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Introduction
There are several particular geological features, however, which are commonly encounter
in the tunneling operations. These can gives rise to difficulties especially in impending
progress and\or increasing the hazardous nature of the operation.
Changes in geological conditions which decreased competence of the rocks
surrounding the excavation often results in increasing tunneling costs in addition to
affecting operational and safety aspects. Consequently, in depth appreciation of the
geological conditions plays an important role for design and planning, through to
construction and eventual commissioning and operation of the tunnel.
The first of the obvious geological conditions that are directly related to the tunnel
is :
A. The type of the rock and their strength and deformation behavior
B. Geological discontinuities and associated strength and deformation
behavior
C. Groundwater conditions
D. Squeezing and swelling rock conditions
E. Running Ground
F. Gases in rocks
G. Rock temperature
H. Topographic conditions.
A. The type of the rock and their strength and deformation behavior
2
a) Igneous rock
The crystalline nature of the igneous rocks signifies high compressive strength
with potential difficulties in rock excavations process, but can also indicate the
mark competence with the advantages of decreased support needs to achieve an
acceptable degree of stability.
Localized and relatively thin intrusives are usually fine-grained and often possess
high strength and significant resistance to weathering by comparison to the
coarser grained igneous types with similar mineral constituents.
Igneous rocks consisting of volcanic tuff and pumice, can be particularly weak
and porous and whilst usually exhibiting low strength values with ease of
excavation, they can be subjected to rapid weathering with accompanying loss of
competency and can also give rise to the significant ground water problems.
b) Sedimentary rocks
The effects of stress and advanced weathering, and weakening by the action of
water can give rise to the problems especially where such rock type contains
appreciable clay minerals.
c) Metamorphic rocks
Rock types such as quartzite, marble, dolomite marble, and hornfels generally
exhibits random distribution of minerals and display minor foliation and are
relatively more competent.
Folds are sometimes the natural traps of natural gases, which might be
harmful to the persons working in tunnels.
Figure below Presents example of the influence of folded rock masses on the
location of tunnel whilst excavation is in progress.
b) Faults
The following points are based on the Wahlstrom who has discussed faults in
relation to tunneling.
4
1
2.
Faults are frequently preferred paths for groundwater movement but may
act as hydrological barriers of 7 below. Consequently internal erosion can
occur and is particularly pronounced with certain rock types, eg.
Limestone, whilst significant wall- rock alteration is likely with other rock
types, e.g. igneous, feldspathic, sandstones etc.
3.
Frictional effects of movement along the fault plane can induce wall- rock
alteration in addition to chemical reaction from water circulation.
4.
The width of the fault zone is related to the geological and tectonic history
and rock types. Fault zones can be tens of meters in width even where
relatively minor displacement has occurred between strata and is possibly
indicative of several reversals in movement over long periods of time.
5.
Fault filling and gouge characteristics differ quite markedly and often
reflect the degree of influence of groundwater movement .
6.
7.
5
in to tunnel excavations. Fault gouge has minor or insignificant bonding
strength and exhibits poor stand up times. The fine- grained character of
fault gouge often gives it an essentially impermeable property, although
what might be regarded as insignificant seepage from gouge in to a tunnel
can in time lead to creating a flow path for water and water borne debris
in quantities of concern to the project . A tunnel intercepting a wide zone
of fault gouge beneath and in hydraulic contact with the water table can
experience inrush conditions. The width of fault gouge zones is difficult to
predict and calls for careful observation, investigation and monitoring
whilst tunneling is in progress. Effective support measures are called for to
achieve early control over the deterioration potential of fault gouge
properties.
8.
9.
10.
Are structural plane of weakness and greatly affect shear strength of properties
of rock and rock masses.
6
The spacing and orientation of which with respect to excavation and tunnel
surface is of paramount importance. Joints pattern considerably affects the
mode of rock failure or collapse potential and the degree of over break during
the tunnel excavation. Therefore the joints properties and their patterns studied
with care and detail.
C) Groundwater aspects
Predicting with accuracy the likely water inflow qualities is however, difficult,
and detailed monitoring and regular reviews of conditions together with
adoption of special measures such as de- watering or injection programmes
need consideration.
Some tunnel projects have experienced problems from the relatively warm(
greater than 30-350c) groundwater which can impair the environmental
conditions within the tunnel.
X The Thames tunnel :- flooding occurred five times and the tunnel
was reclaimed each time by dumping clay and gravel in the riverbed
and pumping out the water and digging out the dedris . what
happened was that water softened the silt and clay came in everincreasing volume and ultimately led to the flooding of tunnels. It
was accompanied by the methane causing minor explosion causing
illness and death of some tunnelers.
