Impact of activated nut coke on energy efficiency in the blast furnace

Lena Sundqvist kvist 1, Carina Brandell2, Maria Lundgren1

1

Swerea MEFOS AB
Box 812, SE- 971 25 Lule, Sweden
+46 920 20 19 00
lena.sundqvist@swerea.se
maria.lundgren@swerea.se
2

Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara AB (LKAB)
Box 952, SE-971 28 Lule, Sweden
+46 920 38 000
carina.brandell@lkab.com

(Note: Please add more authors in the same format if necessary)

Keywords: Blast furnace nut coke, activation, energy efficiency, thermal reserve zone

INTRODUCTION
When the temperature in the thermal reserve zone is reduced, the equilibrium between CO/CO2 and Fe/FeO is shifted towards metallic
Fe at a specific reducing power of the gas as can be seen in Figure 1. The use of highly reactive nut coke mixed ferrous materials is
one possible method for reducing the temperature.

Figure 1 Fe-O-C equilibrium diagram including the Boudouard curve as well as the degree of reduction in the presence of CO and
CO21
In studies conducted by Nomura et al. 2, 3 it has been shown that the reactivity of coke can be increased either by adding a catalyst to
the coal blend prior coking or to treat the produced coke. Reactive coke was successfully produced by using a coal type with Ca rich
ash in the coal blend for coke making2. In laboratory testing the coke showed high chemical reaction rate with CO 2 at 950 C, but the
reactivity index (CRI) increased less and the strength after reaction (CSR) could be more or less kept unchanged if the addition of the
Ca-rich coal was less than 10%. In full scale coke production 5-7% of the Ca rich coal was added. Adiabatic BF simulator trials with
sinter showed decreased thermal reserve zone temperature and higher reduction degree of sinter for the Ca-rich coke compared to
ordinary coke. The total reductant rate of the operational BF decreased when changing from ordinary coke to the Ca-rich coke. Results
were also reported from the addition of iron ore or iron oxide prior to the production of a reactive coke 4. The iron oxide caused
decreased strength after reaction and increased reactivity of the coke but the strength measured as drum index was proper. The iron
oxide has a tendency to react with the silica brick in the coke oven at temperatures of 1200C but not at a temperature of 1100C.
A catalyst can be added post coke making and deteriorating effects on strength can be avoided 3. In laboratory testing it was estimated
that 70% of the addition made as a solution or slurry with a desirable composition should sustain raw material handling. The reaction
rate and the weight loss are increased with the addition of Fe and Ca containing compounds and the results indicate that the thermal

reserve zone temperature may decrease and improved reduction of ferrous material possibly be achieved. The authors think that more
studies are needed to explore and confirm the effect further.
By using a high ratio of nut coke mixed with the ferrous material the high temperature properties of the iron ore in terms of reduction
degree was improved up to 10% addition5. Improved shaft efficiency decreased reductant rate and the permeability of the cohesive
zone were stated in industrial trials charging approximately 100 kg nut coke/tHM. The reactivity of the coke is not stated but the coke
has a CaO content of 0.25 wt%.
Aiming for reduced consumption of reducing agents in the BF, the most appropriate method for activation of nut coke were analyzed
in the laboratory and later up-scaled for use in pilot scale treatment at LKAB in Malmberget. To explore the effect on the process
conditions and the energy efficiency operational trials in the LKAB experimental BF in Lule were planned and conducted. The
results from the trials are presented and discussed.

EXPERIMENTAL
The LKAB Experimental Blast Furnace (Experimental BF)
The first campaign in the Experimental BF was conducted in 1997 and these trials were conducted as one part of the 29th campaign. It
is usually operated twice every year and the length of each campaign is approximately 6 to 8 weeks. The operation and control of the
Experimental BF are comparable with the industrial BF but the response time is shorter.

