DC-DC converters

Step-down and step-up operations

Converter classification
Switching mode regulators
State-space analysis of regulators

Step Down Converter

k=

t1
= t1 f s (k is duty cycle)
Ts

Vo ( average ) =

1
Ts

I o ( average ) =

Vo ( average )

t1

t1
VS = kVS
Ts

vo dt =

kVS
R

1/ 2

1 t1

Vo ( rms ) = vo 2 dt = k VS
0
Ts

input power = output power =

Po =

1
Ts

t1

voio dt =

1
Ts

t1

vo 2
V2
dt = k S
R
R

Equivalent input resistance

The effective input resistance seen by the source
VS
VS
R
Ri =
=
=
I o ( average ) kVS / R k

Duty cycle variation

Duty cycle can be varied from 0 to 1 by varying t1, t2, or f
Duty cycle control methods
Constant frequency operation
f is kept constant, t1 is varied, is famous known as pulse-width-modulation
(PWM)

Variable frequency operation

Either t1, t2, is kept constant, the other is varied (f is also varied)
Generating harmonics at unpredictable frequencies, the filter design would
be difficult

Note: the switching loss is not considered; if considering it,

practical converter varies between 92% to 99%

PWM Waveform Generation

Vcr
t
T
V
Vr = cr kT
T
V
k= r =M
Vcr
vcr =

M is also called the modulation index

Algorithm to generate PWM signal

Generate a triangular waveform of period T as a carrier signal vcr, a dc
reference signal vr
Compare these signals by a comparator to produce square-wave gating
signal
Variation in duty cycle k varies linearly with the reference votlage vr

Step Down Operation with RL Load

Load time constant ( = L/R) is generally much

higher than the switching period
The linear approximation is valid for many
circuit conditions

Step Down Operation with RL Load

Modes of Operation
Mode 1 :
di1
+E
dt
For i1 (t = 0) = I1

VS = Ri1 + L

VS E
(1 etR / L )
R
i1 (t = t1 = kT ) = I 2
i1 (t ) = I1e tR / L +

Mode 2 :
di2
+E
dt
For i2 (t = 0) = I 2

0 = Ri2 + L

E
(1 etR / L )
R
i2 (t = t2 = (1 k )T ) = I 3 I 3 = I1
i2 (t ) = I 2e tR / L

Modes of Operation
VS E
(1 e kTR / L )
R
E
TR T
At t = (1 k )T I 3 = I1 = I 2e (1k )TR / L (1 e (1k )TR / L ) z =
=
R
L
V ekz 1 E
VS 1 e kz E
I1 = S z
I

2
R e 1 R
R 1 e z R
At t = kT

I 2 = I1e kTR / L +

VS 1 e kz + e z e (1k ) z
1 e z
R
d ( I )
V 1 + e z 2e 0.5 z VS e 0.5 z 1
=
= 0 k = 0.5 I max = S
1 e z
R e 0.5 z + 1
dk
R
V
R
V
I max = S tanh
 S ( 0, tanh )
4 fL 4 fL
R
I = I 2 I1 =

Discontinuous Operation
I1 = 0
VS E
1 e tR / L )
(
R
i1 (t = t1 = kT ) = I 2
i1 (t ) =

At t = kT

I2 =

VS E
1 e kz )
(
R

E
(1 etR / L )
R
L
RI
t2 = ln 1 + 2
R
E
L
V E
kz
= ln 1 + S
(1 e )
R
E

i2 (t ) = I 2 e tR / L

Condition for continuous load current

I1 =

VS e kz 1 E

R e z 1 R

For I1 > 0

VS e kz 1 E
>0
R e z 1 R

e kz 1 E
>0
z
e 1 VS
which gives

x=

E e kz 1

VS e z 1

Step-Up Operation

vL = L

di
dt

I =

VS
t1
L

The average output voltage

vo = VS + L
= VS

t
I
= VS 1 + 1
t2
t2

1
1 k

Step-Up Operation

Mode 1
VS = L
For

For controllable power

0 < VS < E

di1
dt

i1 (t ) =

VS
t + I1
L

di1
> 0 VS > 0
dt

Mode 2
di
V E
VS = L 2 + E i2 (t ) = S
t + I2
dt
L
di
For 2 < 0 VS < E
dt

Step-up operation with resistive load

VS = L

di1
dt

i1 (t ) =

I 2 = i1 (t = kT ) =

VS
t + I1
L

VS
kT + I1
L

di2
+E
dt
V E
i2 (t ) = S
(1 etR / L ) + I 2etR / L ( z = TR / L)
R
V E
I1 = i2 (t = (1 k )) = S
(1 e(1k ) z ) + I 2e(1k ) z
L
V kz e (1k ) z
V E
I1 = S
+ S
(1 k ) z
R 1 e
R
V
VS kz
VS E
1
I2 =
+
I = I 2 I1 = S kT
L
R 1 e (1k ) z
R

