.
For these radiations, the QF is equal to 1 so the dose equivalent (in rem) is equal to the
absorbed dose (in rad). The dose to tissue in air from exposure to one Roentgen is about 0.95
rad. Therefore, for X-ray and gamma radiation exposure, the following expression
approximates the dose equivalent:
1 R 1 rad = 1 rem [Low LET radiation]
One rem is a large unit; so, we usually work in terms of millirem (mrem),
where 1000 mrem = 1 rem. The SI unit for rem is the sievert (Sv) one Sv = 100 rem.
12
Radiation Bioeffects
Radiation Bioeffects
DETERMINISTIC
STOCHASTIC
Probability of occurrence
increases with radiation dose
Threshold ~10 rem, but
regulatory models assume no
threshold [ALARA!]
Examples:
Cataract induction
Cancer Induction
Epilation (hair loss)
Genetic Mutations
Erythema (skin reddening)
Developmental Abnormalities
Blood changes
Sterility
- NCRP 138 (2001); HPS (1995) Risk Assessment
19
Radiation is energy moving through space. Radiation dose occurs when that energy is
deposited in living cells. The chemical reactions and molecular changes caused by the addition
of this energy in turn effects our bodies. The dose, dose rate, type of radiation, exposure to
other hazardous materials, health, age, and even genetic predisposition may all contribute to
degree of bioeffect. Generally, the higher the dose and dose rate, the higher the probability of
biological effects. Therefore, all doses should be kept as low as possible, and it would be better
to receive any exposure gradually over a long period of time rather than all at once. In
biomedical research, the doses are generally so small that it is not possible to detect any effect.
A tremendous research effort has occurred over the last 40 years to determine the effects of
radiation on humans. Arguably, more research has been done on the effects of radiation than
on any other toxic or hazardous agent. All types of radiation (gamma, X-ray, beta, and alpha)
have been studied for both their internal and external hazards. Many groups of people with
known exposures (Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic-bomb survivors, early radiologists, patients
treated with radiation for ankylosing spondylitis and other diseases, radium dial painters, and
uranium miners) have been followed, and their health status reviewed. This research has
provided a large body of data covering radiation health effects.
Health Effect
Blood cell depression
Organ
Bone Marrow
Dose (rad)
50
Skin
Ovaries
200
250 600
Vomiting
Temporary hair loss
GI
Skin
300
300 500
Permanent sterility
Skin erythema
Testis
Skin
350
500 600
Stochastic Effects
20
13
Much of the known dose-effect data derives from rather high doses (on the order of 100 rad)
where the effects are well known and documented. At these high doses, health effects depend
not only on the total absorbed dose but also on the rate at which the dose is received and the
type of radiation. The effects of radiation exposure at low doses (say 10 mrad to 5 rad) are less
well known and probably masked by other factors. Unlike higher doses, there are no acute
(immediate) effects of small radiation doses, and the long-term effects (e.g., increase risk of
cancer) are difficult to clearly attribute to a specific cause. Because they are nearly impossible
to unambiguously detect, low dose-effects can only be estimated through extrapolation of high
dose-effect data. The National Academy of Sciences BEIR V (Biological Effects of Ionizing
Radiation 1990) report represents the scientific communitys consensus view on low-dose
effects. The position of the Health Physics Society (a nonprofit scientific professional society
dedicated to radiation safety) is that any quantification of health risks below an individual (above
natural background) dose of 5 rem in one year or 10 rem lifetime is scientifically unsupportable
because there is simply no compelling evidence of harmful health effects at lower doses3.
To be on the safe side, we assume extrapolation of high-dose data into the low-dose region
such that any exposure produces some effect; i.e., there is no threshold dose below which no
effects occur. In assuming that any amount of radiation dose, no matter how small, may be
harmful, we are obliged to keep our occupational radiation dose As Low As Reasonably
Achievable (ALARA). This no threshold theory of radiation dose-effect has driven the
ALARA concept which now forms the basis of radiation protection regulations.
