EXTRA ISSUE Ue Raut lge (ems tCel} Exam. Oriented Series-6 GENERAL STUDIES GENERAL SCIENCE (PHYSICS =a Useful for Union and State Civil Services and Other Competitive Exams.® Contents ® ib Eztorial General Physics Mechanics, Sound and Properties of Matter Dimensional Analysis Motion Along a Straight Line Path Circular Motion Mechanics Work, Energy and Machines Universal Gravitation Hydrostatios Atmospheric Pressure ‘Simple Harmonic Motion Sound Doppler's Etfect, Elasticity Surface Tension Flow of Liquids and Viscosity Heat Calorimetry Hygrometry| Transmission of Heat Light Eclipses Spherical Mirrors Refraction of Light Refraction Through Lenses Dispersion Optical Instruments Electricity and Magnetism Electrical Capacitance SELES SSLLSRSLSSSRSBRVS Electical Conduction Simple Circuits Electromagnetism Electromagnetic Induction Altemating Current Electron Physics Photoelectric Effect Structure of Atom and Origin of Spectra X-Rays Radioactivity Structure of the Nucleus Nuolear Energy ‘Modern Applications of Electronics Astronomy Planets of Solar System Important Points Mechanics and General Properties of Matter Heat ‘Sound Ligat Electricity and Magnetism Electron and Modern Physics Information Related to Electromagnetic Spectrum ‘Some Nobel Prize Winners in Physics and their Contribution Astronomy and Space Physics Discoveries and Inventions in Physics ‘Space Programme of India Large Hadron Collider at the European Particle Physics Laboratory near Geneva ‘Atomic Energy Programme of India @ PDJGen. Sei-1/3/1 a57 58 59 60 62 66 4 80 100 101 104 107 110 112 14 ‘Telecommunication Programme of india Other Services of Eloctronic Mall Development of Electronic Industry in India India's Atomic Tests Prominent Scientists jontfic Instruments. Latest and Important Topics ‘Scientific Reasons. Objective Questions ‘Computer Physics ‘Computer Facts Objective Questions Chemistry Polymers and Plastic Poriodic Tablo—A Study (Chemical Bonding and Chemical Equations (Oxidation and Reduction 15 17 118 120 124 122 123 125 126 127 129 128 130 139 143 143 144 145 147 149 Carbon and its Compounds Matter and its Classification Atomic Structure Behaviour of Gases Oils, Fais and Soaps Acids, Bases and Salts Nitragen and Phosphorus ‘Atmosphere, Oxygen and Sulphur Halogens Environmental Chemistry Agriculture Chemistry Inert Gases Important Metals ‘Some Important Points Based on Annual Report Chemicals and Petrochemicals Science and Technology :Ata Glance Scientific Reasons Prominent Scientists Objective Questions The concurenco ofthe vows ofthe Ector nat nacesary for any mater or gure pushed i Prasiyagta Oarpan, “ealtor P.D/Gen. SeiPeery “as, |WORK'IS|GOD'S GIFT-WORSHIP IT, Do your work with devotion and it become: ource of joy. Life becomes what we make it like, We cannot change the circumstances in which we are placed, but we can certainly change our attitude towards them. And that makes all the: A temple was being built in a place of pilgrimage. Three men sitting by the road side near the half-built temple, were busy breaking and ‘cutting large boulders into pieces. It twas a hot scorching day and te three sweated heavily. A passer-by, on seeing themt, out of curiosity went to the first one, and asked, “hat are you doing 2” “Don’t you see what 1 ‘am doing ? Breaking stones and what else” said he. There woas annoyance and irritation in his voice, and stress and strain and sadness on his face. Breaking stones could not certainly bea source of joy. The passer-by went silently to the second man and repeated his question, “What are you doing my friend 2”, and the reply was, "Earn- ing my livelihood.” He had simply stated a fact. He was not sad, he was not angry at his plight, but he was not happy either. It was perhaps an involuntary submission fo a situa- tion, There was a sense of utter helplessness in his words. How could earning livelihood be a thing of joy ? The traveller silently moved ahead. He went to the third man and ‘once again asked hh the same ques- fon, “And what are you doing my ‘worthy friend 2” The man took afew seconds to answer as he had not heard the question, why ? Because he ‘was completely engrassed in his work and teas also humming a joyous song while hammering and chipping the stone, The question coas then repea~ fed to which he answered with @ sparkle in his eyes, “Oh, don’t you know’, ‘I am building a temple, a temple for my Lord.” While uttering the words, perhaps he was already seeing his Lord in the sanctum sane- forum, The work was the same, the working conditions were the same, PD.|Gen.Se-1]5 ‘the situation similar, and yet what a difference in the reaction to the same work? One was carrying the burden of his existence, somehow perhaps even cursing it To the second one, the work he was doing was simply a drudgery. Had no alternative and he had to do it, whether he liked it or not. But the third one was different from the other two. For him the work ‘wns as sacred as the work is God. Every moment, every hour, every day, spent in the work zoas an offering to the Lord, as it ins-pired in hhim a sense of sanctity towoards tohat hhe was doing, the work he was assigned with. He did it as a pen in the hand of God or he did the whole work on behalf of and for God. As Lord Shri Krishna said to Arjun ‘Be only the counter cause. The real cause is inside you, and that is 1° who bids and whispers to you to do all that you doin life— “Therefore, thow rise and get up, earn name and fame. Be the outer cause PrP 7a: ar et | (eer 11/33) And this attitude, this approach, towards his work and life was a significant thing and attribute that ‘gave a sacred meaning to his work, transformed existence into a vibrant life-a life of joy and happiness, a life with a noble purpose, a life with a lofty mission. The great monkey ‘worshipper of Sri Ram, Hanuman ji, did all things in his Master's name, Sri Ram ji, ana he was quite at peace even when he was arrested and produced before the demon king— Raoana. He sad only one thing. Lan not worried or ashamed on being arrested I want to do my Master's work.” ‘Human life is not a burden but a _great opportunity and it leads one to ference. the realm where there is Peace and Happiness. This life affords an oppor- tuuity to serve and worship God and through Him serve mankind and humanity. As a saintly person has said "As freely we have received His blessings, so freely let us give the best of ourselves to our fellowmen.” Its true that we cannot change cour destinies, the circu-mstances in which we are born, but what we can do is fo make the best out of life that has been given to us, to make the best of the situation with which we have been surrounded. If we do the work given to us, with a sense of duty and devotion, then it would become a source of joy and happiness. When twe doa thing forthe sake of a higher purpose, it becomes a source of joy. Life is exactly as ome wants it to be, fs one beholds it and moulds one's life according to one’s orn vision of it, according to the attitude one has towards it If handled and tackled properly life may turn into great opportunities and may ultimately prove blessings in disguise. Moment of turmoil have often proved to be moments of great achievements, when responded to with hope, courage and with a posi- tive bent of mind. It is the right perspective and the right attitude that makes all the difference. It depends on us whether we respond to a situation as a curse ora blessing or only react and keep cursing, I is prcisely the tragedy of most of us who just carry the burden of existence. A real life isa life in which every moment brings @ new hope, a new inspiration and a new beginn- This és perhaps the state when life itself is a manifestation of God's work, worship iUpkar's Useful Books for Xs s 1 ‘Useful for ; Leet = Hid Ca ; ae ts ba) > Pri SUCCESS mI pie i Ou Pee Wy fe Ela TST F900 Code 1673 75.00 bat Sac DISCUSSION CURRENT oe TOPICS Code 988 195.00 Code 1691 7000 Code 405 © 199.00 2/11 A, Swadeshi Bima Nagar, AGRA-282 002 Ph. : 4059983, 2590008, 2581101; Fax: (0562) 4059000 E-mail: care@upkarin Branch Offices : * New Delhi Ph. : (011) 23251844/66 ttremad Ph ou) 68753600 Patna M. : 9334137572GENERAL SCIENCE General Physics Mechanics, Sound and Properties of Matter Dimensional Analysis 1, Fundamental and Derived Units In mechanics, there are three physical quantities namely mass, Jength and time which are called