VS = Ri2 + L

10

Converter performance
Power semiconductor devices require a minimum time to turn
on or turn off
Duty cycle k can only be controlled between kmin and kmax
Switching frequency should be as high as possible to reduce
the load ripple current and minimize the inductor size
Performance parameters

Inductor ripple current, IL

Maximum switching frequency, fmax
Continuous or discontinuous inductor current
Minimum inductor inductance to maintain continuous inductor current

Converter Classifications

1st quadrant converter (rectifier)

2nd quadrant converter (inverter)
1st and 2nd quadrant
3rd and 4th quadrant
Four-quadrant

11

1st Quadrant Converter

Both the voltage and the current are positive
Power is transferred from source to load

2nd Quadrant Converter

The load voltage is positive but the
current is negative
Power is transferred from load back to
source
The battery E is part of the load and
may be the back emf of a dc motor

12

2nd quadrant converter

diL
+ RiL + E
dt
E
iL (t ) = I1e tR / L (1 e tR / L )
R
At t = t1 = kT iL (t = t1 = kT ) = I 2
0=L

diL
+E
dt
V E
iL (t ) = I 2 e tR / L + S
1 e tR / L )
(
R
At t = t2 = (1 k )T iL (t = t2 = (1 k )T ) = I1

VS = RiL + L

I1 =

VS 1 e (1 k ) z E

R 1 e z
R

I2 =

VS e kz e z E

R 1 e z
R

1st and 2nd Quadrant Converter

The load current is either positive or negative, the load voltage
is always positive
S1 and D4 operated as a 1st quadrant converter
S4 and D1 operated as a 2nd quadrant converter
The two switches should not fire together

13

3rd and 4th Quadrant Converter

The load current is either positive or negative, the load voltage
is always negative
S3 and D2 operated as a 3rd quadrant converter
S2 and D3 operated as a 4th quadrant converter
The two switches should not fire together

Four Quadrant Converter

The load current and load voltage can be either positive or negative
For operation in 4th quadrant, the direction of E should be reversed

14

Switching Mode Regulators

DC converters can be used
to convert an unregulated dc
voltage to a regulated output
voltage
The output usually contains
ripple content, and is reduced
by an LC filter
To maximize efficiency, switching period should be about 100
times longer than the transistor switching time
Four basic switching regulators

Buck Regulator
Boost Regulator
Buck-Boost Regulator
Cuk Regulator

Buck Regulator

eL = L

di
dt

Vs Va = L
t1 =

I 2 I1
I
=L
t1
t1

LI
Vs Va

15

Buck Regulator
Va = L
t2 =

LI
Va

I
t2

(t1 = kT )

(t2 = (1 k )T )

(Vs Va )t1 Va t2
=
L
L
t1
Va = Vs = kVs
T
Assuming lossless, I s = kI a

I =

T = t1 + t 2 =

I =

LI
LI
Vs LI
+
=
Vs Va
Va
V a (V s V a )

V a (V s V a )
fLV s

Buck Regulator
VS k (1 k )
fL
T / 2 I / 2 I
QC =
=
2
8f
QC
I VS k (1 k )
VC =
=
=
C
8 fC
8 f 2CL
I =

The critical values for a continuous

inductor current
I = 2 I L
Vs (1 k )k
2kVs
= 2IL = 2Ia =
fL
R
(1 k ) R
Lc = L =
2f

16

Boost Regulator

Vs = L
t1 =

I
I 2 I1
=L
t1
t1

LI
Vs

17

Boost Regulator
Vs Va = L
t2 =

LI
Va Vs

I
t2

(t1 = kT )

(t2 = (1 k )T )

Vs t1 (Va Vs )t2
=
L
L
T
V
Va = Vs = s
t2 1 k

I =

Assuming lossless, I a = (1 k ) I s
T = t1 + t 2 =

I =

LI
LI
Va L I
+
=
Vs
V a V s V s (V a V s )

V s (V a V s ) V s k
=
fLV a
fL

Boost Regulator
QC = I a kT
VC =

QC I a k
=
C
fC

The critical values for a continuous

inductor current and capacitor
voltage
I = 2 I L
kVs
2Vs
= 2IL = 2Ia =
(1 k ) R
fL
k (1 k ) R
Lc = L =
2f