Figure 2 Schematic layout of Experimental BF plant

The Experimental BF, of which the schematic layout is shown in Figure 2, is equipped for flexibility in type of in injection and
process settings. The plant is compact and all equipment is installed in a single building. The raw material handling allows the usage
of up to four different ores simultaneously. Injection of pulverized coal, gas or oil is possible, as well as injection of fluxes or other
oxides.
Table I Positions for installed measurements used in the evaluation of data
Type of equipment
Blast furnace burden level

Position below stockline

Position on radius

Upper skinflow

-0.44

30 , 90 ,150 ,210 , 270 , 330

Upper shaft probe

-0.90

From 30 to 150 , 9 positions

Lower skinflow

-1.05

30 , 90 ,150 ,210 , 270 , 330

Lower shaft probe

-3.46

From 30 to 150 , 9 positions

Inclined shaft probe

-4.21

From 210 to 0

Tuyeres

-5.7

30 , 150 , 270

The Experimental BF is also well-equipped for measuring of temperature and pressures. The shaft has no water cooling,
thermocouples are installed inside the refractory and pressure measurements over the height of the shaft. In order to study the
atmosphere inside the shaft and collect material samples during operation, material and gas/temperature probes are fitted to the blast
furnace, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 The Experimental BF including shaft probes, inclined probe and vertical probe
The vertical temperature profile of the Experimental BF can be measured by inserting a thermocouple from the top allowing it to
descend with the burden. This measurement normally withstands temperatures up to approximately 1250C before the thermocouple is
damaged. The levels where thermocouples and other important blast furnace equipment have been installed are listed in Table I and
the radial sampling and measurements with probes are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Radial position of lower shaft and inclined probes

Raw Materials
The ferrous burden for all periods was LKAB olivine pellets from Malmberget. Quartzite was added to reach the desired slag volume
and a limestone and BOF slag was used for basicity adjustment of the final slag. The chemical compositions of raw materials,
including the activated coke, are given in Table II.
Nut coke and coke used in the coke layers were crushed and screened into the fraction 15-30 mm. Three types of treatments were used
for nut coke to be added to ferrous layers; a solution with Zr-tracer, a slurry of magnetite with Zr-tracer and a slurry of burnt lime with
Zr-tracer. The solutions and slurries were sprayed on the coke under rotation in a drum (left photo in Figure 5) and finally the coke
was dried (right photo in Figure 5) and samples for analyses taken before transportation to the Experimental BF plant.

Figure 5 Processes of preparation of activated nut coke by coating and drying of coated coke afterwards
The original nut coke used as well as the Zr-traced one has similar chemical composition as the coke used in the coke layers. As the
activated coke was coated with slurries of magnetite or hydrated lime the chemical composition was changed somewhat. The content
of C was lowered at the same time as either the content of Fe or CaO increased. The slurries also contained zirconium sulphate for
tracing the activated nut coke in samples collected during the trials.
14
12

% moisture

10

Large sample
Zr Large
Lime large
Magnetite large

Small sample
Zr small
Lime small
Magnetite small

8
6
4
2

Lime coated coke

0
13-05-01 00:00

13-05-06 00:00

13-05-11 00:00

13-05-16 00:00

13-05-21 00:00

13-05-26 00:00

Figure 6 Moisture content in coke and nut coke used during the Experimental BF tests
Samples of raw materials were collected every time the raw material bins were filled up. Moisture content of coke and ferrous material
as well as the particle size distribution of pellets were analyzed for each sample. In case of changed moisture content to a new stable
level the new values were introduced in the system and used in the recipe calculations. The variation in measured moisture content of
pellets was minor and the variation in coke moisture is shown in Figure 6. To minimize the variations in coke moisture one single
delivery of coke was used during the trial and in general the moisture was in the range of 4-6%. However, a few significant changes in
moisture was experienced although this precaution. The lime coated coke had lower moisture content compared to the other coke
types due to longer time for drying after coating.

Table II Raw materials used during the trial and their composition, given in wt.-%
Nut coke
BOF
Lime
Magnetite
MPBO Limestone Quartzite
slag
activated activated
CaO
0.43
58.0
0.199
40.5
1.30
0.03
MgO
1.31
0.93
0.23
11.8
0.09
0.09
SiO2
1.76
1.06
97.9
8.75
7.03
6.49
Al2O3
0.35
0.48
0.75
1.71
3.12
3.03
TiO2
0.30
0.02
0.03
1.49
0.16
0.18
V 2O 5
0.21
0.01
0.004
4.57
0.00
0.19
Na2O
0.07
0.13
0.061
0.022
K 2O
0.01
0.09
0.247
0.02
0.098
0.069
S
0
0.069
0.029
0.063
0.57
0.55
P
0.01
0.002
0.005
0.29
0.020
0.007
Mn
0.04
0.01
0.01
3.13
0.00
0.00
Fe
66.8
0.058
0.149
19.067
0.41
2.02
C
85.4
85.4
H2
0.087
0.087
O2
0.20
0.20
N2
1.16
1.16