7
X In Nepal :- removal of gauge material in fault led to serious flooding
of the tunnel.
Stress released due to excavation may cause shear displacement to take place
of hundreds of meters beyond the excavation surfaces.
8
Swelling rocks
Swelling ground displaces into the tunnel opening as result of volume change
due to water adsorption and absorption effects.
X Invert arch :- An arch invert to reduce the main zone of swelling. The
arched shaped invert was more effective than the invert slab.
9
invert, but this measure could not contain swelling and the invert did finally
fail close to the abutments. On the basis of continuous monitoring of the
swelling pressure, reinforced concrete lining of thickness 0.60 to 0.85 m was
found suitable.
E) Running Ground
Is often saturated and the presence of water can encourage liquefaction when
disturbed by tunneling activities.
Can arise at a later stage due to the progressive collapse and formation of a
significant cavity tapping a major aquifer and overlying unconsolidated
saturated deposits.
F) Gases in rocks
G) Rock temperature
10
The simplon tunnel experienced very high temperature i.e. 560c at a depth of
2134 meters.
Alpline tunnels, a sudden increase in temperature from 270c to 450c and even
630c occurred due to the sudden release of methane gases.
Effective ventilations is perhaps the only means which can alleviate the
problem.
H) Topographical conditions
One obvious changes that tunnel construction may bring about is the change
in the situ stress conditions as well as ground water conditions.
KARST PROBLEMS
Are associated with limestone and carbon rocks and including crystalline
limestone and to lesser extent, dolomitic limestone dolomite conglomerates
and marl.
Accessibility of water to these rock is the major factor leading to the karst.
11
GROUTING
Definition
12
13
14
15
16
3. Categories of Grouting
Penetration
(Intrusion)
replacement)
Displacement
(Compaction grouting)
Penetration
(permeation)
Jet grouting
(displacement,
I. Permeation grouting
This method describes the process of filling joints or fractures in rock or pore spaces in
soil with a grout without disturbing the formation. More specifically, permeation
grouting refers to the replacement of water in voids between soil particles with a grout
fluid at low injection pressure so as to prevent fracturing. It is a technique that is
generally used to reduce ground permeability and control ground water flow, but it also
can be used to strengthen and stiffen the ground.
II.
Displacement Grouting
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III.
Hydro fracture grouting is the deliberate fracturing of the ground (soil or rock) using
grout under pressure. Typically it is used to compact and stiffen the ground or to access
otherwise inaccessible voids, thus reducing the mass permeability of the ground and
produced the controlled uplift of structures. If the grouting pressure is increased
sufficiently, a soil mass may split and artificial grout-filled fissures are formed; in rock,
existing fissures may enlarge and new breaks may occur. This also referred to as
claquage by French engineers.
IV.
Compaction grouting
In this method, grout mix is specifically designed so as not to permeate the soil voids or
mix with the soil. Instead, it displaces the soil into which it is injected. In granular
deposits not at their maximum density, the volumes of voids are reduced and the
deposit is locally densified. In Compaction grouting a very stiff (say 25-mm slump)
mortar is injected into loose soils, forming grout bulbs which displace and densify the
surrounding ground, without penetrating the soil pores.
V. Grouting of voids
Grout may also be used simply to fill voids, such as may develop below the joints in a
concrete pavement through pumping. Special terms have evolved for the grouting
behind the lining of a tunnel due to over break: Backpack grouting, contact grouting, or
more especially crown grouting are found in the relevant literature, in addition to
interface and gap grouting.
VI.
Jet grouting
The high-pressure water or grout is used to physically disrupt the ground, in the process
modifying it and thereby improving it. In normal operation the drill string is advanced
18
to the required depth and then the high-pressure water or grout is introduced while
withdrawing the rods.
VII.
Based on design requirements, site conditions, soil and rock layers, restraints and
economic, the use of deep mixing methods (DMM) is increasingly spreading. These
methods have been suggested and applied for soil and rock stabilizing, slope stability,
liquefaction mitigation, vibration reduction (along the railway), road and railroad and
bridge foundations and embankments, construction of excavation support systems or
protection of structure close to excavation sites, solidification and stabilization of
contaminated soils etc. The demand for improving and stabilizing land for different
purposes is expected to increase in the future and the best way to fulfill it is by using
deep mixing methods (DMM). It is strongly suggested that, where sufficient space is
unavailable, sliding and overturning stability be augmented using soil anchors. The
main advantage of these methods is long term increasing in strength especially for some
of the binders used. Pozzolanic reaction can continue for months or even years after
mixing, resulting in the increase in strength of cement stabilized clay with the increase
in curing time.
VIII.
Electro grouting
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Electro grouting is a term used for promoting electrochemical hardening during electro
osmosis by adding chemicals, such as sodium silicate or calcium chloride, at the anode.