Ionizing radiation is a weak carcinogen, and ample evidence shows increased incidence of
cancer in populations exposed to high doses. The BEIR V report estimates an increased risk of
cancer death of 0.8% (0.008) following an acute whole body radiation exposure of 10 rad
(10,000 mrad). The normal incidence of cancer death is about 16% (0.16) in the US. Hence an
acute radiation absorbed dose to the whole body of 10 rad would theoretically increase the risk
of cancer death from 16% to 16.8%. The report cautions that this estimate includes a large
degree of uncertainty, noting that ...the probability that cancer will result from a small dose can
be estimated only by extrapolation from the increased rates of cancer that have been observed
after larger doses, based on assumptions about the dose-incidence relationship at low doses.4
In other words, any increase in cancer incidence following a dose as low as 10 rad is so small it
has not yet been clearly detected; so, the increased risk of cancer is based on extrapolating the
discernible increases at higher doses down into the low-dose region.
Genetic effects are abnormalities occurring in the future children of individuals and in
subsequent generations. The BEIR V committee concluded that, based on available data, at
least 100 rad of low-dose rate, low LET radiation would be needed to double the incidence of
genetic defects in humans. The committee was careful to err on the side of safety in coming up
with this estimate, noting that their interpretation ...has the advantage of leading to risk
Health
Physics
Society
Radiation
http://hps.org/documents/radiationrisk.pdf
Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, Board on Radiation Effects Research, Commission
on Life Sciences, National Research Council, Health Effects of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation
[BEIR V], National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1990, pp. 161, 162.
Risk
in
Perspective
Position
Statement
(2001),
14
estimates that, if anything, are too high rather than estimates that subsequent data may prove to
be too low.5
Pregnant Workers
You are not officially pregnant until you declare your
pregnancy at Employee Health.
Radiation Dose limit to fetus for entire gestation period
is 500 mrem.
Fetal badge will be issued to you, if requestedit is
changed out monthly.
A consultation about radiation doses to the fetus can
be set up with Dr. Robert Reiman (668-3186).
No need to stop radiation work.
Can be confidential.
22
Weve known since 1906 that rapidly dividing cells which are undifferentiated in their structure
and function, such as embryo/fetus cells, are generally more sensitive to radiation. The
embryo/fetus stage is the most radiosensitive part of our life cycle, especially during the first
three months after conception, when a woman may not know shes pregnant. When a pregnant
woman is exposed to radiation sources, her unborn baby may also be exposed.
Because of these factors, the National Council of Radiation Protection and Measurements
(NCRPM) and the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) recommend that
an occupationally exposed woman who may be pregnant take special precautions to limit
exposure, with a maximum permissible dose equivalent of 0.5 rem during the pregnancy.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and North Carolina regulations also establish dose
limits of 0.5 rem during the pregnancy. Fortunately occupational doses from the biomedical
research use of radioactive material generally fall far below this limit.
It is up to the female radiation worker to evaluate the possible risks of occupational radiation
exposure to a known or potential unborn child. The NRC recommends that she consider the
following facts to help make her decision:
1) The first three months of pregnancy are the most critical for radiosensitivity.
15
2) In most work situations, the actual dose received by an unborn child would be less than the
mothers because her body provides some shielding.
3) The dose to the unborn child can be reduced by:
a) Decreasing the amount of time she spends in a radiation area
b) Increasing the distance between her and the source of radiation
c) Shielding her abdomen
4) If she becomes pregnant, she may ask her employer to reassign her to areas involving less
exposure to radiation.
5) When her occupational exposure is below the 5 rem/year limit, the risk to an unborn child
may be small in relation to the other day-to-day risks to the unborn during pregnancy.
Experts disagree on the exact amount.
6) There is no need to be concerned about sterility, i.e., loss of ability to bear children. The
radiation dose required to produce this effect is 40 times greater than the NRCs basic dose
limits for radiation workers (5 rem/year).
For more information on this important topic, contact Radiation Safety.
16
Radiation Sources
Natural Background
Industrial Use
Research Use
Medical Use
Military Use
Nuclear Power Plants
Cons umer
Produc ts
Nuclear 3% Other
< 1%
Medic ine
4%
Medical X-rays
11%
Artificial 18%
Cosmic
(Outer Space)
8%
Terrres trial
(Roc ks & Soil)
8%
Internal
(Inside Human
Body)
11%
23
Other Includes :
Occ upational 0.3%
Fallout
< 0.3%
Nuc lear Pow er 0.1%
Misc ellaneous 0.1%
Natural
(mrem)
Radon
Cosmic
200
27
Terrestrial:
-external
-internal
Radon
55%
Natural 82%
28
39
Artificial (mrem)
-Diag. X-rays
39
-Nuc. Med.