Original &
Zr-traced
0.03
0.09
6.62
3.09
0.18
0.00
0.022
0.07
0.55
0.007
0.00
0.53
87.1
0.089
0.20
1.188

Coke
0.03
0.09
6.62
3.09
0.18
0.00
0.022
0.07
0.55
0.007
0.00
0.53
87.1
0.089
0.20
1.19

PC
0.37
0.16
3.24
1.80
0.06
0.00
0.04
0.1
0.340
0.017
0.02
0.609
82.9
4.10
3.77
2.18

Test Conditions
The test periods operated and evaluated consisted of four main parts
Reference period without nut coke in ferrous layers
Reference periods with 150 kg/tHM of original or Zr-traced nut coke charged in ferrous layers
Test period with 150 kg/tHM of Zr-traced, magnetite activated nut coke charged in ferrous layers
Test period with 150 kg/tHM of Zr-traced, lime activated nut coke charged in ferrous layers
From the operational tests, stable data periods stated in Table III were selected for the evaluation of in-furnace conditions, operational
conditions as well as energy efficiency of the set-ups. The two periods for lime coated nut coke has the same start but the long period
extends longer in time including some slightly more varied conditions.
Table III Evaluation periods, 150 kg/tHM of nut coke was used in the ferrous layers in all test periods except for reference
Short name of period
Duration
Start
End
Recipe, type of nut coke
2013-05-02 21:00

2013-05-04 10:00

Reference without nut coke

Ref.

37.0 h

2013-05-15 14:01

2013-05-15 23:54

Original nut coke

Orig.

9.9 h
26.0 h

2013-05-15 23:56

2013-05-17 01:53

Zr-traced coke

Zr-traced

2013-05-17 14:00

2013-05-19 12:30

Magnetite coated Zr-traced nut coke

Magnetite

46.5 h

2013-05-20 14:00

2013-05-21 15:00

Lime coated Zr-traced nut coke

Lime

25.0 h

2013-05-20 14:00

2013-05-22 03:30

Lime coated Zr-traced nut coke long

Lime long

37.5 h

Recipe changes were made when starting to use a new type of nut coke, when the moisture content of coke changed, for heat level
control and in order to adjust the slag basicity for sufficient alkali removal. The amount of coke in the ferrous layers was 150 kg/tHM
when nut coke was added, except for during a ramping-up period in the beginning of the reference period with nut coke. As the
efficient C content varied between the nut coke types the amount of coke in the coke layers was influenced correspondingly.
During the all periods the pulverized coal injection (PCI) was kept fairly constant and changes in the amount of reducing agents were
adjusted by changing the coke rate. Also other basic operational parameters were successfully kept more or less constant during the
tests as can be seen in Table IV.

Table IV Indicative and actual operational parameters during trial periods for evaluation
Indicative

Ref.

Orig.

Zr traced Magnetite

Lime

Lime long

Prod. Rate*
1.5
1.50
1.45
1.48
1.53
1.52
1.51
Tot. blast flow
1587
1584
1585
1580
1582
1582
Blast air flow
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
O2 enrichment
110
111
110
110
110
110
110
O2 in blast
50
50.6
50.3
50.4
50.1
50.2
50.2
O2 to lances
60
60.5
59.3
59.3
59.7
59.4
59.3
Tot. O2 in blast
26.4
26.6
26.6
26.6
26.8
26.7
26.7
PCR
150 (225) 150 (226) 153 (221) 148 (219) 148 (226) 150 (228) 151 (228)
Moisture in blast
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Blast temp.
1200
1196
1196
1196
1196
1196
1196
Ave. blast temp. at tuyeres**
1120
1117
1114
1114
1114
1113
1113
Flame temp.
~ 2150
2187
2187
2190
2184
2180
2180
* from material balance, **average close to tuyeres

tonne/h
Nm3/h
Nm3/h
Nm3/h
Nm3/h
Nm3/h
Vol%
kg/tHM (kg/h)
g/Nm3
C
C
C

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

C consumption in the BF during trials
The C consumption for each evaluation period was analyzed in heat and mass balance model based on the principles of RIST
diagram6. The calculations are using data converted to units on a per tonne hot metal (tHM) basis. In principle quite long stable
operational periods are required for getting reliable data for the heat and mass balance. On short-term e.g. the coke reserve can be
either built up or consumed and this will create errors if not taken into account.