fundamental physical quantities and the units of these physical quantities are called fundamental units. These units are called fundamental because they ae all independent of each other. But while discussing other branches of Physics, we come across other physical quantities like temperature Juminous intensity, electric current and the amount of substance which are also called fundamental physical quantities and their units kelvin (K), candela (Cd), ampere (A), mole (mob) respectively are called funda ‘mental units. In addition, there are ‘wo supplementary fundamental nits radian forplane angle and steradian for solid angle. The units which are not independent of each other and are obtained from the fundamental units, are called the derived units. For example, the units of area velocity acceleration, volume, force ete. are the derived unit, S.. Units or International System of Units In this system, there are seven fundamental units and wo supple- mentary units, Seven fundamental units are—()_ mete (for length), (ii) Kilogram (for mass), (iii) second (for time), (iv) kelvin (for tempera- ture), (¥) ampere (for current), (vi) candela (for luminous intensity, (vii) mole (for amount of substance). Two supplementary units are—(j) radian (for plane angle) and (ii) steradian (for solid angle) PD, Gen, Se-1)7 jensions The dimensions of a physical {quantity are the powers to which the fundamental units are raised in onder 4. Important Dimensional For- mulae Density [ML*}, velocity [LT], angular velocity [T-!], acceleration to obiain the units of that quantity, [LT], angular acceleration [T2] ‘The fundamental quantities mass, impulse [MLT"], torque [ML?T=]. length, ime, temperature, luminous foree [MLT-], moment of inertia intensity and current are respectively [ML?}, work (ML?T2}, power represented as M, L,T, 0, ed and A. [ML*T-J, pressure [ML-'T}, stress If the dimensions of a physical [ML-'T~, strain (dimensionless), quantity are ain length, bin mass, c modulus “of elasticity. [ML~" in time and d in temperature, then the dimensions of that physical quantity shall be written in the following (eM'To4) ‘This is the dimensional formula of that quantity surface tension [MT#], gravitational constant [M-iLT™], coefficient of viscosity (MLT] 5. Important Conversions (i) Light year—Distance tra- velled by light in vacuum in one year 9:46 x 10° m, Tacisata Glance ‘Some Important Units Physical quantity Unit (6.1) Distance metre Mass kilogram Time second Curent ampere “Temperature kelvin Luminous intensity candela Angle radian Solid angle seradian Force newton Enesgy joule Spee ‘meite/second [Angular velocity ‘adian/second requency hertz Moment of inoria Iilogram metre square Momentum ‘kilogram meue/second Angular momenta Isilogram metre square/second, Pressure pase Power watt Surface tension neviton per metre Viscosity nevston second per metre square ‘Thermal conductivity | walt per motte per degree celeius Specific heat Joule per kilogram per kelvin Electie charge coulomb Potential volt Capacitance farad Electrical resistance chim Indvetance heory Magnetic flax weber Luminous fax lumen unminance lux Optical wavelength angstrom Impulse newton cond(ii) Astronomical unit—The average distance between the earth origin [Fig.(i)] and the sun = 1-496 x 10" m, Ci) Parsee (Parallactic second) —The distance at which an arc of Jength equal to one astronomical unit subtends an angle of one second at a point = 31 x 10! m, Also I parsee 3-26 light years (iv) L micron = 10! m (9) 1 milli micron = 10°° m (vi) L Angstrom = 10-'° m (vit) 1 Fermi deci) 10°! Tactata Glance Important Prefixes to Units tera (T) 10! ‘conti (e) 10 giga (G) 10° ‘milli (rm) 10° megs (M) 10° cry) 10° kilo (ke) 10° ‘nano (n) 10% hhecto (h) 10? pico (p) 10-!2 eka (da) 10 fea (10° 10-F m Motion Along a Straight ine Path 1. Distance and Displacement ‘The length of path traversed by anobject ina certain time is called the distance travelled by that object, It is a scalar quantity. Its $. 1 unit is metre (m) and its dimensional formula is IMPL!T?}. Displacement is the mini- ‘mum distance between the initial and final positions of an object. It is a vector quantity. Its unit and dimen- sional formula are same as those of distance, 2. Speed and Velocity ‘The distance traversed by an object in I sec is called its spee: a scalar quantity. Velocity is the dis- tance travelled by an object in a specified direction in unit time. It is a vector quantity, The unit of both speed and velocity is nsec. 3. Acceleration ‘The rate of change of velocity of anobject with time iscalled its accele- ration, It is @ vector quantity. Its unit is misec?, Negative acceleration is called retardation, Caution Decreasing accelera- tion is NOT retardation In case of increasing acceleration the slope of velocity time graph is PD,/Gen. Se1]8 increasing as we go further from Velocity > Time —> Fig. (i Incase of decreasing acceleration the slope of velocity time graph is decreasing as we go further from origin (Fig. Gi). Velocity > Time —> Fig. i Galileo's Equations for Uni formly Accelerated Motions If the initial velocity of an object isu, such that on moving distance ¥ in + seconds its final velocity becomes v, then— @ v=utar Gy ee welt Gil) 2 = w+ 2av ‘These are called equations of ‘motion, The distance travelled by an ‘object in # second is yer doce 5. Relative Velocity ‘The relative velocity of an object B relative to a stationary or moving ‘object A is equal to the time rate of change of position of object B with respect to object A. (i) IF two objects A and B are moving with velocities 1 and v res pectively in the same direction then the velocity of A relative to B will be (wv) and the velocity of B relative to A will be (y—u), Gi) If A and B are moving in ‘opposite directions then the velocity (of A relative to B will be (u+ ¥). 6. Scalar Quantities ‘The physical quantities which are expressed only by their magnitude ‘and have no direction are called scalar quantities. Mass, distance, time, volume, density, pressure, work power, temperature, charge, potential, current, amplitude, specific heat, latent heat ete. are scalar quantities. 7. Vector Quanti ‘The physical quantities which have both magnitude and direction are called vector quantities. Velocity, acceleration, force, weight, momen” ‘um, displacement, impulse, momen- tum, torque, magnetic field, electric field, gravitational field, current density, temperature gradient etc. are vector quantities, Circular Motion When a particle moves with a constant speed in a horizontal cizcular path about an axis or a definite point assumed to be a centre, its motion is called the uniform circular motion. 1. Angular Velocity In rotational motion, the angle tumed by a particle in a unit time is called its angular velocity. Ifin time ¢ seconds the particle rotates through an angle 0 radian then If the particle completes one revolution in T seconds and it com- pletes n revolutions in one second, then Qn 1 o = Pandn=y © = 2m HeteT is the time period and n is the frequency of rotation of particle. Angular acceleration of the Ao particle = @ = 2 Linear velocity Angular velocity x Radius Angular acceleration where a is the linear acceleration of the particle 3. Centripetal Acceleration ‘A particle moving with a uniform speed » in a circle experiences anaccclertion " disted towards the centre, This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration, The magai- tude of centripetal acceleration always Femains constant but its direction continuously changes. It is always directed towards the centre at every Point of motion, 4. Centripetal Force When a particle or a body moves with a uniform speed v on a circular path of radius r, then itis acted upon by a force which is always directed twats the conte of the Gil, Ths fe cle entptal force. The magnitude F="™ of his foro tenins constant but sins this fore i always dected towards he centre its direction continuously changes. Mechanics 1. Newton’s Laws of Motion First law—Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform ‘motion in a straight line unless acted upon by some external force to change that state Second law—The time rate of change of linearmomentum of « body Js directly proportional to the applied force and the change takes place in the direction of the applied force. Ap may Fa ‘a toa 74 Third law—To every action, there is an equal and opposite reac- tion, Action and reaction never act on the same body. If they acton the same body, the resultant force on the body will be zero, i., the body will be in equilibrium. 