14
-Consumer Pro. 10
-Other
~1
TOTAL
~360
24
Ionizing radiation sources have many beneficial uses. Such sources are widely used to diagnose
and treat many diseases, including cancer. Radiolabeled compounds are indispensable in
research, and radioactive sources are used to measure tank levels, paper and steel thickness, and
other industrial quality control parameters. Other uses include sterilization of surgical equipment,
verifying pipe and weld integrity, food irradiation, airport and building security, power production
(with less CO2 emission than fossil fuel plants), etc. However, use of ionizing radiation sources
creates the potential for large occupational radiation doses. All radiation workers have an
obligation to prevent any unnecessary occupational radiation dose.
People have been exposed to ionizing radiation since first appearing on this planet. The
sources of this natural background radiation include cosmic rays, terrestrial radiation, and
internally deposited radioisotopes. The values for the first two depend upon where you live.
Cosmic radiation dose is larger at higher altitudes since there is less of the Earths atmosphere
for shielding. Areas with large local deposits of uranium or thorium entail a higher than average
terrestrial radiation component. The food we eat, the water we drink, and the air we breathe
contain such radioisotopes as tritium (hydrogen-3), carbon-14, and potassium-40, among
others, as well as uranium, thorium, and their radioactive progeny. The radioactive materials
are then deposited in our bodies. Slide 24 illustrates that 82% of the annual radiation dose to
the average member of the U.S. population comes from natural sources, and only 18% as a
result of human activities.
Radon
Radon is a naturally occurring, odorless, colorless, radioactive gas produced by the radioactive
decay of uranium and radium that occur in trace amounts in soil and rocks. Radon is chemically
inert which allows it to easily move through soil, rock, and building materials. Radon also
produces radioactive by-products (progeny) which adhere to dust particles in the air. These
decay products are part of the natural decay chain (progeny of Uranium 238, the most abundant
isotope of uranium found in nature). The lower part of this decay chain is shown in below.
226
17
Internal vs External
Radiation Hazards
CONTAMINATION CONTROL
Universal Precautions & monitoring; block intake
DISTANCE
SHIELDING
25
26
*
A key concept needed for understanding radiation protection is the distinction between internal
and external hazards. An internal hazard arises once radioactive material gets inside the body,
while an external hazard comes from radioactive material outside the body. All radionuclides
become internal hazards if taken into the body by inhalation, ingestion, or skin absorption.
However, whether a particular radiation source can pose an external hazard hinges on a very
practical consideration: the ability of the radiation to penetrate the bodys dead layer of skin.
Slide 12 (page 5) shows the penetrating ability of various ionizing radiation types. Note that
alpha particles and low energy (<250 keV) beta particles cannot penetrate the dead layer of
skin. This means that radioactive materials emitting only alphas or low energy betas CANNOT
for all practical purposes pose an external radiation hazard. So long as such radioactive
material remains outside the body, the dead layer of skin shields the living tissue and there is
effectively no radiation dose. Happily, most of the radionuclides commonly used in biomedical
research e.g. 3H (tritium), 14C, 33P, and 35S - are low energy beta emitters and therefore do not
present external radiation hazards. Instead, the same universal precautions that protect against
all other hazardous materials also protect against these nuclides.
The radiation from high energy (>250 keV) beta emitting nuclides (e.g. 32P), gamma emitters
(e.g. 125I), and X-ray devices can penetrate the dead layer of skin and damage the living tissue
underneath. Therefore these radiation sources pose an external radiation hazard, i.e. can
cause harm even when the material is outside of the body. Protection against external radiation
hazards is afforded by the appropriate use of time, distance, and shielding.
18
Time
Radiation Protection: Time
Distance
Radiation Protection:
Distance
29
A good way to reduce the exposure to external radiation is to use distance. Much of the time,
distance alone is enough to reduce the exposure rate from beta emitters to a background level.