1200

Calc. tot heat losses charg.

Not known heat losses charg.

Charged C

Calc. tot heat losses consump.

Not known heat losses consump.

480

481

C, kg/tHM

Heat loss Mj/tHM

475

600

HM Temp
1470

1000

800

C consumed in process

485

1460
474

1450
471

470

1440
465

400

466
463

1430

460

200

459
457

455
0
Ref.

Orig

Zr

Magnetite

Lime

-200

Figure 7 Heat losses during each evaluation period

Lime long

1420

453

450
Ref.

Orig

Zr

Magnetite

459

459

458

Temperature, C

1400

Lime

453

1410

Lime long

Figure 8 Charged and by the process consumed C for each

evaluation period

Initially the collected Experimental BF data for each period was inserted in the model assuming that data as e.g. weights and analyses
for charged and tapped material and gas analyses are correct. The model iteratively calculates the blast volume and total heat losses.
The achieved values for blast volume are compared with the measured ones. Actual heat losses for the Experimental BF are based on
measured heat losses for water cooled part, estimated heat losses based on temperature measurements on the steel shell and calculated
heat losses related to the top gas. A large deviation between totally estimated heat losses based on data and the one calculated in the
model indicate changed amount of coke in the coke reserve. As can be seen in Figure 7, the un-known heat losses varies and e.g
during the period with Zr-traced nut coke the heat losses estimated in the model based on the charged C is much lower than those
stated based on the consumed C. During the first period with original nut coke the starting point was a higher fuel rate in order to
avoid disturbances caused by changed temperature and gas profiles. The coke reserve is accumulated and during the following period
it is then possible to reduce the fuel substantially without coming into low heat level.

To overcome the impact on heat and mass balance from accumulation or consumption of raw materials the amount of consumed C
(coke and coal) is calculated based on the gas analyses and under the use of measured and calculated heat losses. In Figure 8 the
amount of charged and by the process consumed C, respectively, are stated. As can be seen, coke accumulation occurs during the first
period with nut coke when using original coke in the ferrous layers. During the next period when using Zr-traced nut coke the
consumption of some accumulated coke reserve is coke occurs.
The heat level is significantly higher during all test periods compared to during the reference period as shown in Figure 9. This results
in an increased consumption of C for periods when original or Zr-traced nut coke is used. For periods with activated nut coke the C
consumption is lower although higher heat level compared to during the reference. As can be seen the average hot metal temperature
during the reference is ~1429 C compared to 1446-1465 C during trial periods. Additionally, the Si content in hot metal differs as
well, se Figure 9. To be able to compare the C consumption for the different evaluation periods, model calculations for normalized
conditions were conducted. For normalized heat level a hot metal quality with 1.35 wt.-% Si and hot metal temperature of 1430 C
were selected, quite similar as for the reference period. In Figure 10 the difference in estimated C consumption for trial periods
relative reference period is shown for normalized conditions. It can be concluded that the C consumption is reduced with ~ 4-6
kg/tHM (Figure 10) if differences in heat level are not taken into account. For normalized data the reduction in C consumption is ~6-8
kg/tHM (Figure 11).
C (%)

Change in C consumption relative ref.

Si (%)

1465
1456

3.5

1450
1448

1446

1440
2.5
1430

1429

1420
1410

Difference in C comsumption, kg/tHM

Temperature, C

1458

1.69

1.5

1.61

1.43

1.38

1.35

Magn.

Lime

Lime long

1.35
Ref-

Orig.