2. Unit of Force ‘The unit of force is newton and itis the force which when acts on an object of mass 1 kg produces an acceleration of 1 mis? on it in the direction of application of force. I newton = [kg L mis? ‘The C.G.S. unit of force is dyne Tnowton = 105 dyne PD,/Gen. Se-1]9 3. Momentum ‘The product of the mass and the velocity of a body is called its ‘momentum. It isa vector quantity. Its tnt is kg mis or newton-see p=mxy 4. Impulse When a force F acts on a body for a small time-interval 41, then the produet of the force and the time- interval is called the impulse of the foree, i. Impulse = Fx a Impulse is a vector quantity. Its unit is newton second or ky m/sec Ap_mav art ar or Fxar= mxay Impulse = Change in momentum 5. Law of Conservation of Momentum If no external force acts upon a system of two or more bodies then the total momentum of the system remains constant, 6. Relation between Momen- tum and Kinetic Energy Kinetic energy ‘The force acting between the two surfaces in contact which acts tangen- tial to the surface in contact and ‘opposes the relative mation between them, is called force of friction. The maximum value of static friction which comes into play when a body is just going to slide over the surface of another body is called limiting friction. When a body has actual relative motion with respect to the second body, then this dynamic friction is less than the static friction. Coefficient of friction—The ratio of the force of limiting friction F and normal reaction R between the two surfaces in contact is called the coefficient of fiietion 1... F uk Angle offrfetion—It is the angle between the normal reaction Rand the resultant of limiting friction F and the normal reaction. From the fig. itis clear that — ana et Work, Energy and Machines 1. Work fon applying a force on a body. the body is displaced, then work is said to be done. This work is equal to the product of force and displacement of the body in the direetion of force. Work = Force x Displacement in direction of force Work is a scalar quantity. Its unit is joule 1 joule = I newton x 1 metre or joule = newton-metre If the displacement (4) of the body is at an angle (0) with the direction of force (F), then work done = Fad cos 0. In the force-displacemeat graph, the area enclosed by the foree- placement curve represents the work done by a variable force. 2. Power ‘The rate of doing work by a body is called its power ‘The unitof power is joule/second for watt | watt = 1 jovle/second 1 Horse power (H.P) 746 wat Also, Power = F4 ' Force x Velocity Fx P 3. Energy ‘The total capacity of doing work by a body is called its energy. It is @ scalar quantity. Its unt is joule | watt hour = 3600 joule 1 kilowatt hour = 3600 x 1000 joule = 36 10° joule4. Kinetic Energy ‘The energy possessed by a body by virtue ofits motion is called its kinetic energy. k=} my? joule 2 3. Potential Energy It is the energy stored in a body by virtue of its position of state Gravitational potential energy U = mgh joule 6. Relation between K. E. and Momentum 7. Law of Conservation of Energy ‘The magnitude of the total energy of a physical system always remains constant. Only one form of energy is transformed into the other form of energy but it can neither be created nor destroyed. The total energy of the universe remains constant 8. instein’s Mass-Energy Relation If mass m is converted into energy. the energy obtained will be E= me where cis the speed of light, Universal Gravitation Solar System and Planets ‘The family of the sun is called the solar system. It consists of sun which is stationary atthe centre of the universe, a source of light and energy and eight planets (pluto has lost its planet status) which revolve around the sun in separate orbits. The order of the planets in the solar system with their increasing distance from the sun I Mercury 2. Venus 3. Barth 4. Mars S.lupiter 6, Saturn 7.Uranus 8, Neptune 9, Formerly Plato For more details about them please refer the chapter on Astto: P.D.|Gen. Se. nomy. John Kepler found important regularities in the motions of the planets. He gave three laws in this context called Kepler's laws of planetary motion, 2. Kepler’s Laws (@ All planets move around the sun in elliptical orbits having the sun atone focus of the orbit (i) The areal speed of the planet remains constant. (ii) The square of the period of revolution of any planet around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the Tes, Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation ‘The force of attraction between any two material particles is directly proportional to the product of the ‘masses of the particles and inversoly proportional to the square of the distances between them. It acts along the line joining the two particles, Gmymy Fo where G is the universal gravitation Constant, Its value is 667 x 10" nnewton-mv kg? 4, Acceleration due to Gravity ‘The acceleration due to gravity is the rate of increase of velocity of body falling freely towards the earth, Thus, _ GM, £= R? where Mes the mass of earth, R. is its radius, the average value of gis found to be 98 mis. Its another unit nowton/kg. Its a vector quantity 5. Variation in g (@ On the susface of earth the value of g is minimum at the equator. It increases on moving towards the poles and is maximum at the poles ‘The difference in the value of g at equator and atthe poles is 3-4 emis. ‘The variation in g due to the rota tional motion of earth about its own, g! = (ro?) At poles ~ g’ = g. Here g has the maxi- ‘mum value. At equator r= R, °8”=(g-R,0) Here gis minimum, (ii) The value of g decreases on moving above or below the surface of earth, Itis zero atthe centre of the earth, 6. Reaction on the Surface of If a person of mass m kg is standing inside the lift then its weight ‘mg_will act perpendicularly down wands and the reaction force R on the lift surface will act perpendicularly ‘upwards, This reaction force R is the weight of the person. Consider the following cases — (i) Lift is stationary or is moving with a uniform yelocity— In this case R = mg. (i) Lift is moving upwards with a uniform acceleration (@)— In this case an effective force F = met will act upwards. | Fama ms ‘Therefore, R= mg = ma or R = m(g+a) This weight m (g +) is called the apparent weight. Thus, the apparent weight of the body increases if the lift accelerates in the upward direction, (iii) Lift is moving down with an aceeleration (ct)—Now the effec: tive force F = mat will act in down- ward direction. So that, mg-R = ma or R = mga) + [ ‘Thus the apparent weight of the person decreases when the lift moves downward with acceleration «. R = mg—ma=mg-F (iv) Lift is falling freely—1f accidentally the cables of the lift are ccut so that it falls freely with an acceleration a = g, then the apparent ‘weight of the person, R = m(g—a@=m(e-9)=0 Thus, the person will be in the state of weightlessness in this case7. Satellite A heavenly body revolving sround a planet in an orbit is called natural satellite, For example, moon is the natural satellite of earth (4) Orbital velocity of a satellite GM, 26m _— mi? Now or we VP But r= R, +h, where fr is the height ofthe satellite from the earth’s surface aM, Again GM, = gravitational acceleration onthe ccart's surface — £ : Vat +H 1k may, therefore, be concluded that— (The speed of satellite depends upon its height from the earth's surface, The farther is the satelite from the earth’s surface, the lesser will be its speed. Gi) The velocity of a satellite does not depend upon its mass. There- fore, if various satellites of different masses revolve around the earth in same orbit then their orbital velocities will be the same. i) Ifa satellite is very close to earth's surface (h< tte fist ba modulus ofthe liquid medium, In water, VP 2x 109 newton/m? 7 1000 kg/m = 1480 mise ‘The speed of sound in deep water is higher in comparison to that in shallow water © The speed of sound in solids is tivenby vz a Here Y is the Young's modulus of the solid medium. Iniron, pee newton!n? +e 8000 kgm? = 5000 mis “The speed of sound is maximum in slide and minimum in gases Tacisata Glance Intensity of Sound Intensity Intensity Area Kindof during) atnight code area theday | (Decibel) (Decibel) A Indus | 75 » teal area BCom. 65 3 sercial © Residen! 