Under the influence of the electric field, these chemicals permeate the ground, flowing
in the direction of the cathode, while the anode becomes a grout injection pipe.
Grouting as an art
The largest quantities of grout (usually cement-based) are used in creating more or less
impervious curtains below dams in order to reduce water losses, uplift pressures, and
reduce the potential for hydraulic fracturing( leading to piping failures) under operating
conditions. Foundation grouting for increased stability and reduced compressibility is
probably next in importance. It may serve a permanent or temporary function: only a
temporary increase in strength may be required for surface or underground excavations.
In some cases, grouting may provide an elegant, if not the only way, of repairing existing
structures or making up for inaccurate or imperfect construction procedures.
For many engineers, grouting is still considered an art rather than science. Its successful
application requires a great deal of experience, thorough knowledge of geological
conditions, and an awareness of equipment capabilities and limitations. Houlsby (1982)
went even further in saying that grouting requires an intuitive perception of just what the
liquid grout does as it flows through the open joints and cracks hidden away down there
underground.
4 GROUT MATERIALS
Classification of Grout materials
Three basic types of grout are differentiated according to composition:
Suspensions: Small particles of solids are distributed in a liquid dispersion medium.
Examples: cement and clay in water.
Emulsions: A two phase system containing minute (colloidal) droplets of liquid in a
disperse phase. Example: bitumen and water. Also in this category are foams, organic
chemical. Foaming agents, such as additives which increase surface tension, assist in
20
forming bubbles by agitation; alternatively, they may induce gas- forming chemical
reactions.
Solutions: Liquid homogeneous molecular mixtures of two or more substances.
Examples: sodium silicate, organic resigns, and a wide variety of other so called chemical
grouts. A difference may be made between colloidal solutions (e.g. silica or lignochrome
gels) and pure solutions(e.g., phenolic and acrylic resins, aminoplasts). (Note: A cement
grout is not commonly classified as a chemical grout; it is usually classified as a
suspension grout.)
Principal types of grouts as distinguished by cambefort( 1987) are listed in following
table which also gives an indication of appropriate uses, construction controls, and
relative costs.
Cambefort (1977) characterizes foam grouts by the following parameters:
Expansion coefficient, eg =
= 1 + eg
Bulking coefficient, Cb =
Air Ratio, ng =
State
Suspensions
Liquids
Aerated emulsions
Unstable
Stable
Chemical Products
Sodium
Sodium
silicate Organic Cement Organic
Grout
Bentonite Deflocculated
silicate
Cement
resins
foams
foams
diluted
Type
+ cement
bentonite
hard gels
gels
High
Range of
Sands and gravels, k m/s
Fissures
Cavities
water
uses
> 5 X 10
> 10-4
> 10-4
> 10-5
> 10-6
flows
-4
Grouting
Refusal
Limited quantities
Control
Pressure
Relative
1
4.2
cost for the (deposit (cement
products to
200kg;
0.8-1
6
2-4
10-500
1.2
10
fill 1 - m3 with
bentonite
=1.5)
voids
30 kg)
21
The relationship between the expansion coefficient eg and the air ratio ng is analogous to
that of the void ratio and porosity in a soil.
The rhelogical properties and ground penetrability of foams are not only related to the
expansion coefficient, which could vary from less than 3 for cement based foams up to 50
for organic foams, but also on the bubble size distribution. The latter can be controlled, to
a degree, by the choice of foaming agent and the method of bubble formation.
22
In order to treat a particular ground stratum the corresponding length of bore hole is
isolated by expanding rubber Packer built in to the drilling rods grout is then only
allowed to flow in to soil or rock from between two packers or, if a single packer is used,
between it and the bottom of the whole.
Packers in contact with the ground are only feasible in rock grouting, for stage grouting
in soils the sleeve tube has been developed.
The procedure is as follows:
- The hole is drilled and cased.
-
A steel or plastic tube, slotted at regular intervals, is inserted. The vertical slots
are covered with rubber sleeve.
As the casing is withdrawn, the space between sleeve tube and borehole wall is
sealed with cement- bentonite groute inserting bentonite pallets or cement bentonite slurry.
After the seal has set, the grouting tube is inserted. Grout exists between two
packers allowing injection through selected slots. With increasing pressure, the
rubber sleeves burst and grout flows in to the soil.
With sleeve tube technique, grouting can be repeated in the same hole using different
viscosity grouts or different chemicals in planned sequence. Flexibility is important
where permeability of ground vary significantly from point to point.
