Termografia en Cadenas

LIQUID AND SOLID INSULATION
Lecture 4
S-18.3150 High Voltage Engineering
S-18.3146 Suurjnnitetekniikka
https://noppa.aalto.fi/noppa/kurssi/s-18.3150
Week
Date
Lecture
Topic
38
15.9
General + Safety + High Voltage Lab Tour
39
22.9
Electrostatic Fields + FEM
40
29.9
Gas Insulation
41
6.10
Liquid and Solid insulation
42
13.10
Transients
43
20.10
44
27.10
Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination
45
3.11
HV Testing & Measurements
46
10.11
Generation of High Voltages
Seminar Presentations
47
17.11
Seminar Presentations
48
24.11
Excursion
49
2.12
NO LECTURE
50
8.12
EXAM (13 16, S5)
NO LECTURE
Exercises
1 + FEM tasks + Seminar Tasks
Partial Discharge Lab
(Seminars)
Surge Arrestor Lab
LIQUID INSULATION
Requirements
Examples
Breakdown
PURPOSE
Protect solid insulation from discharge
Extinguish arcing
Efficiently remove heat (cooling)
REQUIREMENTS
Low viscosity (resistance of fluid - thickness)
Cooling properties
Liquid fills all voids in solid insulation
Viscosity must remain small at low temperatures (Finland)

Cannot become solid. Solidification temperature less than -40 C)
Chemically stable
Maintain insulating properties through long service life in varying conditions
REQUIREMENTS DEPEND ON APPLICATION:

Transformers
High withstand voltage high dielectric strength of liquid
Good heat transfer capability for cooling
High resistivity, low loss factor, good PD tolerance
Cables and Bushings

Very good PD tolerance
Very low viscosity (impregnation)
Switches
High flash temperature so that it can safely extinguish arc
MINERAL OIL
Ub [kV]
Most common liquid insulation

Typical mineral oil is transformer
oil
Easy availability and economical
Properties defined in IEC 60296
Good dielectric properties for
insulation and low viscosity for cooling
Prone to oxidization and flammability
(flash point over 130 C)
Moisture and impurities affect
insulating properties
80
(ii.) same oil
filtered twice
60
40
20
(i.) clean industrial

transformer oil
20
40
60
80
100
water content [g/g]
SYNTHETIC LIQUID INSULATION

CONTROLLED
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
DESIRED PROPERTIES
MORE EXPENSIVE
Relative
Permittivity r
[50 Hz, 25 C]
Kinematic
Viscosity
[mm2/s, 20 C]
Solidification
Point
[C]
Flashpoint
[C]
Mineral Oil
2.2
16
-50
150-175
Mono/dibenzyl
toluene
2.7
6.5
-50
144
Very toxic for aquatic

environment
Comments
Silicone Oil
2.9
50
-53
>335
Most environmentally friendly

Non-flammable
Poor heat transfer.
Poor discharge tolerance
(flammable gas by-products
from arcing)
Ester
3.3
63
-50
310
Non-toxic,
Environmentally friendly
BREAKDOWN IN LIQUID INSULATION

In relatively clean and homogenous liquids, the breakdown
mechanism is similar to breakdown in gas
Electric field is applied to the charge carriers in the liquid (electrons already present
in the liquid and those released from the cathode through emission and electrochemical processes)
Electrons move in the opposite direction of the field

If the energy of the electrons is sufficient, dissociation of molecules by
collisional ionization occurs (ionic compounds split into smaller particles opposite of
recombination)
Microscopic gas bubbles form in liquid

Due to the density of the liquid, it is hard for electrons to achieve much energy
between collisions
Townsend avalanches and new free charges can form

in the BUBBLES (smaller density)
Eventually the bubble (or row of

bubbles) will expand across the
electrode gap
Mobility of electrons in the

liquid is 105 times greater
than positive ions
an ionized channel is formed and advanced

by streamer discharge
electrons leave behind a concentration

of positive ions
the channel has lower density and smaller

dielectric strength than the rest of the liquid
these charge concentrations enhance

electric field in certain regions and
further advance ionization
continuous current flows through the channel
Free charges created by

ionization inside the
bubble are displaced by
the electric field
the bubble is stretched and
grows in size