55 45 D Peace: | 50 40 ful area 7. Characteristics of Sound ‘The threecharacteristics of sound are as follows— (Intensity —11 is the charac teristic of sound due to which a particular sound appears feeble or loud. The intensity 1 is proportional to the square of the amplitude (a) of ‘of the source of sound (ii) Piteh—It is the characteris- tic of sound due to which a particular sound appears grave or shrill, The pitch of a sound depends only upon its frequency. Greater the frequency ‘ofa sound higher isthe pitch, (iii) Quality—It is the charac- it ofan by whch we on Sangh bowers aah Sy Te ly a sod pets tpn nme, xr nd lve Bony ft neon 8. Intensity Level In el as een died nanan keh ag icra wane nc of stint mf rae ken at wave intensity ly = 1 x 10°! Stl ond ues 100" He THe dows ud df Ilo esol ot hewsag Tie Uy Iola deel Og (1). Doel i ies sionless unit. A normal ear ean dis guish sounds with intensity difference Of | dB. The above definition holds forall frequencies. Doppler’s Effect 1. Doppler’s Effect in Sound When there is a relative motion between the source of sound and the observer, then the frequency of the sound appears changed to the observer. If, as a result of relative ‘motion, distance between the source and the observer is decreasing, then the frequency of the source appears to be inereased to the observer. Ifthe distance between them is increasing, the frequency appears to be decreased to the observer. The apparent change in the frequency of the source due to relative motion between the source and the observer is known as Doppler’s effect. It was first dis- covered by C. Doppler in 1842. According to it— Apparent frequency __ Velocity of sound wrt, observer = Velocity of sound wr. soures > Actual frequency2. Doppler’s Effect in Light Doppler’s effect is observed in light waves also. Ifa light source is coming towards an observer then the apparent frequency of light is increased (i.e., the wavelength is decreased). Hence its spectral lines are shifted towards the violet end of the spectrum. On the other hand if the light-source is going away from the observer. then the spectral lines are shifted towards the red endl of the spectrum. This shift in wavelength is called Doppler's shift, Doppler’s effect in light depends only upon the relative motion of the light-source and the observer, it does rot matter which one is Adis the wavelength a= (Qo the velocity of light source and 2. is actual wavelength, Elasticity 1. Elasticity Elasticity is that property of the ‘material of a body by virtue of which the body opposes any change in its shape of size when deforming forces are applied to it, and recovers its original state as soon as the deforming forces are removed. 2. Strait ‘The ratio of the change in con- figuration (e., shape, Iength or volume) to the original configuration of the body is called strain. There are three types of strain—longitudinal strain W/L, volume strain v/V and shearing strain. Strain is a pure ratio and has no unit 3. Stress Due to the external deforming force, the internal restoring force acting per unitarea of cross-sectionof the deformed body is called stress. Its unit is newton/’m? and its dimensional formula is [ML"T, 4. Limit of Elasticity ‘The maximum deforming force upto which a body retains its property of elasticity is called the “limit of elasticity’ of the material ofthe body. PD./Gen. Sel) 15 5. Hooke’s Law Within the limit of elasticity, the strain produced in a body is directly proportional tothe stress applied to it ‘This is called the Hooke’s law. Thus, Stress Strain of elasticity) The constant E is known as ‘modulus of elasticity ‘The value of modulus of elasti- city of @ material depends upon the type of stress and strain produced. If stain is longitudinal, then the modu lus of elasticity is called “Young's ‘modulus’ If strain is in volume then it is called “bulk modulus’ and if strain is shearing, then it is called “modulus of rigidity. 6. Young’s Modulus Within the elastic Limit, the ratio of longi-tudinal stress to longitudinal strain is called the Young's modulus Of the material of the body. Longitudinal stess Y = Longitudinal stain = Malar = UL Mg ari = Constant E (modulus Surface Tension 1. Surface Tension Every liquid has a property that its free surface behaves like a stretched elastic membrane and has natural tendency to contract, ie. the free surface of a liquid tends to ‘occupy a minimum surface area. This property of liquid is called the surface tensic 2. Definition of Surface Ten- sion ‘The surface tension of a Liquid defined as the force per unit Iength in the plane of the liquid surface, acting at right angles on either side of an ‘imaginary line drawn in that susface. Its unit is ‘newton’metre and dimen= sions are [MT=] 3. Factors Affecting Surface Tension Following three factors affeetthe surface tension of a liquid— () Temperature—The surface tension of a liquid decreases with the rise in temperature, (ii) Soluble impurities—1f the impurity is less soluble the surface fension of the liquid decreases. If the impurity is more soluble, the surface tension of liquid increases (iii) Insoluble impurities —The surface tension of liquid decreases due to contamination, 4. Relation Between Surface Tension and Work Done in Increasing the Surface Area If the work done in increasing the surface area of liquid by A A is W, then surface tension of the liquid IPA A=, then T=W Hence, the surface tension of liquid is equal to the work required to increase the surface area ofthe liquid film by unity at a constant tempera- ture. Therefore, surface tension may also be expressed in “joule/metre?. 5. Cohesive and Adhesive Forces ‘The force of attraction between the molecules of the same substance (like, water) is called cohesive force and that between the molecules of different substances (like—paperand gum) is called adhesive force, The maximum distance (= 10°” metre) upto which two molecules attract each other is called molecular range 6. Rise of Liquid in the Capillary When a glass capillary tube open at both ends is dipped vertically in water (or in some other liquid which sticks with glass), the water rises in the tube due to surface tension to 2 height *h’ above the water level outside the tube. py = 2TeosO "ps Here r is the radius of the capil lary tube, p is the density of liquid and T is its surface tension, @ is the Principle of Continuity ‘When an ideal fluid (non-viscous and incompressible) flows ina streamline condition through a tube of non- uniform cross-section, at each section of the tube, the product of area of cross-section (a) and velocity (») of fluid is constant It is called prineiple of continuity. According to it— 4a; x 1» = Constant 2. Bernoulli's Theorem When a non-viscous and incom- pressible fluid flows from one point tothe other in a stream line condition without any frictional or resistive force, the total energy of uid kinetic energy + potential enerey + pressure energy) remains constant at each point of its flow. Thus, 4 p24 pvh +P = Constant 3 P+ prh +P = Constant 3. Yenturimeter tis adevice based on Bernoulli's theorem. It is used to find the rate of flow of liguid in a tube, The rate of flow of fiquid— {2h Qs ae eas Here iis the difference in liquid columns of the two vertial tubes of area of eross section ay and a respec tively Viscosity “The propery of fluids by virtue of which there isa tendency tooppose the relative motion between its diffe- rent layers, is called viscosity Coefficient of viscosity ~The viscous force acting between the two layers of a liquid— F=nA dy dy i dy ate I then n “Thus, the coefficient of viscosity ofa liquid is defined as the viscous force per unit area of contact between two layers having a unit velocity gradient between ther. The dimen- sions of mare [ML 'T-!. lt unit is kg mls. The CGS. unit is ¢ emt $1 which is also called poise I kglm-s = 10 poise Since poise is a bigger unit, we generally use cent-poise, where | contipoise = 10° poise Effect of temperature on vis- cosity—The viscosity of Tiguids decreases with ise intemperature.On the other hand the viseosity of gases ‘increases wit rise in temperature P.D.|Gen. Se. Heat 1. Thermal Expansion ‘The expansion of substances on heating is called thermal expansion. ‘This expansion may be in length, area and volume. They are respectively called linear expansion, superficial expansion and volume expansion. 