X-ray and gamma ray radiation usually approximate point sources, and the radiation from such
a point source will obey what is called the inverse square law. This law means that, as the
distance to a point source is doubled, the exposure rate is reduced by a factor of four.
19
Pipetting Techniques
Secondary Containment
No mouth pipetting
Make sure tip is securely attached
Hold tip at an angle, against the inside
wall of the vessel, if possible
Glide the control button smoothly and
slowly
Place, do not shoot, contaminated tips
into waste containers
Good practice:
Handle RAM only on
absorbent paper in spill
trays
Store RAM in primary
and secondary
containment (e.g. stock
vial inside ziploc bag)
31
32
Tiny volumes of radioactive material can contain large amounts of activity. This is particularly
true of some high specific activity compounds routinely used in biomedical research, for which
aerosol droplets too small to be seen by the unaided eye can carry millions of DPM.
Radioactive material handlers unfamiliar with this aspect of radioactive material use often find
themselves mystified by the appearance of radioactive contamination where there was no
visible indication of a spill or leak. Some key principles for preventing the spread of this invisible
radioactive contamination include:
Proper liquid transfer techniques: Pipetting creates tiny micro aerosols, clouds of
liquid droplets too small to be seen yet potentially carrying detectable amounts of
radioactive material. Ensure that the tip of the pipette is inside, rather than simply
above, the container the material is being transferred to. Similarly, eject disposable
pipette tips into the inside of an appropriate radioactive waste container rather than
ejecting from above the waste container and letting the tips drop some distance into the
waste container.
Disposable glove use: Check gloved hands frequently for contamination, while working
with radioactive material, and change disposable gloves often. Remove disposable
gloves and wash hand BEFORE touching telephones, keypads, doorknobs, light
switches, lab notebooks & pens, or any other commonly handled items.
20
OR
Total Organ Dose Equivalent [TODE]: Sum of DDE and
CDE to any single organ or tissue other than eye lens
50
50
15
0.5
0.1
10 CFR 20.1003
33
34
Occupational dose (of ionizing radiation) means the dose received by an individual in the course
of employment in which the individuals assigned duties involve exposure to radiation or
licensed radioactive material. Occupational dose does not include dose received from
background radiation, as a patient from medical practices, from voluntary participation in
medical research programs, or as a member of the general public.
The Occupational Dose Limits (see slide 33) are set well below radiation levels known to
produce acute health effects. Under normal operating conditions, State and Federal regulations
do not permit individual occupational exposure to exceed the occupational dose limits. Although
regulations specifying maximum occupational dose limits are intended to minimize risk of injury
or ill effects, occupational radiation exposure must be kept As Low As Reasonably
Achievable (ALARA).
36
External dose is that portion of the dose equivalent received from sources outside the body.
21
NOTE: Only radiation having sufficient energy to penetrate the dead layer of skin can
contribute to external radiation exposure. For this reason, low-energy beta radiation
(such as that emitted by hydrogen-3 {tritium}) and alpha radiation do not contribute to
external radiation dose.
Four basic principles for reducing external exposure are time, distance, shielding, and
contamination control. Therefore, follow these simple rules to minimize your external radiation
exposure:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Volatile forms
Non-volatile
1 mCi
10 mCi
10 mCi
100 mCi
100 mCi
1000 mCi
22
Internal radiation dose is that portion of the dose equivalent received from radioactive material
taken into the body through inhalation, ingestion, skin absorption, or entry through cuts or
wounds.
To minimize internal exposures, prevent the deposition of radioactive material in the body by
strict observance of good lab procedures and by keeping the work environment within the
permissible levels of contamination specified in this manual.
