Thermal Spraying

Thermal spraying is a generic term which describes a

group of processes in which metallic, ceramic, cermet (and
some polymeric) materials in the form of powder, wire, or
rod are fed to a torch or gun with which they are heated to
near (or somewhat above) their melting point. The resulting
molten or semi-molten droplets of material are accelerated
in a gas stream and projected against the surface to be
coated (ie. the substrate). On impact, the droplets flow into
thin lamellar particles, which adhere to the surface, overlapping and interlocking as they solidify. The total coating
thickness is usually generated in multiple passes of the
spraying device.
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Thermal Spray Schematic

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Thermal Spray Technology

Combustion

D GUN

Wire

FLAME
HIGH
SPRAY VELOCITY

Powder

Electric Arc

Plasma

AIR
PLASMA
SPRAYING

NonTransferred
Arc

Transferred
Arc

CONTROLLED
ENVIRONMENT
SPRAYING

Inert
Atmosphere

Low
Pressure
Plasma
Spraying

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Flame
Spraying
Schematic of
typical flame
combustion
spray guns :
(a) Wire
(b) Powder
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Flame spraying
Flame spraying uses combustible gas as a heat source to melt the coating material.
Flame spray guns are available to spray materials in either powder, wire, or rod form.
Most flame spray guns can be adapted to use several combinations of gases to balance
operating cost and coating properties. Acetylene, propane, 'MAPP' (methyl-acetylene
propadiene / LPG) and hydrogen are, together with oxygen, are commonly used flame
spray gases. In general, changing the nozzle and/or air cap is all that is required to adapt
the gun to different alloys, wire sizes, or gases.
Flame temperatures and characteristics depend on the oxygen-to-fuel gas ratio and
pressure. The flame spray process is characterised by low capital investment, high
deposition rates and efficiencies, and relative ease of operation and cost of equipment
maintenance. However as-deposited (or 'cold spray') flame-sprayed coatings generally
exhibit lower bond strengths, higher porosity, a narrower working temperature range
and higher heat transmittance to the substrate than most other thermal spray processes.
The flame spray process is widely used for reclamation of worn or out-of-tolerance parts,
frequently using nickel-based alloys. Bronze alloys may be used for some bearings
and seal areas. Blends of tungsten carbide and nickel-based alloys may be used for
wear resistance. Zinc is commonly applied for corrosion resistance on bridges and
other large structures (ie. on parts which generally are too big to dip galvanise).
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Schematic of a typical metalwire arc-spray device

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Electric-arc (wire-arc) spraying

The electric-arc spraying process uses metal source material in the form of a
continuous wire feed. This technique differs from other thermal spray processes
in that there is no requirement for an external heat source such as gas, flame or
electrically-induced plasma. Heating and melting occur when two electrically
opposed charged wires, comprising the spray material, are fed together in such a
manner that a controlled arc occurs at the intersection. The molten metal on the
wire tips is atomised and propelled onto a prepared substrate by a stream of
compressed air, or some other gas (eg. argon).
Electric-arc spray offers advantages over flame spray processes. In general, it
exhibits higher bond strength and deposition rates of up to 55kg/h can be achieved
for some alloys. Substrate heating is lower than in flame spraying - due primarily
to the absence of a flame touching the surface. The electric-arc is in most instances
the least expensive process to operate. Electrical power requirements are low and,
with few exceptions, expensive gases (such as argon) are not necessary.
The process most commonly uses relatively ductile, electrically-conductive, wire of
~1.5mm in diameter. Electric-arc spraying of ceramic coatings (for example,
carbides, nitrides and oxides) is therefore not practical; however, the development
of cored wires (containing carbides or oxides in a metal alloy matrix) permits the
deposition of some composite ('cermet') coatings.
Where requirements are less rigorous, wear surfaces can be deposited quite cheaply
using this technique, since one of the wires (ie. ~50% of the coating matrix) can be
inexpensive filler material. Electric-arc coatings are widely used for high-volume,
low-cost applications such as in zinc corrosion-resistant coatings.