Breakdown can also be
caused by impurities
Impurity.r
>
Liquid.r
Moisture and foreign

particles
Impurity moves towards the area of

highest electric field
Impurity enhances the electric field
and attracts other particles
These particles bridge the
electrodes leading to breakdown
Fiber bridge
Bridging of
impurities and
bubble rows can
be avoided by
Inter-layering with
solid insulation
Displacing liquid
(flowing)
10
Dielectric strength of
liquid is hard to
determine:
not constant
once oxidation, electrochemical
reactions, and impurities affect
the liquid, its insulating
properties are not the same
dielectric strength of liquid
measured in homogeneous gap
even though most insulators are
inhomogeneous
Temperature and pressure affect the

liquids dielectric strength
As temperature increases, viscosity decrease which
increases the speed of electrons between
collisions and increase the probability for
breakdown
As pressure increases, the formation of bubbles
is more difficult which improves the dielectric
strength of the liquid.
11
SOLID INSULATION
Requirements
Examples
Breakdown
PURPOSE
Mechanical
support for
conducting
components
Electrical
insulation
REQUIREMENTS
Mechanical strength
Dielectric strength
Heat tolerance
13
Insulation
Organic
Nonorganic
Synthetic
Polymer
Paper (dry)
Paper (oil impregnated)
Organic
Inorganic
Synthetic
Polymer
Rubber
Breakdown
Field Strength
[kV/mm]
Temperature
Index TI
(20 000 h)
[C]
90
40 75
105
20
75
Wood (dry)
90
Wood (oil impregnated)
105
Press wood (dry)
90 120
Porcelain
30
1000
Glass
16
400 1000
Mica
80
500 700
Polythene
20
105
Polystyrene
100
80 90
5 16
120 155
Epoxy plastic
20 40
105 155
Melamine
13 14
120
Phenolic plastic (bakelite)
Comments
easy to handle and machine

typically good dielectric properties
insulating properties change during service life
temperatures above 100 C deteriorate insulator
typically porous absorb liquids, impregnation
transformers, cables, capacitors
withstand high temperatures

excellent dielectric and mechanical properties
poor machinability, cannot absorb liquids
overhead lines, bushings, rotating machines
all industrially produced solid insulation
excellent electric properties, easy to machine
thermoplastic / thermoset plastic
wide range of applications depending on
manufacturing process - moisture sealing, tensile
strength, flexibility
14
BREAKDOWN IN SOLID INSULATION
Mechanism of breakdown in solids remains unclear

When voltage stress is
increased close to
breakdown:
Current through insulator
increases exponentially
(similar to gas)
Assumed to be caused by
increasing number of
charge carriers in the
insulation and electrode
surfaces
In practice, other factors

affect breakdown besides
the increase of electrons:
F12
F21
Pre-discharge current and

dielectric losses causing heat
Electrostatic forces at
interfaces
Electrochemical reactions
Water trees, erosion
15
In general:
Breakdown is caused by energy provided by an electric field
Energy transfer can occur by:
1.
Collision Ionization (electric breakdown)
2.
Thermal Losses (thermal breakdown)
Breakdown leads to
thermal destruction
of insulator
(melting, charring, vaporizing)
Permanent loss of
insulating properties
(not self-restoring like gases)
16
BREAKDOWN
MECHANISMS IN
SOLID INSULATION
Electrical Breakdown
Intrinsic Breakdown
Partial Discharge
Electrical Treeing
Electromechanical Breakdown
Thermal Breakdown
Electrolytic Breakdown
17
ELECTRICAL BREAKDOWN
Multi-stage phenomenon influenced by:
Different ionization mechanisms

Space charges in discharge channel
Heating of insulator material
Molecular structure deformations
Discharge occurs when

critical field strength is
exceeded locally
Conducting channel
with numerous charge
carriers starts to
progress
assumed to begin at
inhomogeneous region of the
insulation or electrode surface
Insulation is destroyed
by different chemical
and physical processes
Complete breakdown
occurs when the channel
has bridged the
electrodes
18
INTRINSIC (INTERNAL) BREAKDOWN