2. Coefficient of Linear Expan- sion ‘The increase in length of a rod of unit length of @ substance due 10 inerease in its temperature by 1°C is called the coefficient of linear expan sion of the substance ofthat rod. I is represented by ct, AL Lx ar or AL = axLxar ‘The unit of «is “per °C Similarly coefficient of super- ficial expansion is given as— p= Increase in area Initial area x Rise in temperature AA Axa or AA = BxAxar Unit of Bis also “per °C". Coefficient of volume or cubical expansion is— Increase in volume Original volume x Rise in temperature _ av = Var or AV = yx VxAr Its unit is also ‘per °C° 3. Relationship Between the Coefficients of Linear, Superficial and Cubical Expan ‘These co-efficients are related as follows— epey or B 4, Anomalous Expansion of Water Generally all the liquids expand in volume when they are heated but water decreases in volume when heated from 0°C to 4°C and then after 4°C, it increases in volume on furtherheating. The volume of a fixed ‘mass of water is minimum at 4°C, i. 1:2:3 2aandy=3a its density is maximum at 4°C (1-000 > 10° kg/m) with further rise in tem. perature its density decreases Calorimetry 1. Temperature Temperature is the property of a body which determines whether itis in thermal equilibrium with the neighbouring body oF not. 2. Mercury Thermometer ‘They generally contain two types of seale~Celsius seale (from 0°C to 100°C) and Farenheit scale (from 32°F to 212"F) ‘They are elated as— c _F-32 100 = 180 In moseury thermometer, mer- cury is placed in a small spherical bulb attached 10 a long, thin glass capillary tube sealed at the. top. Mercury is used because it undergoes ‘uniform thermal expansion and has @ wide range (from — 30°C 10 300°C), Facts at a Glance ‘Thermometer’s Minimum | Maximum Seale Tempera Tempera- ture ture (Freezing (Boiling point) point) Centigrade 9c lore or Celsius Faraheit | 327 | 21207 Reumer oR, 80°R 3. Kelvin or Absolute Seale On this scale the freezing point of water is 273:15K (or 273K) and boil ing point of water is 373K. The diffe- rence of 100° between these tempera turesis divided in 100 equal parts. 1K is equal to 1°C. Therefore, K = 273+°C o °C = K-23 If C =~ 273° then K = 0, This temperature is called absolute zero, 4. Specific Heat ‘The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 gram ‘mass of that substance by 1°C. If heat Qis imparted to raise the temperature of m mass of a substance by AT°Cthen specific heat of the substance Q mat ‘The unit of specific heat is eal enc, ‘The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of | gm of water by 1°Cis called I calorie. The bigger unit of heat is kilo-calorie which is equal to 1000 calorie. 5. Thermal Capacity ‘Thermal capacity of a substanc is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the substance by 1°C. ‘Thermal eapacity Mass (m) x Specific heat (C) The unit of thermal capacity is cal C+! or JK 6. Latent Heat of Fusion ‘The amount of heat required 0 change unit mass of a solid into the liquid at a constant temperature is called latent heat of fusion. For example, latent heat of fusion of ice 5s 80 cal/am, 7. Latent Heat of Vaporisation ‘The amount of heat required to change unit mass of a liquid into ‘vapour at a constant temperature is, called the latent heat of vaporisation ofthat liquid. The latent heat of steam is $36 cal 7 or 2251 Jer! [eal =42] 8. Boiling Point Boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the saturated ‘vapour pressure of that liquid becomes equal fo the external atmospheric pressure. For example, boiling point of \water at normal atmospheric pressure = 100°C Boiling point increases with the Jnerease in external pressure, as in a pressure cooker. Boiling point decreases withthe decrease in atmos- photic pressure as at mountains. Hygrometry 1, Humidity ‘The presence of moisture in the atmosphere is called humidity. 2. Absolute Humidity ‘The amount of water vapour present in the unit volume of atmos- phere is called absolute humidity. PD./Gen. See1/17 3. Relative Humidity The ratio of the amount of water vapour present in unit volume of atmosphere at a particular temperature to the amount of saturated water ‘vapour at that temperature in unit Volume is called the relative humidity of atmosphere. Its expressed in per centage Relative humidity is measured by an instrument called hygrometer. Transmission of Heat ‘Modes of Heat Transmission Heat can be transferred from one place to another by he following three ‘modes— (Conduction, Gi) Convection, (ii) Radiation, ( Conduetion—This is the ‘mode of transmission of heat in which although the particles of medium take part, but they clo not leave their posi- tions. In conduction, heat is trans- ‘mitted from the hotter part of the ‘medium tothe colder part through one particle to the other neighbouring particle. In solids and mercury. heat is transmitted only by conduction. Gi) Convection—In this mode, the particles of a medium actually ‘move to the source of heat energy, and on absorbing heat energy move away from it, thereby making space for other particles to move to the source of heat. This is called convec- tion. Convection is possible only in case of liquids and gases, but notin case of solids (iii) Radiation—The trans ference of heat energy from a hot body to a cold body directly, without heating the space in between the two Dodies, is called radiation. Solar ergy reaches earth by radiatio Light Reflection ‘The phenomenon due to which a beam of light, travelling through a certain. medium, on striking, some surface, bounces off from it in some other direction is called reflection of light. 2. Laws of Reflection There are two laws of reflec- tion — () The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence lie in the same plane. (Gi) Angle of incidence is always equal to angle of reflection, Eclipses 1. Eclipses take place due to the rectilinear propagation of Tight Eclipses are of two types. (i) Solar eclipse and (ji) Lunar eclipse, The sun is a luminous body and the moon and the earth are non- luminous bodies. They get light from the sun. The moon is visible 10 us at night due to the scattering of light that falls on its surface, The moon revolves around the earth in its orbit and the earth revolves round the sun in its orbit. Whenever the earth, the sun and the moon are almost in a straight line, and in same plane, an eclipse takes place. (i) Solar ectipse—When moon, which is a non-luminous body, comes between earth and the sun it casts its shadow on earth that is, the Tight from that part of the sun does not fall on the earth, As a result that part of the sun becomes invisible. Since the easth is bigger than the moon, it cannot entirely pass through the umbra, The observers on that part of the earth which passes through umbra (at ¢ in fig.) see atota solar eclipse, but those fon that part of the earth which is in penumbra (at b and d in fig.) see a partial solar eclipse, a mectine 6} varia solr etise @ 101 sot crise 4 & pania solr ectipe © woecipse People who are on the surface of the earth just below the tip of the ‘moon's unbra will see only a bright ting of the sun around the edge of themoon. Such an eclipse is called annular eclipse of the sun [see fig. ip], which takes place very rarely Mon View of Sun from . place & (ii) Lunar eclipse—Moon itself is non-luminous. It becomes visible ‘when sunlight fails on it. When earth comes between sun and the moon and the moon enters the earth's shadow that is fight from the sun does not fall ‘onthe moon so that the moon isnot st all visible, lunar eclipse takes place 2. Characteristics of the Image Formed by \e Mirror (i) Image is virtual, Gi) Image is erect. Gi) Teis of the same size as the object. (Gy) It is formed at the same distance behind the mirror as the jobject isin front of it (v) Image is laterally inverted 3. Lateral Inversion ‘The right side of the image formed by a plane mitror appears as left or vice versa, This phenomenon Js called lateral inversion 4. Rotation of Plane Mirror If a plane mirror is rotated through an angle @, then the reflected ray rotates through 20. Formula for Number of Images Formed in Two Plane Mirrors If 0 be the angle of inclination between two mirrors and ‘n™ the numberof images formed then 360° 67 For parallel mirrors 0 =0. In this, case infinite images will be formed. Spherical Mirrors A mirror which is made from a part of a hollow sphere is called spherical mirror. They are of two types— I. Concave mirror, 2. Convex Centre of Curvature ‘The contre of sphere, of which the spherical mirror is a par, is called centre of curvature, P.D.