Zr traced

1470
11.2

10

Wt-% C and Si

1460

HM Temp

12

4.5

1460
8

8.2

1450

4
1440
2
0

0.0
Ref.

1430
Orig

Zr

Magnetite

Lime

Lime long

-4.3

-4.1

-2
-4

Temperature, C

HMT (C)
1470

1420

-5.8
-6

Figure 9 Average hot metal quality for each evaluation period

1410

Figure 10 Differences in by the process consumed C for each

relative the reference period for each trial period

During periods with higher heat level and higher Si content in hot metal the slag basicity is increased and the slag volume reduced.
This results in reduced alkali recovery to the slag. In Figure 12 the average K2O yield to the slag is shown. When the yield is low,
accumulation, recirculation and scaffolding may occur. Recirculation of alkali results in increased C consumption in the lower part of
the furnace due to the reduction and gasification of alkali compounds. In the upper part these are oxidized again. The thermal and
chemical energy returned in the upper part is evened out in the heat and mass balance but in the actual BF it will result in increased
energy consumption. Moreover, during this period the high Si content in hot metal requires an increasing amount to counteract the
accumulation of alkalis.

10

475

470

6
4.9

4
2.1

460
455

2
0

0.0

450

-2

445

-4

440

-6.4

-5.7 -6

-7.8

435

-8

430

-10
Ref.

Orig

Zr

Magnetite

Lime

Slag basicity, B2

160%

1.10

140%

1.05

120%
1.00

100%
80%

0.95

60%

0.90

40%
0.85

20%
0%

0.80
Ref

Orig

Zr traced

Magn.

Lime long

Figure 11 C consumption for normalized hot metal quality

Figure 12 K2O yield and slag basicity

Lime

Lime long

Slag basicity, B2

480

465

K2O yield

Diff. Normalised cons.

K2O yield, %

Normalised C cons. in process

Diff. in C consump. relative ref., kg/tHM

Estimated C consumption, kg/yHM

C consumed in process

Impact on gas efficiency

The gas efficiency was calculated from top gas analyses and from in furnace gas analyses measured during shaft probing. The gas
efficiency calculated from top gas analyzes increases with approximately 1.5 % when activated nut coke is used as can be seen in
Figure 13. Periods during which original and Zr-traced coke is charged in the ferrous layers are operated under quite high heat level
and high coke rate. In spite of this, the gas efficiency is in the same range as for the reference period that has significantly lower heat
level. This indicates that the addition of nut coke in general is beneficial for the gas distribution. It could also be noted that although
that the hot metal indicated high heat level the top gas temperatures and amount of water dosage in the BF top could be kept at desired
levels, Figure 14.
Top T

Gas efficiency, %

49.2

190

0.7

49.0

185

0.6

49.0
48.5

3
48.0
2
47.7

47.7

47.5

Gasefficiency, %

Burden descent, cm/min, vol%H2

49.2

47.5
1

0
Ref.

Orig.

Zr traced Magnetite

Lime

Water dosage

49.5

0.5

180

0.4
175
0.3
170

47.0

165

46.5

160

0.2
0.1
0.0

Lime long

Ref.

Figure 13 Average burden descent, top gas efficiency, vol.-% of

H2 per evaluation period calculated from top gas analyses

Water dosage, litres/min

vol%H2

Top gas temperature, C

Burden descent
5

Orig.

Zr traced Magnetite

Lime

Lime long

Figure 14 Average top gas temperature and water dosage at

top per evaluation period

At the upper probe level the gas efficiency is higher during periods with activated coke, see Figure 15. At the lower probe level the gas
efficiency is as seen in Figure 16 highest for periods with magnetite-activated nut coke. In between the tuyeres the gas efficiency is
high also for lime-activated coke. Above the raceway the gas efficiency is quite similar for all periods except for during the magnetiteactivated ones.
Orig.

Zr traced

Magn. 1

Magn. 2

Ref.

Lime and lime long

60

30

50

25

Gas efficiency, %

Gas efficiency, %

Ref.

40
30
20
10

Orig.