18

Buck-Boost Regulator

Vs = L
t1 =

I
I 2 I1
=L
t1
t1

LI
Vs

19

Buck-Boost Regulator
Va = L
t2 =

I
t2

LI
Va

Vs t1 Va t2
=
L
L
kVs
Va =
1 k

I =

Assuming lossless, I s =
T = t1 + t 2 =

I =

kI a
1 k

LI
LI
(V V s ) L I
+
= a
Vs
Va
V sV a

V sV a
V k
= s
fL (V a V s )
fL

Buck-Boost Regulator
QC = I a kT
VC =

QC I a k
=
C
fC

The critical values for a continuous

inductor current and capacitor voltage
I = 2 I L
kVs
2Vs
= 2IL = 2Ia =
(1 k ) R
fL
k (1 k ) R
Lc = L =
2f

20

Cuk Regulator

Vs = L
t1 =

I
I L12 I L11
=L 1
t1
t1

L1I 1
Vs

Vc 1 + Va = L2
t1 =

I
I L 22 I L 21
=L 2
t1
t1

L2 I 2
Vc 1 + Va

21

Cuk Regulator
Va = L2

I 2
t2

L I
t2 = 2 2
Va
Vs Vc1 = L1

I 2 =

I 1
t2

Vc 1 =

L I
t2 = 1 1
Vs Vc1

Vs
1 k

Va
k

Va =

kVs
1 k

Assuming lossless, I s =

Vt
(Vs Vc1 )t2
I 1 = s 1 =
L1
L1
Vc1 =

(Vc 1 + Va )t1 Va t2
=
L2
L2

T = t1 + t 2 =

I 2 =

kI a
1 k

L2 I 2
L I
V c 1 L2 I 2
2 2 =
Vc1 + Va
Va
V a (V c 1 + V a )

V a (V c 1 + V a ) V s k
=
fL 2V c 1
fL 2

Cuk Regulator
QC1 = I a kT
VC1 =

QC1 I a k
=
C1
fC1

T / 2 I 2 / 2 I 2
=
2
8f
QC 2
I
kVS
=
=
=
8 fC2 8C2 L2 f 2
C2

QC 2 =
VC 2

22

Cuk Regulator
The critical values for a continuous
inductor current and capacitor voltage
I1 = 2 I s =

2kI a
2kVa
2k 2Vs
=
=
(1 k ) (1 k ) R (1 k )2 R

kVs
2k 2Vs
=
fL1 (1 k )2 R
Lc1 = L1 =

(1 k )

2kf
2Va
I 2 = 2 I a =
R
(1 k )Va 2Va
=
fL2
R
Lc 2 = L2 =

(1 k ) R
2f

Limitations of signle-stage conversion

Output power is small (current handing ability of transistors
and other components)
No isolation between the input and output voltage
Therefore, for higher power or isolation applications,
multistage conversions are used

dc inverter
ac transforme
r ac rectifier
dc

23

Comparison of regulators

Dual-output boost converter

k1a + k 2 a 0.5
k1 a + k 2 a + k 3 a = 1

24

Multi-output boost converter

Rectified Fed Converter

25

Three-phase rectifier-fed boost converter

Output harmonics

inh (t ) = kI a +

Ia
n

sin 2nk cos 2nft

n =1

I
+ a (1 cos2nk ) sin 2nft
n n =1
I
I
i1h (t ) = a 2k cos 2ft + a (1 cos 2k ) sin 2ft

26

Input Filter

I ns =

1
1
I nh =
I nh
2
1 + ( 2nf ) LeCe
1 + (nf / f0 ) 2

where f is chopping frequency, f0 = 1 /( 2 LeCe )

If f/f0 >> 1
f
I ns = I nh 0
nf

27

28

State-space analysis of regulators

Any nth order linear or nonlinear single-variable differential
equation can be rewritten as n first-order n-variable differential
equations
y ' ' '+ a2 y ' '+ a1 y '+ a0 y = 0
Let y = x1 and x2 = x1 '

x3 = x2 ' then

x3 ' = a0 x1 a1 x2 a2 x3

Variables x1, x2, , xn are called state variables for the system

29

State-space analysis of buck regulator

Mode 1
1
1

u1 = Lx1 '+ x2
x1 ' = L x2 + L u1
Cx ' = x 1 x
1
1
1
2
2
x2' = x1
x2
R
RC
C

x' = A1x + B1u1

Mode 2
1

x1 ' =
x2
0 = Lx1 '+ x2

L
Cx ' = x 1 x
1
1
1
2
2
x2' = x1
x2
R
C
RC

x' = A2x + B2u 2

State-space analysis of buck regulator

The total solution can be obtained by state-space averaging
A = kA1 + (1 k ) A2
B = kB1 + (1 k ) B2

the resulted state equations:

k
1
x2 + u1
L
L
1
1
x2
x2' = x1
C
RC
x1 ' =

This is a nonlinear circuit because

k is a function of x1, x2 and u1

30

Assignments
5.6 (please draw a plot for the calculated currents to k), 5.9,
5.10, 5.11, 5.12

31