Intrinsic strength is a property of the MATERIAL and TEMPERATURE only
In pure homogeneous dielectric materials the conduction and valence bands
are separated by a large energy gap and at room temperature the electrons
cannot acquire sufficient thermal energy to make transitions from valence to
conduction band.
When an electric field is applied, the conduction
electrons gain energy due to collisions between
them and the energy is shared by all electrons.
The field raises the energy of the electrons more

rapidly than they can transfer it to the lattice.
Electron temperature increases and conduction
continues to increase to a complete breakdown.
semiconductor
electron energy
For a stable condition, this energy must be

somehow dissipated.
metal
insulator
conduction
band
Fermi level
band gap
valence
band
The energy gained by electrons from the electric field exceeds the amount of energy
that electrons can transfer, resulting in the collapse of the entire molecular lattice
19
PARTIAL DISCHARGE BREAKDOWN

Insulators usually have voids or gas bubbles
If the void has lower

permittivity than its
surrounding
material, voltage
stress is higher inside
the void
Positive ions and

electrons released
by the discharge
collide with the
void wall causing
slow erosion
Once the voids

withstand strength is
exceeded, partial
discharge begins
(discharge byproducts can also

cause chemical
erosion)
Irregularities
in the void
wall enhance
the electric
field locally
As further
discharges
concentrate
on this area,
the erosion
path is
advanced
20
ELECTRICAL TREEING
If stress is continuous, eventually discharges will advance through a solid
insulator in a branching erosion path (electric tree) along which a
complete breakdown can occur
Treeing commences at impurities on the electrode or in the insulation (pre-breakdown phenomenon)
Vented water treeing
Bow tie water treeing
Electrical treeing
Water treeing moisture advances in insulator under the influence of the electric field
E.g. Chemical degradation of polymeric insulation such as XLPE or EPR that only occurs in the presence of
water and electrical stress (initiates from inhomogenities within the insulation or at insulation/screen interface)
21
22
ELECTROMECHANICAL BREAKDOWN
Mechanical force between charges at electrodes causes
pressure (force of attraction between surface charges)
Electrode
distance
decreases
causing the
electric field to
further increase
pressure
1 2
p E
2
Localized
heating and
softening of
the insulator
leads to
mechanical
collapse
The pressure
forces the
insulator to
compress
(not very common for typical insulators)

23
ELECTROMECHANICAL BREAKDOWN
Mechanical collapse when electrostatic compressive forces
exceed mechanical compressive strength:
12
2Y d 0
1
1
U
d0
2
p E 0 r 2 Y ln U d
ln
2
2
d
d
0 r d
2
Y = Youngs modulus of elasticity
d0 = original distance
d = compressed distance
12
Stress (E = U/d0) required for collapse (d < 0.6d0) E 0.6

0 r
PET (polyethylene terephthalate, thermoplastic polymer resin)
r = 3, Y = 3.1 x 109 Pa E = 6480 kV/mm!
BaTiO3 (barium titanate, dielectric ceramic used in capacitors)

r = 18500, Y = 167.4.1 x 109 Pa E = 607 kV/mm!
24
THERMAL BREAKDOWN
An electric field causes the insulator to experience
heat produced by conductivity and dielectric losses
3 (E 3 )
2 (E 2)
1 (E 1 )
as temperature of the insulator increases conductivity

increases more heating
the dissipation factor tan increases with temperature
more dielectric losses
If heat is being produced in the insulator faster than

it is removed by cooling thermal breakdown
t1
t2
specimen temperature
1.
Field strength E1:

insulator temperature
stabilizes at t1
no thermal
breakdown
2.
Field strength E2:

temperature
increases to t2
unstable
(small temporary
fluctuation can lead to
thermal breakdown)
3.
Stabilization point
unreachable
thermal breakdown
Heat produced at E3
always exceeds cooling
25
ELECTROLYTIC BREAKDOWN
Any substance
containing free
ions that behave
as an electrically
conductive
medium
Insulators
with moisture
and impurities
are prone to
electrolytic
breakdown
Highly
dependant on
local
environmental
conditions
Electrolyte
Ions (oxygen,
chlorine) present
in the insulator
migrate to the
electrodes
causing a
chemical
reaction
Ions transport
conducting
material from
the electrodes
into the interior
of the dielectric
Gradual build
up (years)
resulting in
sudden
breakdown
26
Breakdown
strength and
discharge
processes are
highly dependent
on stress
Eb
[V/mm]
106
Electrical
Breakdown
Electromechanical
Breakdown
105
duration
Thermal Breakdown
104
Partial Discharge
Electrical
Treeing
103
Water Treeing
102
10-9
10-6
10-3
10
[s]
10
10
10
27
PRACTICAL INSULATORS
OHL Components
Cables
Bushings
Insulators are needed to support live (voltage) components so that

their distance to grounded parts and other devices is maintained.
All organic insulators are influenced by

temperature and stress duration
Above certain temperature hard plastic becomes soft and its mechanical and
dielectric properties degrade
As temperature decreases plastic becomes brittle and its impact strength weakens
All outdoor insulators need to consider:
Voltage withstand strength

Surface distance
Dirt accumulation prevention
Self-cleaning (aerodynamic shape)
Water sealing
Mechanical strength arcing, erosion, UV radiation, thermal reaction
29
a.
b.
c.
d.
30
31
OVERHEAD LINE COMPONENTS
Pin Insulator
(porcelain)
170
146
Disk Insulator,
Cap and Pin Insulator
(glass or porcelain)
Line Post Insulator

(porcelain)
Cast
Plastic
Insulators
Long-Rod Insulator
Composite Insulator
32
GLASS INSULATORS
Toughened glass
Improved mechanical strength
Smaller size
Microscopic fractures on glass surface during manufacturing

Shattering caused by mechanical impact or erosion (surface impurities)
CERAMIC INSULATORS
Typically porcelain
Weaker mechanical and electrical strength compared to toughened glass.
Different constituents in porcelain have different thermal expansion at
varying temperatures
No shattering and easier to manufacture large insulators
33
Insulator String
Capacitance chain with highly
non-linear voltage distribution
Each individual unit has:
self capacitance cs
capacitance to ground ce
capacitance to conductor cv
U0
ce
cs
cv
ce
cs
cv
ce
cs
cv
ce
cs
cv
cs
cs Cs
c
l
s
x x
Ci
ci x ci x
l
i = e (earth) or v (voltage conductor)
l = length of insulator string

x = insulator unit length
34
Voltage distribution depends on capacitance ratio Cv/Ce

Cv/Ce > 1
voltage stress concentrates on tower beam side
Cv/Ce = 1
voltage distribution is symmetrically
Cv/Ce < 1
voltage stress concentrates on conductor side
Beam (GND) 0
N=7
10
15
20
N = 15, 20
n 0
10
N=7
U [p.u.] 0.5
15
20
N = 15
N = 22
N = number of units
0.5
n = unit number
Cv/Ce =1.3
Cv/Ce 0
Conductor 1.0
1.0
35
GND
Emax =
4.6
kV/mm
GND
Emax =
3.75
kV/mm
U
GND
Emax =
4.5
kV/mm
36
37
38
COMPOSITE INSULATORS
Manufactured from at least two different insulating materials
Used in overhead lines as insulator strings, phase separators and
external insulation for surge arresters, bushings, transformers
+ mechanical strength
+ light weight
+ elastic (hard to vandalize)
cost
uncertain long term stability
Protect core from moisture/chemicals/UV radiation/surface discharge

PD can release hydrogen which forms acid when combined with moisture leading to
fracture
39
CABLE INSULATION
Cable
Cable Termination
Cable Joint
AC: plastic PVC, PE, XLPE (PEX)
DC: HVDC transmission (> 150 kV) with oil-paper insulation
plastic polarization state does not change fast enough when
polarity is changed or voltage transients are applied to the cable
critical field strength is exceeded breakdown.
40
PAPER INSULATION (IN CABLES)

10 50 mm wide paper tape wrapped around the
conductor with small gaps left between adjacent tapes
next layer is positioned to avoid continuous radial layering
the positioning of the tape is called registration and
describes how much the layers are on top of each other
50% registration
75% registration
Inhomogeneous construction:
paper enables formation of thin, high dielectric strength oil sheet layers and
prevents impurities from traveling between layers
defines mechanical properties cannot bend cable so that the layers connect
41
CABLE DESIGN
1. stranded
conductor
2. conductor
screen
3. insulation
CONDUCTOR STRANDS
BASIC LAYERS (2 4)
4. insulation
screen
Water blocking powder can be used between the strands

to prevent water migration.
Standard in most cables.
ADDITIONAL LAYERS (5 10)
5. metallic
screen
6. bedding
GROUNDED COMPONENTS (5, 7, 9)
7. metallic
sheath
8. seperation
sheath
9. armouring
10. outer
sheath
Vary depending on cable type and intended application

E.g. submarine, underground, etc.
Serves multiple purposes

E.g. protection against short circuit currents, external
fields, mechanical stress, and moisture.
BEDDING (6)
Used for cushioning and water blocking.
SEPARATION SHEATH (8)
Can be implemented to separate different metallic layers.
THE OUTER SHEATH (10)
Serves as external protection.
42
Small cavities and impurities are unavoidable in the cable

Screens (semiconducting layers) are placed between the conductor and
insulation layer and also between the insulation layer and the sheath.
1.
2.
conductor/insulation conductor screen (conductor cover)

insulation/sheath insulation screen (corona shield)
1.
2.
Screens help to maintain the cylindrical symmetry of the field
43
CABLE JOINTS
CONICAL
CONSTRUCTION
Should be logarithmic but
straight conical is satisfactory
Some cables have premolded joints insulation
does not need to be altered
No voids or impurities
router
Er
a
r
Ds
Dx
rinner
Et
Dr
insulation
conductor
x
Er
44
CABLE JOINTS
45
CABLE TERMINATIONS
ground
Local concentration of electric field occurs where a

conducting electrode continues and the grounded
electrode terminates
conductor
insulation
Grading of the electric field is necessary (FI: kentnohjaus)

grading is done by adding a stress cone on top
of the cable insulation
the stress cone has a conducting layer on its
surface or in its interior
aim is to maintain a small and constant field
46
a.) no grading
b.) geometric grading
c.) refractive grading
Permittivity-based grading (refractive stress

control, control, or resistive and capacitive grading)
Coat electrode edges with appropriately shaped

insulation having different permittivity than the
surrounding insulation.
A high permittivity insulating cylinder can be fastened
over the section of the cable that has been stripped of
insulation.
Capacitance grows between the edge of the metal sheath
and the bare section of insulation.
Forces the field in the surrounding air to be distributed
fairly uniformly along the surface of the insulation.
e.) stress cone placed on

top of cable insulation
d .) stress cone placed

directly on conductor
Conductive surface of
stress cone displayed as
darker bold line.
gas/liquid insulation
solid insulation
(mechanical)
E
The design is inserted
through a hollow core
(porcelain) insulator in
this figure.
stress cone (solid

insulation)
47
CABLE TERMINATIONS
48
BUSHING (FEED-THROUGH INSULATOR)

A live conductor is fed through a grounded enclosure
To avoid electric field concentration:
Electrodes and insulation shape is considered

Grading ring can be applied (kentnohjausrengas)
Capacitive grading field electrodes added
100%
100%
75%
50%
75%
25%
50%
Folio sheets
inserted into
insulation
25%
0%
0%
without grading
capacitive grading
49
50
51
52
53
Voltage
level
Insulator
string
length
Number of
insulator
units
110 kV
~1m
6-8
220 kV
~2m
10-12
400 kV
~4m
18-21
(in Finland, approx. 1 m/100 kV)
54
110/20 kV Substation (Espoo)

110 kV switching yard and
line terminals
-
Main transformer (1-3 units),

busbar, circuit breakers,
disconnectors, current
transformers, surge arresters
20 kV panels and line terminals

-
Busbar, circuit breakers, disconnectors, current

transformers
Control and monitoring equipment

-
Measurement, protection, data transfer, local

automation, remote application, interlocking
devices, backup electrical system, storage
batteries
55
110/20 kV Substation (Levi)
Disconnector
Instrument transformer
VT (voltage) (USA:
potential transformer PT)
Circuit
breaker
Instrument
transformer CT
(current)
Disconnector
Disconnector
(Bypass)
Main transformer
(31,5 MVA, 110 kV)
56
Electropedia: The Worlds Online Electrotechnical Vocabulary

www.electropedia.org
switching device
a device designed to make or break the current in one or more electric circuits
switchgear
a general term covering switching devices and their combination with associated control, measuring,
protective and regulating equipment, also assemblies of such devices and equipment with associated
interconnections, accessories, enclosures and supporting structures, intended in principle for use in
connection with generation, transmission, distribution and conversion of electric energy
(mechanical) switch
a mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying and breaking currents under normal circuit
conditions which may include specified operating overload conditions and also carrying for a specified time
currents under specified abnormal circuit conditions such as those of short circuit.
Note A switch may be capable of making but not breaking short-circuit currents.
disconnector (isolator) a mechanical switching device which provides, in the open position, an isolating distance in accordance with
specified requirements.
Note A disconnector is capable of opening and closing a circuit only when either negligible current is
broken or made, or when no significant change in the voltage across the terminals of each of the poles of the
disconnector occurs. It is also capable of carrying currents under normal circuit conditions and carrying for a
specified time currents under abnormal conditions such as those of short circuit.
circuit-breaker
instrument transformer
a mechanical switching device, capable of making, carrying and breaking currents under normal circuit
conditions and also making, carrying for a specified time and breaking currents under specified abnormal
circuit conditions such as those of short circuit.
a transformer intended to transmit an information signal to measuring instruments, meters and
protective or control devices Note The term "instrument transformer" encompasses both
current transformers and voltage transformers.
57
Next time:
MONDAY 13.10.2014, 12-16, S2
Lecture 5:
Transients
Exercise 3:
For voluntary bonus points, submit

answers BEFORE the beginning of the
exercise session
Work on your FEM assignment!
59

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LIQUID AND SOLID INSULATION

General + Safety + High Voltage Lab Tour

Electrostatic Fields + FEM

Liquid and Solid insulation

Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination

HV Testing & Measurements

Generation of High Voltages

EXAM (13 16, S5)

1 + FEM tasks + Seminar Tasks

Partial Discharge Lab

Viscosity must remain small at low temperatures (Finland)

REQUIREMENTS DEPEND ON APPLICATION:

Cables and Bushings

Most common liquid insulation

(i.) clean industrial

SYNTHETIC LIQUID INSULATION

Very toxic for aquatic

Most environmentally friendly

BREAKDOWN IN LIQUID INSULATION

Electrons move in the opposite direction of the field

Microscopic gas bubbles form in liquid

Townsend avalanches and new free charges can form

BREAKDOWN IN LIQUID INSULATION

Eventually the bubble (or row of

Mobility of electrons in the

an ionized channel is formed and advanced

electrons leave behind a concentration

the channel has lower density and smaller

these charge concentrations enhance

continuous current flows through the channel

Free charges created by

BREAKDOWN IN LIQUID INSULATION

Moisture and foreign

Impurity moves towards the area of

BREAKDOWN IN LIQUID INSULATION

Temperature and pressure affect the

Wood (oil impregnated)

Press wood (dry)

Phenolic plastic (bakelite)

easy to handle and machine

withstand high temperatures

BREAKDOWN IN SOLID INSULATION

Mechanism of breakdown in solids remains unclear

In practice, other factors

Pre-discharge current and

BREAKDOWN IN SOLID INSULATION

Collision Ionization (electric breakdown)

Thermal Losses (thermal breakdown)

BREAKDOWN IN SOLID INSULATION

Different ionization mechanisms

Discharge occurs when

INTRINSIC (INTERNAL) BREAKDOWN

The field raises the energy of the electrons more

For a stable condition, this energy must be

PARTIAL DISCHARGE BREAKDOWN

If the void has lower

Positive ions and

Once the voids

(discharge byproducts can also

Vented water treeing

Bow tie water treeing

(not very common for typical insulators)

Y = Youngs modulus of elasticity

Stress (E = U/d0) required for collapse (d < 0.6d0) E 0.6