[Gen, Se1 18 2. Pole 7. Image Forme The mid point of aspherical Mirror ‘mirror is called a pole When object is 3. Radius of Curvature od by a Convex placed anywhere in front of the convex. mirror the image formed will be ct, virtual ‘The linear distance between pole smaller than the object, behind the and centre of curvature is called mirror between the focus and the radius of curvature. pole Principal Axis 8. Focal Length of Spherical Mirrors ‘An imaginary line passing through the pole and centre of cur- The focal length of both convex Vature of a spherical mirror is called and concave mirors is determined by principal axis the following formula— 5. Focus Hytll via It is a point on principal axis. tore ‘where a parallel beam of light, after reflection either actually meets or u = Distance of object from appears to meet. Itis denoted by F. In the mirror case of concave mirror focus is in v= Distance of image from front of it, but in case of convex the mirror ‘nitro, i is behind the mirror. om Teal eng 6. Focal Length rier ‘The linear distance between pole 9, Magnification and principal focus is called focal "43. uefined as lena, length of the image Focal length is half of the radius orth object (O) It the ratio of the () to the length is represented by of curvature, ie. ‘m, Mathematically, Radius of curvature lly Focal length = m= 2 oFw Facisata Glance Image Formed by a Convex Mirror Positionof Position ofthe Nature of the Size of the image the object image image Avinfinity | At focus Virtual and upright | Diminished to a point and infinity | between focus and Between pole | Behind the mirror) Virwal and upright | Diminished pole Tieisata Glance Image Formed by a Concave Mirror Position ofthe | Position ofthe | Size ofthe image | Nature of the object image | image |. Atinfinity | Atthe focus | Highly diminished | Real, inverted point 2. Between centre | Between focus and | Diminished Real, inverted cof curvature and centre of curvature infinity 3. Atcentreofcur-| At centre of cur) Same size as object | Real inverted 4. Between centre) Between ene of | Magnifid Real, inverted cofcarvaure and) curvature and focus infinity 5. Atfocus At infinity Highly magnified | Real, invented 6 Between focus) Behind the mieror | Magnified Viseal and and pole upright10. Conjugate Foci When image of an object placed ata point is formed at another point and vice-versa then two such points are called conjugate foci Refraction of Light 1. Refrak ‘The bending of light when it travels from one medium into another is called refraction of light ‘When a ray of light travels from an optically rarer medium to an optically denser medium it bends towards the normal and when it travels from an optically denser to an optically rarer medium it bends away from the normal. 2. Laws of Refraction First law—The incident ray. the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence lie in the same plane. Second law —The ratio between all values of sine of angle of incidence and sine of angle of refraction for two given media is constant, called the refractive index. Thus, For example, the refractive index of water with respect to air is expressed as gt, and refractive index of air wart, water is written as tt, and = 4 (Constant) 1 +3. Successive: Refraction ‘Through Several Media If refraction takes place succes sively through several media like ar, water, glass and again air, then Xally X ly = 1 Le Sale lh % bla abe 4. Critical Angle When a ray of light travels from denser medium to a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal, There- fore, angle of refraction is always greater than the angle of incidence. If angle of incidence is gradually increased then angle of refraction also PD./Gen. Se-1/19 orally = increases. At a particular angle of incidence, the angle of refraction becomes 90°. This angle of incidence is called critical angle (C). Thus, angle of incidence in a denser ‘medium, for which angle of refraction in rarer medium is 90°, is called critical angle. Critical angle for water air media is 48°, for glass-air media it is 42° and for diamond-air media itis oe 5. Total Internal Reflection If the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle then light does not center at all into rarer medium, but gets, reflected totally into the denser ‘medium. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection. 6. Conditions for Total Inter- nal Reflection (i) Rays of light must travel from optically denser medium to optically rarer medium, Gi) The angle of incidence in optically denser medium must be jreater than critical angle, Air rare medium) Water lenser medium Critical angle Refraction Through Lenses Lens and its Types A lens is a homogenous trans- parent medium (Such as glass) bounded by twocurved surfaces or ‘one curved and one plane surface Lenses are of two types— 1. Convex Lens—These lenses are thicker in the middle and thinner at the edges. 2. Coneave Lens—These lenses are thinner in the middle and thicker at the edges. Both types of lenses are further classified as follows— (i) Convexo-convex lens—Iis both surfaces are convex. The radii of curvature of these surfaces may be ‘equal or different (ii) Plano-convex lens—tts one surface is plane and the other is convex. (iit) Coneavo-convex lens — Its fone surface is concave and the other is convex. The radii of curvature of, these surfaces are different. Being convex lens, itis thicker in the middle and thinner at the edges. o Q 8 “__=— Convex lenses (iv) Coneavo-concave lens —Its both surfaces are concave, The radii of curvature of these surfaces may be equal or different (v) Plano-coneave lens—Its one surface is plane and the other is (vi) Convexo-eoneave lens —Its ‘one surface is convex and the other is concave. The radii of curvature of these surfaces are different, Being @ concave lens, itis thin at the centre and thick at the edges, @ 8 oS Coneave lenses Some Important Definitions Optical centre—It is @ point ‘within the lens such that a ray of light passing through this point emerges parallel to its direction of incidence, Principal axis—It is the line joining the centres of curvature of the ‘ovo surfaces of the Tens. Focus—Light can pass through a lens from either direction. Therefore, a lens has two principal foci which fare situated at equal distances from the optical centre on either side ofthe Tens. These are called first focal point (F,) and second focal point (F:) First focal point (or first focus)—It is a point F, on the principal axis of the lens such that therays of light starting from it (in a convex Iens) or appearing to mest at it (in a concave lens) after refraction from the lens, become parallel to the principal axis of the lens, Sa a_i <& Ticve (a) Convex lens () Concave lens Second focal point —Ivis a point F; on the principal axis of the lens such that the rays of light incident parallel to the principal axis of the Jens after refraction from it, pass through this point (in a convex lens) fo appear to be diverging from this point (in a concave lens) Tens as object. Jens asthe object, Facis ata Glance Image Formed by Concave Lens Nature of Position of object Position of ima ize ofthe imay pject__ Position of image Size ofthe image Ainfinity ‘Authe focus,on the | Virwal and eect) Extremely same side of the diminished Anywhere between Between focus and | Viral and erect) Diminished jeal centre and optical centre, on invinity the same side of At a distance equal At mid. point bet-| Viral and erect) Diminished Pan af objet] Poon of rug | Avininty | AL incl foes peace ee Beyond’; | Beceem and 24 cee ober ae ie ah 124 ont oe Sic ote tes Between and Beyond 26 on he oe Tens Atthe focus | At infinity on the other side of the Tens Between the forus | On the same side and optical entre | of the lens as the object to focallength | ween the focus and optical centre on the side of the objet Factsata Glance Image Formed by a Convex Lens Nature of image ___ Size of image Real and inverted | Extremely diminished Real and inverted | Diminished Real and inverted | Equal tothe object Real and invented | Enlarged Real and inverted | Extremely magnified Virtwal and erect | Mageitied ho (b) Concave lens Image formed by a concave lens—The image formed by a con- cave Tens is always on the same side as the object between the lens and the focus. It is virtual, erect and dimi- ished. PD.