Internal radiation dose assessment results should be expressed in terms of committed dose
equivalent [CDE] and/or committed effective dose equivalent [CEDE] when determining
compliance with occupational dose limits.
a) Committed Dose Equivalent [CDE]: The dose equivalent to organs or tissues of
reference that will be received from an intake of radioactive material by an individual
during the 50 year period following the intake
b) Committed Effective Dose Equivalent [CEDE]: The sum of the products of the
weighting factors applicable to each of the body organs or tissues that are irradiated
and the committed dose equivalent [CDE] to these organs or tissues
Several techniques are available for measurement of internal radiation dose. These methods
include measurement of radionuclides in air, the body, and excreta.
a)
b)
c)
23
a) Internal dose must be monitored if the worker is likely to receive in one year an intake in
excess of 10 percent of the applicable ALIs (Annual Limit on Intake) in Table 12-1,
columns 1 and 2, of Appendix B to 10 CFR 20.1001 20.2401, or for declared pregnant
women, if they are likely to receive, in one year, a committed effective dose equivalent
[CEDE] in excess of 50 millirem.
b) External dose must be monitored if the worker is likely to receive in one year, from
sources external to the body, a dose in excess of 10 percent of any of the applicable
occupational dose limits, or if the individuals enter a high (dose rate in excess of
100 millirem/hr @ 30 cm from the source/surface) or very high (500 rads/hr @ 1 m from
the source/surface) radiation area.
Because this institutions policy on dosimetry monitoring often meets or exceeds the regulatory
criteria above, this policy may specify monitoring of workers who do not meet the regulatory
criteria. In such cases, the act of monitoring a workers external and/or internal dose does not
necessarily constitute a requirement that these doses must be summed when calculating the
Total Effective Dose Equivalent [TEDE]. The Radiation Safety Officer will determine whether an
individual users Total Effective Dose Equivalent [TEDE] is required to include both external and
internal occupational dose.
24
Pros
Scintillation Detectors
Cons
Type
Pros
Cons
Warm up ~ 5 min
Response time ~10s
Sensitive ~0.1 mR/hr
[high pressure helps]
NaI
Proportional
Counter
Good energy
resolution, etc.
Geiger
Reliable, easy to use;
Mueller [GM] prompt response;
very common
Various
Others
39
Reliable, easy to
use; detects low E
photons [~2 keV],
very sensitive
Optimize specific
performance
characteristic
Fragile;
hydroscopic; does
NOT provide dose
rate information
Compromises on
sensitivity, energy
dependence,
ruggedness
40
Gas-Filled Detectors
This design includes ion chambers, gas flow proportional counters, and Geiger-Mueller
detectors. These instruments rely on the detection of ionization in gases by radiation to provide
charge carriers within the gas-filled chamber. These charge carriers (ions) then carry an electric
current between the anode and cathode of the detector. The instruments electronics convert
this measured current flow to appropriate units, such as CPM or mR/hr. These systems
generally consist of a gas-filled chamber containing an electrode, a voltage supply, a resistor,
and an ammeter (current flow meter).
Ion Chambers: The simplest and lowest voltage instruments of this type are ionization
chambers or ion chambers. These portable instruments usually use regular air at atmospheric
pressure as gas in the detector, although some special designs may use other gases. Ion
chambers are primarily used to measure radiation exposure or exposure rate.
25
Proportional Counters: Proportional counters operate at somewhat higher voltages than ion
chambers and employ special gases such as argon-methane mixtures. The name of this
detector type is derived from the fact that, although the current flow measured by the meter
electronics is greatly amplified by an avalanche effect within the gas-filled chamber, the
response nonetheless remains proportional to the initial ionization in the detector. Proportional
counters are available in both portable and fixed installations, but they are rarely used in
biomedical research labs.
Geiger-Mueller Detectors: The popularity of Geiger-Mueller (GM) detectors stems from this
designs sturdiness, reliability, and low cost. The typical thin-end window GM or pancake GM
(PGM) survey meter is adequate for detecting high-energy beta particles and high-energy
gamma rays. Some of the radionuclides that may be adequately monitored by use of a GM
survey meter are P-32, I-131, Co-57, Tc-99m, Sr-90, Cr-51, and Na-22.
While the GM survey meter can detect larger quantities of radioactive material, it is not sensitive
enough for smaller amounts of some radionuclides. For example, large amounts of C-14, S-35,
or P-33 in a small area may be detected by a thin-end window GM survey meter; but when the
amount of activity is spread over a large area or there is a small quantity of the material in one
spot, the survey meter may not detect the activity. Similarly, GM meters can only detect
relatively large quantities of I-125; therefore, I-125 users are encouraged to use more sensitive
(i.e., higher efficiency) instruments. Finally, in very high radiation fields, GM tubes become
saturated and stop responding at all. Such intense radiation fields are very unlikely in the
biomedical research environment; but users should remember to turn the meter on prior to
entering a radiation area so as to recognize this saturation effect in the unlikely event such high
radiation levels are ever encountered.