Grouting in stages may proceed in descending (down hole down stage) or ascending
upstage direction. In descending method, impregnation of the grounds occurs in advance
of the borehole, which could be advantageous
in loose soil or rock. In the ascending
technique grouting follows drilling as separate
phase, a benefit would be that water pressure
testing is possible immediately prior to
grouting allowing for a choice of most suitable
grout type, pressure and quantity of for that
particular stratum.
Experience and intuitive judgement are used in
deciding which includes:
23
-
the pressures.
the viscosities.
reduction of seepage.
The successful grouting can only be assessed after job is completed, when seepage
measurements or settlement observation for the structure under operating conditions are
available. However some controls are possible, if not vital during the actual grouting
process or at intervals during construction. This may include:
-
Obviously the better the site investigation before grouting, the better is the chance of
selecting a successful grouting strategy.
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6 PERMEATION GROUTING OF SOILS
Grout permeation through soil is generally related to the grouts permeability, measured
in terms of the coefficient of permeability k according to Darcys law(Q=k/A). For a
particular fluid, k is primarily a function of the void ratio (or corresponding porosity or
density), but particle size distribution, soil structure, saturation, and other factors also
influence its value.
If soil voids are represented by a system of tubes with equal permeability, then the
Hagen- Poiseuille equation for the viscous and visco-plastic flow in pipes could be used
to estimate grout take and reach. A spherical or cylindrical flow model for a porous
medium is however more appropriate for permeation grouting of souls from boreholes.
Using basic well hydraulics , the distance traveled by the grout can be related to the
grouting rate and time.
Spherical Flow Model for Porous Media (Newtonian fluid)
Imagine that grout permeates soil from a spherical cavity of radius Ro under the influence
of a net pressure po (in excess of local hydrostatic pressure). Then, for laminar
Newtonian flow, the following relationship holds:
viscousity of grout, Pa . s
= viscosity of water, Pa . s
During spherical grout permeation in time dt the grout travels a distance dr. The grout
taken in time t can be found by integration from
Where,
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The time required to travel a distance R from a spherical cavity with radius R0 can be
computed by
t=
4 . .( R 3 R0 )
3Q
3
.m. .( R 2 R0 2 )
Q
As for a confined aquifer being recharged the pressure p(R) of the grout diminishes
with distance R from the borehole according to
pr = pe
2 .m.k w * ln(R/R0)
Groutability depends on the properties both of the ground and the grouting
material.
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Granular structure, permeability of the ground, rheological properties of the
grout mixture, become more important in the relation to the groutability.
Groutability criteria is that the size of grout particles must be small enough so
that they can penetrate the soil or rock formations. So
D85 (grout)< 1/3 B ( fissure)
D85 (grout) < 1/15 (soil)
The ratio of D15 (soil) to D85( grout) is also called groutability ratio.
D15s / D85g = Rg ( groutability ratio)
The groutability ratio should be exceed 15, but in some cases has been
carried out successfully with this ratio of 5 to 10.
Groutability of granular soils
Groutability also depends on the injection pressure and the degree of dilution
of the grout.
Tubular
flow
analysis teaches us
that the resistance to
the
penetration
decreases
with
of
opening.
permeability
the
The
of
relation
to
27
Relationship between water/cement ratio and viscosity for different types of cement
Above figure shows the comparison of the viscosity of microfine cement with that of
colloidal and ordinary Portland cement. Increasing the water/cement ratio does
decrease the viscosity but also increases the gel time and reduces the strength of the
grouted soil.
28
-
Fig:Interpretation of flow
pressure diagrams
In soils, overburden pressure would be a reasonable conservation guide for predicting the
danger of hydrofracture. Unless the soil is overconsolidated, initial cracks could well run
vertically along boreholes (even to the surface) rather than along weaker layers of soil in
a horizontal direction.
The existing tectonic stress state, redistribution of stresses due to mining and
construction activities could be very important when it comes to predicting or interpreting
the effect of high grouting pressures on the ground.
Whether the (low pressure) penetration or (high pressure) displacement grouting
techniques are to be used on a particular job may not only depend on the prevailing
Prepared By : Arvind Kumar Jha ( 065/MsG/R/801)
29
geological conditions and the particular type of grout used, but also on the local
experience, design philosophy and construction practice. Some experts maintain that
penetration grouting is adequate for the treatment of most foundations ;others see the
occurrence of hydraulic fracturing of the ground not only as inevitable but necessary for
thorough impregnation.
References :
1) Underground excavation in rock by E. HOEK AND ET. BROWN
2) Engineering principle of Ground modification by HAUSSMAN
3) Tunnel engineering hand book by BICKEL, KUESEL AND KING
4) Tunneling and tunnel mechanics by DIMITRIOS KOLYMBAS
5) Class note in underground excavation 2009/10 by Prof. Dr. AKAL BR. SINGH
6) Internet collection.