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Schematic of typical plasma spray gun configuration

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Plasma spraying
In plasma spraying a gas, usually argon, but occasionally with additions of
helium, hydrogen, or nitrogen, is allowed to flow between a tungsten cathode
and a water-cooled copper anode. An electric arc is initiated between the two
electrodes using a high-frequency ac discharge, then sustained using dc power.
The arc ionises the gas, creating a high-pressure gas plasma. The resulting
increase in gas temperature (which locally may exceed 30,000C!) in turn
rapidly increases the volume of the gas - and hence its pressure and velocity as it exits the nozzle. Gas velocities, which may be supersonic, should not be
confused with particle velocities (although these are also high, at typically
several hundred m/s - depending on particle size & density). Power levels in
plasma spray torches are generally in the range of 40 to 80 kW, but can be as
high as 120 kW. Argon is usually chosen as the base gas because it is
chemically inert and because of its ionisation characteristics. The enthalpy of
the gas can be increased by adding diatomic gases such as hydrogen or nitrogen.
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Plasma spraying

(Contd.)

The powdered coating materials are usually introduced to the gas stream either just
outside the torch or in the diverging exit region of the nozzle (anode). They are both
heated and accelerated by the high-temperature, high-velocity plasma gas stream.
Torch design and operating parameters are critical in determining the temperature and
velocity achieved by the powder particles. The operating parameters include not only
gas flow rate, power level and powder feed rate, but also 'stand-off' (ie. the distance
from the torch to the substrate) and the angle of jet impingement on the substrate.
Stand-off is of substantial importance because, on the one hand, adequate distance must
he provided for heating and accelerating the powder but, on the other, too great a
distance will allow the powder to cool and lose velocity - because the gas stream is
rapidly expanding, cooling, and slowing.
The size and morphology of powder particles strongly influences their rate of heating
and acceleration - and hence deposition efficiency and coating quality. Frequently, a
somewhat higher price paid for a good quality powder with a narrow size distribution is
more than compensated for by improved deposition efficiency. The density of plasma
sprayed coatings is usually much higher than that of flame sprayed coatings and is
typically 95% of theoretical (compared to less than 80%). Coating thickness usually
ranges from about 50 to 500m but may be much thicker for some applications (eg. for
dimensional restoration or thermal barriers). In modern plasma spray systems, bond
strengths vary from around 30 MPa to as much as 150 MPa. (nb. 1 MPa = 1 N/mm2)
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High-Velocity Oxy-Fuel

(Latest combustion spray technology)

Schematic of simple HVOF spray gun configuration

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HVOF spraying
In High-Velocity Oxy-Fuel (HVOF) spraying, the fuel (usually propane, propylene, MAPP,
or hydrogen) is mixed with oxygen and burned in a chamber. In some cases, liquid
kerosene may be used as the fuel and air as the oxidiser. The products of the combustion
are allowed to expand through a nozzle where the gas velocities become supersonic.
Powder is introduced, usually axially, in the nozzle and is heated and accelerated. The powder
is usually fully or partially melted and can achieve velocities in excess of 500 m/s. Because
the powder is exposed to the products of combustion, they may be melted in either an
oxidising or reducing environment and significant oxidation of metallics and carbides is
possible, if inappropriate conditions are selected.
With the right equipment, operating parameters and choice of powder, coatings of high
density - and with bond strengths frequently exceeding 70 MPa - can be deposited. Coating
thickness is (similar to most other spraying processes) usually in the range of 50 to 500m but substantially thicker coatings of some materials can be applied when necessary
HVOF processes can produce coatings of virtually any metallic or cermet material and,
with some of the newest HVOF techniques, most oxide/carbide ceramics can be deposited.
HVOF systems that use acetylene as a fuel are necessary to apply the higher-melting-point
materials (ie. ceramics such as zirconia or metal carbides). HVOF coatings have primarily
been used for wear resistance to date, but the field of applications is expanding.
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Sprayed biomedical coatings

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Thermal spray robot

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Schematic of detonation (D-gun) spray system

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Advantages/Disadvantages of Spraying

One major advantage of the thermal spraying process is the extremely wide
variety of materials that can be used to make a coating. Virtually any material
that melts without decomposing can be used. A second major advantage is the
ability of most thermal spray processes to apply a coating to a substrate
without significantly heating it. Thus, materials with very high melting points
can he applied to finally machined, fully heat-treated parts without changing
the properties of the part and without thermal distortion of the part. A third
advantage is the ability, in most cases, to strip and recoat worn or damaged
coatings without changing the properties or dimensions of the part.
One major disadvantage is the line-of-sight nature of these deposition processes.
They can only coat what the torch or gun can "see." Of course, there are also
size limitations, prohibiting the coating of small, deep cavities into which a torch
or gun will not fit. Other potential limitations of thermally sprayed coatings
are their relatively low bond strength and the presence of residual porosity.
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Examples of typical sprayed

ceramic / cermet coatings

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Process Parameter Overview

Comparison of some of the principal spraying processes

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