Scintillation Detectors
A variety of solid scintillator detectors are available as portable radiation detection instruments
and in larger, more sensitive stationary designs such as gamma counters. These devices are
useful for low-energy gamma radiation and are becoming more popular for monitoring beta
radiation. They are much more efficient than GM meters. Low-energy gamma detectors are
recommended for monitoring such gamma emitters as I-125. Liquid scintillation counters are
highly recommended for monitoring C-14, S-35, and P-33.
The most sensitive radioactive material detection technology readily available to biomedical
researchers is liquid scintillation counting. In contrast to small portable systems, liquid
scintillation counters are generally relatively large, immobile, and expensive. This technology
involves putting the radioactive sample (e.g., research compound, metabolism product, or wipe
test) into a vial containing liquid scintillation cocktail. The cocktail contains chemicals that
convert some of the radioactive decay energy into light pulses (scintillations), which are then
detected by very sensitive photomultiplier tubes within the counter. Because the radioactive
sample is in intimate contact with the detection medium (the liquid scintillant), even very weak
radiation can be readily detected. Radionuclides which may be detected by a survey meter, but
which are more adequately measured in a liquid scintillation unit in order to obtain adequate
sensitivity, include C-14, S-35, P-33, and Ca-45. Radionuclides that may only be detected by
liquid scintillation counting methods include H-3 and Ni-63. Only non-RCRA [Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act - USEPA] regulated LSC cocktails should be used; ensure your
LSC fluid is on the list of non-RCRA LSC cocktails on the NCHPS page at:
www.nchps.org/HPsandRadusers.htm
26
Instrument Selection
Step 1: Decide why measurement taken!
Contamination Survey
Quantifying Radioactivity
Nuclide Identification
Note: Standardize facility instrumentation if possible!
42
Efficiency
For locating contamination or quantifying activity, knowing the efficiency of the detector for the
radiation(s) of interest is critical. Efficiency CPM/DPM; a detector with 50% efficiency would
produce 100 CPM per 200 DPM of activity in the measured sample. Table 4 shows
approximate efficiencies of various detectors reported by manufacturers for various nuclides.
27
DETECTOR TYPE
EFFICIENCY/NUCLIDE
80 - 90% / I-125
Gamma
Geiger-Mueller (GM)
5 - 10%
Beta
10% / C-14
45% /Sr-90
Pancake GM
Plastic Scintillator
Liquid Scintillator
30-60% / H-3
67-85% / C-14, S-35
90-98% / P-32
43
44
A survey meter used to measure radiation dose-related quantities (e.g., mR/hr, rem, mrem/hr,
etc.) must not only be capable of such measurements, it must also be properly calibrated and
28
measurement results must be interpreted with care to arrive at meaningful conclusion. Given
the complexity of dosimetric measurements, they should normally be left to Radiation Safety
staff, who maintain the appropriate instrumentation and expertise.
Contamination Surveys are discussed in greater detail in the discussion of wipe test analysis
later in this chapter.
46
Pancake GMs good for contamination survey but not the best for dose rate
Instruments calibrated for photons are not calibrated for betas unless specifically
indicated
- from Shleien (1998), p. 11-17
Dont use an out-of-calibration instrument; if it's out of date, put it out of service. Survey
meters are calibrated (or given operational check) annually by Radiation Safety; fixed
instruments are calibrated by user per manufacturers recommendations.
Dont cover detector with disposable glove, cling wrap or plastic to prevent contaminating it
(slide 47)
29
Turn it on
Perform operational check [check source]; ideally, compare meter reading with reference
value written on meter to verify check source reading hasnt changed.
(slide 48)
Turn to proper setting; note [background] reading in area known to be free of radiation
sources Turn speaker on if so equipped
Hold the detector about 1 inch from the surface to be surveyed and move about 1
inch/second
When finished, repeat battery, HV, & operational [check source] checks to verify meter is still
working properly; Then turn the meter OFF!