[Gen. Se-1/20 Formula for the focal length of the lens —The focal length of a lens is determined by the following for- ‘mula— ‘The proper si according to the nature of the lens Relation between the focal length, refractive index and radii of cur- vature of a lens— 72 (eon) where = Focal length, = Refractive index of the material of the lens and R, and R, are the radii of curvature of the surfaces of lens. Note—IF lens is plano-convex then, Combined focal length of two lenses in contact—The combined focal length of two thin lenses L and L, of focal lengths f, and fy respec- tuvely in contact is given by the formula—Power of a lens—The power of 4 Tens is equal tothe reciprocal ofits focal length. Ifthe focal length of a Jens is jy then its power 1 P = faopte(D) “The unit of power is diopte (D). ‘The power of a lens of focal length Imis 1D. The power of convex lens is positive and that of concave lens is negative Power of combination of two lenses—The power of two thin lenses Kept in contact s equal to the sum of their individual powers, i. P= Pi+Py Change in the Power of a Lens 1. If a lens is immersed in a Tiguid whose refractive index is Tess than the refractive index of the mate~ rial of the Tens (such as water) then the focal Tength ofthe lens increases and the power decreases, but the nature of the lens remains unchanged. For e.., when glass lens = 1:5) is immersed in water (= 133) 2. IF the refractive index of the liguid is equal to the refractive index of the material of the lens, then the power of the lens will be zero (focal Jength infinite). 3. IF the refiactive index of the liquid is greater than the refractive index of the material of te lens, then the power of the lens decreases (Focal Jength inereases) and the nature of the lens is also changed. For example, on immersing elas lens (i 5) in carbon disulphide (CS. 68), Dispersion 1. Prism Prism is a part of a transparent refracting medium bounded by the ‘ovo plane surfaces meeting each other along a straight edge, as is shown in fig. A we “Angle of deviation Lnrsen, nay PD,[Gen, Se-1/21 ‘The angle between the incident ray produced forward and the emer- ‘gent ray produced backward, is called the angle of deviation. It is denoted by leiter 8 (delta), 2. 4-8 Curve As the angle of incidence Increases first the angle of deviation decreases. For acertain value of angle of incidence, the angle of deviation is ‘minimum.tn the position of minimum, deviation angle of incidence and angle of emergence are equal, on 3. Dispersion When aray of white light passing through a narrow slit is incident on a prism, it splits into its seven compo- nent colours, on suffering refraction through the prism. This is called dis- persion, The band of colours so obtained is called the spectrum. The order of different colours from the base of the prism is violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red. ‘The order of colours can be remem- bered by the word VIBGYOR. 4. Colour of Bodies ‘The colour of light reflected by fan object is the colour of the object. ‘The colour of leaf is green because it reflects green colour from the white Tight incident on it absorbing the rest of the colours. Tran object does not reflect any colour but absorbs all the colours of the incident light, it appears black. Primary colours—Red, green 1 blue are primary colours. Secondary colours —The colours formed by mixing two primary colours are called secondary colours, Yellow colour is formed by mixing red and ‘green, magenta is formed by mixing red and blue and eyan is formed by ‘mixing blue and green, Complementary colours—Those primary and secondary colours which ‘when mixed produce white colour are called complementary colours. These colours are—yellow and blue, ‘magenta and gréen, cyan and red ‘The colour triangle helps in remembering the above facts. Red Blue Cyan Green Optical Instruments Camera, eye, compound micro- scope, telescope ete. are the optical instruments. 1. Photographic Camera Its important parts are— (i) Box in which light cannot ener, (i) Lens (iil) Diaphragm, Gv). Shutter, (v) Photographic film, Film Prati Shute Working—When the shutter is opened the light is incident on the Jens that forms an image ofthe object oon the photographic fil in the box. ‘he film is then taken out of the camera in a dark room and immersed ina solution called the developer. The film is then washed in water and immersed in hypo solution. Ibis now washed in flowing water and dried “This is called the negative. By again taking the photograph of thisnegative, the positive (the upeight photo) is obiained on the photographic pape. 2. Bye The various parts of an eye are shown inthe diagram— fee eee \Y Optic nerveConstruetion—Selera is the outermost covering of the eye. It consists of white, tough fibrous tissues. Its 1/6 portion is transparent called cornea. The light enters the eye though it. The other parts of eye are—Pupil, iris, vitreous humour, aqueous humour, choroid, retina yellow spot, blind spot and optic nerve, Process of vision—When the light rays coming from an object, enter the eye they suffer refraction through the comea, aqueous humour, eye lens and vitreous humour (which behave like a convergent lens) and form a real, inverted and diminished image on the retina.t appears upright to the brain, 3.Power of Accommodation ‘The power or ability of eye to alter the focal length of the eye lens, so as to focus nearer or far off objects clearly on the retina is called the wer of accommodation of eye. Near point—The point nearest from the eye at which an object if placed canbe distinctly seen, is called the near point Far point—The point farthest from the eye from where an object can be distinctly seen by the eye is called the far point Least distance of distinet vision —The distance of near point from the eye is called the least distance of distinet vision, It is 25 em for a healthy eye. It is denoted by D. 4. Defects of Vision Following are the four main defects of the human eye— () Short sightedness or myopia. Gi) Long sightedness or hyper- metropia, (ii) Presbiopica (Gv) Astigmatism, () Myopia—If a person can see the near objects but he can’t see the far objects, the defect is called Myopia, ‘The image of the far-off objects js formed in front of the retina and hence it appears blurred. Rays coming from fur PD. Gen, Seo1/22 Correetion—Short sightedness is corrected by using a concave lens. ‘The focal length of the concave lens is such that rays coming from infinity after refraction through this lens ‘appear to be incident on the eye lens from the eye's own far point. z= nN Far point of the eye (ii) Hypermetropia—A person suffering from this defect can see distant objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects clearly. In this defect the image of the nearby objects falls behind the retin. Correction—This defect is corrected with a converging or con- vex lens Retina (ii) Presbiopia—In this defect, person can neither see the near objects Clearly nor the distant objects. This defect is called presbiopic, Correction—This defect is corrected by the use of a bifocal lens. ‘The lower part of the lens is convex Which is used to see the near objects and the upper part is concave which is used to see the far-off objects (iv) Astigmatism—In this defect, fa person cannot distinctly see the horizontal and vertical lines, simulta neously ata normal distance. The Objective lens Final image main cause of this defect is that the ccomea is not perfectly spherical Correction—To correct this defect, cylindrical lens is used, Definition of magnifying power—The magnifying power of an ‘optical instrument is defined as the ratio of the visual angle subtended at the eye by the image formed by the instrument to the visual angle sub- tended by the object at the eye when the object is considered to be at the least distance of distinct vision, ‘Compound microscope—Itisan optical instrament which forms @ magnified image of a small near object Construction and magnifying power—It consists of two hollow tubes containing two convex lenses. ‘The tubes can be slided in or out by the rack and pinion arrangement. The Tens O is situated near