Zr traced

Magn. 1

Magn. 2

Lime and lime long

20
15

10
5

5
Position

Figure 15 Gas efficiency per evaluation period calculated from

gas analyses during probing at upper probe level

5
Position

Figure 16 Gas efficiency per evaluation period calculated from

gas analyses during probing at lower probe level

Impact on thermal reserve zone temperature

The temperatures measured within the shaft are influenced both by the chemical reactions and the heat transfer from ascending gas.
When the general heat level in the furnace is increased the temperature isotherms is moved upward in the BF. It is difficult to compare
the temperature at one vertical position in the shaft for periods with different heat level without knowing that this position is within the
thermal reserve zone. As indicated by the vertical temperature profiles Figure 19 the thermal reserve zone starts for several of the
measurements approximately at the position of upper shaft probe (0.90 m below stockline) and ends before or at the position of the
lower probe level (3.46 m below stockline). Therefore the temperatures at upper and lower probe, as shown in Figure 17 and Figure
18, cannot in general be used for estimations on the thermal balance controlling the thermal reserve zone temperature. These
temperatures seem to be influenced by the thermal level of the process. Additionally, the probes for temperature measurements are

water cooled. However, it is indicated that the use of 150 kg/tHM of nut coke results in a flatter temperature profile with less extensive
central gas flow. In the vertical temperature measurement a lowered thermal reserve zone temperature is measured for the period with
lime-activated coke as seen in Figure 19. The period with magnetite-activated nut coke shows similar temperature profile as for nonactivated nut coke.
Ref.

Orig.

Zr traced

Magn. 1

Magn. 2

Lime and lime long

Orig.

800

Magn. 1

Magn. 2

Lime and lime long

1050

750

950

Temperature c

700

Temperature c

Zr traced

650
600

850

750

550

650

500

550

450

450
1

5
Position

Figure 17 Horizontal temperature profile measured during stated

evaluation period at upper probe level

5
Position

Figure 18 Horizontal temperature profile measured during

stated evaluation periods at lower probe level

Based on the horizontal and vertical measurements conducted during the evaluation periods but also in connection to them a measured
temperature was deduced and used in the heat and mass balance calculations. If the measured temperature is used in the heat and mass
balance calculations the shaft efficiency reached more than 100% for Zr-traced and magnetite-activated periods. Assuming a similar
shaft efficiency of 99% for all periods, a lower temperature is estimated for all evaluation periods when using activated nut coke,
Figure 20.

200

400

Temperature C
600
800

1000

1200

Approximate measured
1080

1060

500

1040

1000

Temperature, C

Distance from stockline, mm

1000

2000
2500
3000

4500
5000

1060

1023
1000

980

1000

994

1002

960

965

974
960 961

960

940

3500

4000

1060

1020

1500

Calculated for 99% shaft efficiency

Ref.
Magn. 1
Lime and lime long

Zr traced
Magn. 2

Figure 19 Vertical temperature profiles measured within

evaluation periods

920

900
Ref.

Orig

Zr

Magnetite

Lime

Lime long

Figure 20 Measured and calculated thermal reserve zone

temperature

CONCLUDING REMARKS
During the Experimental BF trials stable operation could be achieved when using 150 kg/tHM of nut coke in the ferrous layers. The
gas efficiency was in general high for all periods and increased from the reference the to the activated nut coke periods.
The charging of high amounts of nut coke is believed to improve the horizontal gas distribution.

High gas efficiency could be achieved although high coke rate during periods with original and Zr-traced nut coke
The horizontal gas profile at upper shaft probe level became flatter with less significant central gas flow
The top gas temperature and water dosage was not significantly increased when high heat levels were reached

Further increase in gas efficiency during periods with activated nut coke is likely caused by lower thermal reserve zone temperature
that improves the indirect reduction of ferrous material and decreases the direct reduction. Lower thermal reserve zone temperatures
were indicated by measured data and heat and mass balance calculation results. Lowering of the thermal reserve zone temperature
moves the equilibrium for Femet/FeO to CO/CO2 towards Femet during the periods with activated nut coke.
The C consumption calculated for all periods using normalized hot metal heat level in terms of Si content and tap temperature states a
reduction of C consumption with 6-8 kg/tHM when activated nut coke is charged. The highest savings are achieved during the period
with magnetite-activated nut coke.
For industrial implementation the method for activation has to be further developed. In the method used the coke reaches a moisture
content corresponding to saturation and cannot be charged without previous drying.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research work presented in this paper has been carried out within the project of Innocarb, RFSR-CT-2010-00001, that is cofunded by the Research Fund for Coal and Steel (RFCS). Swedish Energy Agency is greatly acknowledged for additional financial
contribution. The paper is a contribution from CAMM, Centre of Advanced Mining and Metallurgy, at Lule University of
Technology that supported the research scientifically and economically.

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