If documentation is required: Record all results - if not on paper, it wasn't done! Include
date, location, instrument model & S/N, and your name; Develop pre-printed forms
(slide 50)
Portable survey meters equipped with Geiger Mueller or solid scintillator detectors are generally
very reliable and simple to operate. Following the guidance above to obtain useful and credible
measurement results.
Removeable Contamination
Removable vs Fixed
Contamination
Removable contamination refers to contamination
that is deposited on the surface of structures,
areas, objects or personnel that can readily picked
up or wiped up by physical or mechanical means
during the course of a survey or decontamination
efforts (i.e. it come up on wipe test)
Fixed contamination is bound to the contaminated
surface and not easily removed.
Labs using low-energy (<250 keV) beta emitters
(e.g. 3H, 14C, 35S) and certain other nuclides must
perform periodic removable contamination (wipe)
51
surveys
Removable Contamination
Surveys
Purpose: detecting & quantifying removable
contamination on surfaces
Literature: Wipe, Wipe Test, Swipe, Smear
Area: Generally 100 cm (e.g. a square ~4/side)
Collection Materials:
- Absorbent Media: filter paper, cotton tipped swab
(Q-tip), exotic material (translucent or
dissolving media)
- Dry or Wet (solvents: H2O, alcohol, detergent)
52
30
Collection Efficiency
Be SURE to
wear gloves!
Duke Removable
Contamination Limits
Counting Efficiency
Media
54
53
No action required
93.20.5
220-11,000
83.70.8
87.71.3
11,000-110,000
67.95.8
73.42.3
>110,000
3H
14C
32P
None
43.11.8
97.51.6
101.31.4
Clean Filter
29.15.6
94.24.8
94.60.6
Dirty Filter
7.60.2
84.84.8
Clean Swab
5.80.8
Dirty Swab
2.80.6
56
55
58
31
LSC Pitfalls
Gamma Counter
60
Counting Statistics
Counting statistics and error estimation are beyond this texts scope, but some general rules
can reduce the counting error (standard deviation) of measurement results.
Note that since counting error is proportional to the square root of the total number of counts
acquired, a good rule of thumb is to count long enough to accumulate 10,000 counts, thereby
reducing counting error to ~1%. For example, a sample producing ~1,000 cpm in a liquid
scintillation counter should be counted for 10 minutes to accumulate ~10,000 counts. The
counting error is then:
[for S >> B]
If S >> B, design experiments to maximize S to minimize counting error (and/or reduce T). If B
>> S (low count rate), the counting error (in CPM) for a given counting time (T) is approximately:
[for B >> S]
32
62
63
The final Chapter of the Duke Radiation Safety Manual covers emergency procedures, including
injuries or accidents, major spills, and fires:
www.safety.duke.edu/RadSafety/manual/chap12.asp#SecA
All radioactive material users should be familiar with this brief, one-page part of the Radiation
Safety Manual. Printing and posting that Manual page in radioactive material use areas is also
a good practice.
33
Decontamination Supplies
Plastic bags
Disposable gloves
Shoe covers
Lab coat
Safety goggles
65
Decontamination Techniques
Decontamination Waste
Decontamination
Work from the outside of the spill inward [least
contaminated to most contaminated areas]
Place absorbent material (e.g. paper towels or
blue pads) over liquid spills.
66
67
Spill Clean Up
Documenting
Clean-up of Spills
DOCUMENT EVERYTHING!
Draw a map and take extensive wipes
of the entire area, remembering to
include floors, equipment, handles, etc.
Document final survey, showing area
free of contamination
Keep all documentation in your labs
files
68
34
Nuclide-Specific Information
3H
14C
32P
33P
35S
125I
69
3H
[Tritium]
35
Carbon-14
14C
[Carbon-14]
Phosphorous-32 [32P]
32
32P
[Phosphorous-32]
Phosphrous-33 [33P]
33
33P
[Phosphorous-33]
36
Sulfur-35 [35S]
35
35S
[Sulfur-35]
Iodine-125 [125I]
125
125I
[Iodine-125]
General Precautions
1. Maintain your occupational exposure to radiation As Low As Reasonably Achievable
[ALARA].
2. Ensure all persons handling radioactive material are trained and authorized by the AU.
3. Review the nuclide characteristics on (reverse side) prior to working with that nuclide.
Review the protocol(s) authorizing the procedure to be performed and follow any additional
precautions in the protocol. Contact the responsible AU to view the protocol information.
4. For nuclides presenting external hazards (e.g. 32P, 125I), plan experiments to minimize
external exposure by reducing exposure time, using shielding and increasing your distance
from the radiation source. Reduce internal and external radiation dose by monitoring the
worker and the work area after each use of radioactive material, then promptly cleaning up
any contamination discovered. Use the smallest amount of radioisotope possible so as to
minimize radiation dose and radioactive waste.
37
38
Few substances entail the regulatory burden associated with radioactive material. Every step in
the life cycle of radioactive material purchase, shipment, transport, receipt, possession,
storage, use, transfer, and finally, disposal is regulated by a variety of local, state, federal, and
international agencies. The policies reviewed in this chapter summarize the programs
implemented by this institution to ensure safety and demonstrate compliance with these many
different legal requirements. By adhering to these rules, radiation users will minimize the
institutions financial and legal problems associated with their radioactive material use.
ANNUAL
Radiation Users: RS Update for Laboratory
Workers (on line or classroom)
Non-Using AUs & Lab Managers: RS Update for
Non-Users (on line)
78
39
79
Inventory Tracking
An area of particular regulatory focus in recent
years has been inventory control. For a
variety of reasons, regulatory agencies expect
licensees like Duke to account for every item
on radioactive inventory and every bit of
regulated radioactive material. Meticulous
tracking by each user is therefore essential to
maintaining compliance.
Inventory
Labs must update their inventory
through the Radiation Safety Inventory
website on a monthly basis.
www.safety.duke.edu/RadSafety/web_inventory
/default.asp
80
RAM Security/Storage
Radioactive Material is
a weapon of mass
Disruption
Security is a primary
regulatory focus
Simple Rule: if youre
not next to it, lock it up!
81
40
Disposal of RAM
Disposal of RAM
82
Disposal of RAM
Disposal of RAM
32 P, 33 P, 131 I,
and
51 Cr.
83
84
Ordering
Radiation must be ordered through
Radiation Safety either by:
Online form (preferred method)
Fax
Email
Never order directly from vendor
86
41
Transfer of RAM
89
42
Shipment of RAM
Shipment of RAM
90
91
RS Audit Program
Most-Cited Items
20%
25%
Missing training/operational
documentation &/or
untrained workers
55%
92
Inventory records
missing/overdue
93
43
Resources:
RS Manual
Forms
Radioactive Material Inventory
Radioactive Material Ordering
and much more!
94
References
Amersham. Guide to the self-decomposition of radiochemicals. Buckinghamshire, Englad: Amersham
International plc, 1992.
Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, Board on Radiation Effects Research,
Commission on Life Sciences, National Research Council, Health Effects of Exposure to Low Levels of
Ionizing Radiation [BEIR V], National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1990
Gollnick, D. A. Basic radiation protection technology, 3rd ed. Altadena, CA: Pacific Radiation Corporation,
1994.
Health Physics Society. Risk assessment (Position Paper). McLean, VA: Health Physics Society, 1995.
[On Line}. Available: http://www.hps.org/documents
International Commission on Radiological Protection. 1990recomendations of the International
Commission of Radiological Protection, ICRP Publication 60, Annals of the ICRP 21. New York: Elsevier
Science. 1991.
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Ionizing radiation exposure of the
population of the United States. Washington, DC: NCRP Report No. 93; 1987.
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Management of terrorist events involving
radioactive material. Washington, DC: NCRP No. 138; 2001.
Shleien, B., et al, Eds. Handbook of Health Physics and Radiological Health, 3rd ed., Baltimore, MD:
Williams & Wilkins, 1998.
Stringer, L., et al, Weapons of Mass Destruction: Management for Medical Personnel [course text, class
jointly sponsored by FEMA, SORT, NC Em. Management, & Wake Forest U. Med. Ctr], Greenville, NC,
Feb. 22, 2002.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 10 C.F.R. 20.1004; January 1, 2002.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. NMSS Licensee Newsletter [NUREG/BR-0117] No. 01-4.
Washington, DC: January 2002.
44