the object, itis called objective lens. ts aperture and focal length f; are small. It forms inverted, real and magnified image A'B’ of the object AB. Magutction my = 22 where vy and are respectively the distances of image and object from the objective fens. The Image AB! lies within the Focal length f, of eye Jens. The image A’B' acts as the dbject forthe eye lens. The eye lens forms a magnified and viral image OfA'B' atthe least distance of distinct Mision D Magnification of eye lens > Se sheets (a2 ma mama (142) Eye lensAstronomical telescope—The telescope is used to see the heavenly bodies. Construction—It consists of a hollow metallic tube with a convex Jens attached at its one end which is kept towards the object and is called the objective lens. At the other end of the tube there is another hollow tube of slightly less diameter, which can be slided in or out of the first tube by the rack and pinion arrangement. There is another convex lens at the other end of this tube called the eye Jens. The length of the telescope tube Js equal to the sum of the focal Conditions to increase the magnifying power—1. The focal length of the objective lens should be 2. The focal length of the lens should be less. Wave nature of light—Light travels in the form of waves. Light ‘waves aro transverse. They do not require material medium for their propagation. They exhibit the pro- perties of reflection, refractio ference, diffraction and polarisation. Light waves are electromagnetic in nature lengths of the objective and the eye lens. The focal length ofthe eye lens is quite smaller than the objective. Working —The objective forms a small, inverted and real image of a distant” object near the eye lens, Which acts as an object for the eye Jens. The final image AxBo formed by the eye lens is virtual, enlarged and inverted. Magnifying power —The magni fying power (m) of an astronomical telescope is represented by the following formula = ACHP) where— fy = Focal length of the objective lens Focal length of the eye lens Least distance of distinet Length of the tube = +f. When image is formed at infinity, ah & PD./Gen, Se-1)23 Electricity and Mag- netism Electric Field and Potential 1, Coulomb's Law “The force of attraction or repul- sion acting between two point charges iscirecty proportional tothe product ofthe magnitudes ofthe two charges fang inversely proportional to the Square ofthe distance between them. ‘This force acts along te line joining the two charges. In $1 sysexi = ae P= Gre,’ 7 = 91102 petoa 2. Intensity of Electric Field ‘The intensity of electric field at any point is defined as the force acting ona unitpositive charge placed, a that point. Its unit is newton! coulomb. Iisa vector quantity 3. Electric Field Due to a Point Charge ‘The force acting on the positive test charge gy at a distance r from a point charge Q is 92 F = 9x 10°58 ‘The intensity of electri field at the point of go will be E 10° %rewtnovond 4, Electric Potential ‘The electric potential at a point in an electric field is the ratio of the work done (W) in bringing a test charge (g) from infinity to that point w % Its unit is volt. It is a sealar quantity. Volt—If 1 joule of work is done in taking a test charge of 1 coulomb from one point to the other in an eleciric field, then the potential difference between those points will be one volt Electric potential V 1 joule 1 eoulomb 5. Potential Difference ‘The ratio of the work done in taking a test-charge from one point to the other in an electric field to the magnitude of the test charge is ealled the potential difference between those points. Its unit is also volt. It is @ scalar quantity volt = Electrical Capacitance Definition of Capacitance ‘The capacitance (C) of a conduc- toris defined as the ratio ofthe charge (Q) given to the rise in potential (V) of the conductor, Q v ‘The unit of capacitance is Farad Farad—The capacitance of conductor is 1 Farad if a charge of 1 ‘coulomb raises its potential by I volt 1 Farad = 1 coulombivolt Farad is a larger unit, In practice, ‘micro-farad is used. | microfarad (1 1F) c= 10" Farad (F) Electrical Conduction 1, Faraday’s Laws of Electro- ysis Inthe process of electrolysis, the toual mass Of substance liberated (or deposited) at an electrode is directlyproportional to the total electric charge passed through the electrolyte. mx Qeit m = Zit where m is the mass of the liberated substance in 1 second when current i ampere is passed, Q coulomb is the charge flown, Z is electro-chemical equivalent (ECE), Second law — If electric currents of the same strength be allowed to flow in different electrolytes for the same time, then the masses of the substances liberated are directly pro- portional to their chemical equiva- Tents 2. Faraday’s Constant Faraday constant is that amoun of electric charge which liberates 1 kg-equivalent of any substance by electrolysis. F 20665 x 107 C per kg-equivalent 3. Ohm's Law If there is no change in the physical state of a conductor (such as Temperature) then the ratio of the potential difference applied at its ends and the current flowing through itis constant. Ye Recoman or ve=R where V is the potential difference, I is current, R is the resistance of wire. If potential difference is in volts and courrent isin ampere then resistance is inohm, 4. Ohmic Resistance ‘The conductors which obey ohm’ law are called ohmic resistance like-manganin wire 5. Non-ohmie Resistance ‘The conductors which do not obey the ohim’s law are called non- ohmic resistances, like-resistance of triode valve. 6. Specific Resistance The specific resistance of a subs- tance is equal to the resistance bet- ween the opposite faces of a cube of side 1m of that substance. It is denoted by p and its unit is ohm- mote. P.D.|Gen. Se-1 24 7. Relation Between Resistance and Specific Resistance I the resistance of a conductor is R, specific resistance is p. length is 1 and area of cross-section is A then, 1 R= pK 8. Series Combinatio tances of Resis- For obtaining the maximum resistance, the individual resistances are joined inseries one after the other. ‘The equivalent resistance of the resis. tances 7,73, 735...» joined in series is equal fo the sum of the resistances joined R=ntntnt 9. Parallel Combination of Resistances In parallel combi potential difference a tance is the same, Parallel com- bination is used to obtain the mini ‘mum resistance. The equivalent resis- tance (R) in parallel combination is ‘obtained fromthe relation— raid Roth tnt tion, the ross each resis- 10. Effect of Temperature on Resistance ‘The resistance of a metallic wire ineveases with the increase in tem perature. Resistance at temperature 1 can be determined by the relation Ro (1 + a). Here otis the thermal resistance coefficient, 11. Electr The rate at which electrical ‘energy is spent in an electeieal circuit, is called electrical power. Its unit is watt Power rover) = ™ (st ape 12.Kilowatt Hour ot wataror | mt i he electrical circuit of | kilowatt power in F hour, 1 kilowatt hour Volt x Ampere x Hour 1000 Simple Circuits 1. em/f.ofa Cell ‘The energy given by the cell in the flow of unit charge in the whole circuit (including the cell) is called the electromotive force (e.mf,) of the cell. ts unit is vot 2. Potential Difference For the flow of 1 coulomb of charge in an external electrical circuit the energy consumed by the cel is the potential difference across its ends. ‘When the cell is in use then electro- motive force (e.m.f.) is always greater than the potential difference 3. Internal Resistance of a Cell The resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell to the flow of ccurrent through itis called the internal resistance of the cell. If E, V and 1 respectively denote e.m.f., potential difference and current then internal resistance E-v 1 Electromagnetism Force on a Charge Moving in a Magnetic Field fan electrically charged conduc- tor is Kept in a magnetic field then it experiences a deflecting force whose direction is perpendicular to the diree- tion of both magnetic field and elec rie current, The direction ofthis force ‘may be determined by Fleming's Left Hand Rule. It may be stated as— F Thumb Fore finger Midale finger If the forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the left hand are stretched mutually at right angles to one another such that the forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic