1 Class Exercise 3 Jan 2010 (2- 4 hrs contact time)

1 Develop an expression for average voltage across a highly inductive load and the
resultant rms current through the load if it is supplied by a balanced three phase full wave
fully controlled converter. Draw a diagram of anticipated input and output including ripple,
comment on how ripple may be calculated and therefore reduced.
π
+α
E1m 6
V av = ∫ cos θδθ
π /3 π
− +α
6
Integrate Cos θ gives Sin θ between the to limits of pi over 6

π
3 E 1m + +α
V av = [ sin θ ] 6π
π − +α
6
To determine the difference between the two points work through

3 E 1m π π
V av =
π { ( ) (
sin + α −sin − +α
6 6 )}
3 E 1m
V av = { sin ( 30+ α ) −sin (−30+α ) }
π
30 degrees is the difference between voltage and current in 3ph and is derived from
-180 +90 degrees.

Apply the trig identity of Sin A+B = Sin A. Cos B + Cos A. Sin B

3 E 1m
V av =
π
{( sin 30o cos α + cos 30o sin α ) −( sin(−30o ) cos α +cos (−30 0) sin α ) }
Substitute in the values for the cos and sin values

3 E 1m
V av = { ( 0. 5 cos α +0 . 866 sin α )− (−0 .5 cos α +0 . 866 sin α ) }
π
The values cancel out the two sin values leaving cos α

3 E 1m
V av = {1 cos α }
π
 3 E 1m
V av = cos α
π
In order for this to apply to 3 phase it must be multiplied by the square root of 3. The
3 from above is moved down

E pm
V av =3 √ 3( )cos α
π

2
I rms=
√( I
av
2 + (−I )
2
av +0 / 3= ) √ 3
I av
When the square of – I av is done you get + I av so this become 2 I av when rooted
which rearranges to the final equation.
The dotted line represents the output of the rectifier at the instance it leave the Bridge. By
putting a DC link which consists of a capacitor and inductor in series reduces harmonics and
flatten the wave. The inductor filters out the harmonics while the capacitor flatten the wave
represented above by the red line
To calculate the ripple factor the following equation must be used.

Research two commercial 3ph rectifier stacks which could be used in Tig or Mig
welding plant up to 300A. Provide manufacturers specifications and a pictorial
reference.

Below shows two forms of rectifier stack wiring diagram,

The above equation shows the average voltage per phase, inserting the firing angles
gives

3 √3 ( 230π√2 ) cos 30=465.9 V

3 √3 ( 230π√2 ) cos 45=380.4 V
3 √3 ( 230π√2 ) cos 60=269 V
The average current can be found by
 V ave
I ave =
Z load

465.9
I ave, @ 30= =34.6 A
13.45

380.4
I ave, @ 45= =2 8.28 A
13.45

269
I ave, @ 60= =20 A
13.45

The RMS current can be found by,

2
I rms=
√(I av
2+( −I av 2 ) +0 ) /3= √ 3
I av

2
I rms@ 30=
3
2
√
34.6=28.25 A

I rms@ 45= 28.28=23.1 A

3
2
√
I rms@ 60= 20=16.32 A
3
The power through the load can be found by
√
load power=I avg 2 × Z

load power@ 30=34.6 2 ×13.45=8139.4 W

load power@ 45=28.2 ×13.45=5433.93W

load power@ 60=14.22 ×13.45=2712.06W

The power factor can be found by the following equation,

real power I avg ×V avg

p . f .= =
apparent power 3 × I rms ×V rms

24.6 ×330.8
p . f .@ 30= =0.59
3 ×20.1 ×230

20.1× 270.1
p . f .@ 45= =0.48
3 × 16.4 ×230

14.3 ×191
p . f .@ 30= =0.34
3 ×11.6 × 230
 2 Determine the maximum values of load power and converter power
factor obtainable from this circuit configuration.

The highest possible power factor and power output will be at a zero degree
firing angle

3 E 1m
V av = cos α
π

3 ( 400π ) cos 0=381.97V

V ave
I ave =
Z load

381.97
I ave, @ 0= =28.4 A
13.45

2
I rms=
√(I av
2+ ( −I av 2 ) +0 ) /3= √ 3
I av

2
I rms@ 0=
√ 3
28.4=23.19 A

load power@ 30=28.4 2 × 13.45=10848.23 W

28.4 ×381.97
p . f .@ 30= =0.68
3 ×23.19 ×230

3 Draw a fully described diagram of a 3ph rectifier stack and explain its
operation under fully controlled, half controlled and non controlled modes of
operation.

Operation of an three phase uncontrolled rectifier bridge

A three-phase fully-controlled bridge rectifier can be constructed using six

SCRs as shown below.
 The three-phase bridge rectifier circuit has three-legs, each phase connected
to one of the three phase voltages.  Alternatively, it can be seen that the bridge
circuit has two halves, the positive half consisting of the SCRs S 1, S3 and S5 and the
negative half consisting of the SCRs S2, S4 and S6.  At any time, one SCR from each
half conducts when there is current flow. If the phase sequence of the source be
RYB, the SCRs are triggered in the sequence S 1, S2 , S3 , S4, S5 , S6 .

The operation of the circuit is first explained with the assumption that diodes
are used in place of the SCRs.  The three-phase voltages vary as shown below.
Let the three-phase voltages be defined as shown below.

It can be seen that the R-phase voltage is the highest of the three-phase
voltages when ɸ is in the range from 30o to 150o. It can also be seen that Y-phase
voltage is the highest of the three-phase voltages when ɸ is in the range from 150 o to
270o and that B-phase voltage is the highest of the three-phase voltages when ɸ is in
the range from 270o to 390o or 30o in the next cycle.  

It can also be seen that R-phase voltage is the lowest of the three-phase
voltages when ɸ is in the range from 210o to 330o. It can also be seen that Y-phase
voltage is the lowest of the three-phase voltages when ɸ is in the range from 330 o to
450o or 90o in the next cycle, and that B-phase voltage is the lowest when ɸ is in the
range from 90o to 210o. 

If diodes are used, diode D1 in place of S1 would conduct from 30o to 150o,
diode D3 would conduct from 150o to 270o and diode D5 from 270o to 390o or 30o in the
next cycle.  In the same way, diode D4 would conduct from 210o to 330o,
diode D6 from 330o to 450o or 90o in the next cycle, and diode D2 would conduct from
90o to 210o.  The positive rail of output voltage of the bridge is connected to the
topmost segments of the envelope of three-phase voltages and the negative rail of
the output voltage to the lowest segments of the envelope.
 At any instant barring the change-over periods when current flow gets
transferred from diode to another, only one of the following pairs conducts at any
time.

Period, range of ɸ Diode Pair in conduction

30o  to  90o D1 and D6
90o  to  150o D1 and D2
150o  to  210o D2 and D3
210o  to  270o D3 and D4
270o  to  330o D4 and D5
330o  to  360o and 0o  to  30o D5 and D6

Operation of an three phase fully controlled full wave bridge rectifier

When SCRs are used, their conduction can be delayed by choosing the
desired firing angle.  When the SCRs are fired at 0o firing angle, the output of the
bridge rectifier would be the same as that of the circuit with diodes.  For instance, it
is seen that D1 starts conducting only after ɸ= 30o. In fact, it can start conducting only
after ɸ = 30o, since it is reverse-biased before ɸ = 30o. The bias across D1 becomes
zero when ɸ = 30o and diode D1 starts getting forward-biased only after ɸ =30 o. 
When vR(ɸ) = E*Sin (ɸ), diode D1 is reverse-biased before ɸ = 30o  and it is forward-
biased when ɸ = 30o.  When firing angle to SCRs is zero degree, S1 is triggered
when ɸ = 30o. This means that if a synchronizing signal is needed for triggering S 1,
that signal voltage would lag vR(ɸ)  by 30o and if the firing angle is ɸ, SCR S1 is
triggered when ɸ = ɸ + 30o.   Given that the conduction is continuous, the following
table presents the SCR pair in conduction at any instant.

Period, range of ɸ SCR Pair in conduction

ɸ + 30o  to ɸ + 90o S1 and S6
ɸ + 90o  to ɸ + 150o S1 and S2
ɸ + 150o  to  ɸ + 210o S2 and S3
ɸ + 210o  to  ɸ + 270o S3 and S4
ɸ + 270o  to  ɸ + 330o S4 and S5
ɸ + 330o  to  ɸ + 360o 
S5 and S6
and ɸ + 0o  to  ɸ + 30o

Three phase half control full wave bridge rectifier

 The circuit of the semi-controlled bridge rectifier is shown above, and this
circuit contains three-SCRs and three diodes. It is possible to configure the circuit in
two more ways. For example, the top-half can contain the diodes and the bottom half
the SCRs. Alternatively, six SCRs can be used as in the case of the fully-controlled
bridge rectifier and an additional diode can be connected from the negative rail to the
positive rail of the bridge, with the anode connected to the negative rail and the
cathode to the positive rail. The operation of this circuit is different from that of the
circuit displayed above.

CIRCUIT OPERATION

The operation of the semi-controlled rectifier circuit displayed above is now

explained. The waveform of the bridge output voltage for a firing angle of 30 o is
shown in the graphic below. It can be seen that the trace of the positive rail of output
voltage is that of a controlled rectifier, since only the top-half of the bridge is
controlled. The trace of the bottom rail is that of an uncontrolled bridge rectifier, since
the bottom half contains only diodes.

 
 Let the 3-phase supply be defined as shown in equation (1).

Given that the firing angle is 30o, SCR S1 is triggered when wt = 60o. The
conduction range of the SCRs in the top half can be is now expressed in equation
(2).

As long as the firing angle ɸ remains less than 60 o, the expression for output
voltage over one output cycle can be expressed as follows.

Substituting for vR, vY, and vB from equation (1), we get that
 When the firing angle ɸ is higher than 60 o, the expression for output voltage
over one output cycle can be expressed as follows, if conduction through the load is
continuous.

Substituting for vR, and vB from equation (1), we get that

Depending on the firing angle, the bridge output repeats itself every 120 o. The
applet shown below plots the output voltage, given the firing angle. It is assumed that
conduction through the load impedance is continuous.

Fig. 3

If the firing angle ɸ is less than 60o, when SCR S1 is triggered, SCR S1 and diode D6
conduct during the period (ɸ + 30o) ɸ wt ɸ 90o. Figure 3 shows the path of conduction
that would exist during this period. The pairs that conduct vary depending on the
firing angle. Table 1 show the pairs that would conduct when the firing angle ɸ is less
than 60o, whereas Table 2 shows the pairs that would conduct when the firing angle
ɸ is greater than 60o.

4 With a suitable diagram show how a 3ph inverter circuit operates and
describe how an AC waveform can be produced. Show how both frequency and
amplitide can be varied.

Pulse width modulation

Pulse width modulation is a pulsed DC square wave, commonly used

to control the on-off switching of a silicon controlled rectifier via the gate. There are
many types of SCR’s, most use current as a control medium. There are SCR
devices which work using voltage instead of current to determine on and off
switching.

AMZ-FX Guitar effects. (2007) Mosfet Body Diodes.

http://www.muzique.com/news/mosfet-body-diodes/. Accessed 22/12/09.

The above diagram shows a MOSFET, the source is the negative cathode,
the drain represnets the positive anode, the gate is the switching voltage input. The
gate voltage determins the maximum current allowed throught the drain, when the
gate voltage falls below a threshold voltage the device will switch off. These are
commonly used in DC motor control bridges.
The pulse will switch on the device, which will the operate until the current or
in the case of MOSFET’s the voltage, running through it falls below that devices
holding current, i.e. the current required to keep the device in operation. If the current
falls below this level the device will stop conducting and act a diode, resisting the
flow of electricity. Below is a diagram depicting an SCR in operation, the holding
current level can be seen clearly
 PUPR. (2008) Special diode types.
http://www.pupr.edu/cpu/Electrica/EE3500/Special%20Diode%20Types.htm.
Accessed 21/12/09.

Pulse width modulation, for gate firing is usually controlled using a small
simple electronic chip. A pulse width generator construction follows.

Unknown. (n.d.) Control Technologies Manual-PWM AC Drives. 1st ed. Control

technologies.

The pulses are commoly created by supplying an sine wave and a triangle
wave, combining these two waves gives the following resault. It can be seen that
these two waves combined gives a resaultant square pulsing waveform. The square
wave is ‘on’ when ever the sine wave exceeds the triangle wave and ‘off’ when the
triangular wave exceeds the sine wave.
 Unknown. (n.d.) Control Technologies Manual-PWM AC Drives. 1st ed. Control
technologies.

Pulse width modulation in inverters and rectifiers

Pulse width modulation is commonly used to create a sine wave from a series
of small pulses of DC voltage. The figure below shows how this is achieved, it can be
seen that all of the DC voltages are at higher amplitude than the maximum amplitude
of the AC wave. The period of time the DC voltage is ‘on’ in the duty cycle
determines the magnitude of the DC wave, the longer the pulses are ‘on’ the greater
the AC output will be, but a consequence of the longer pulses are an increase in
harmonic wave forms. It can also be seen in the figure that the shape of the sine
wave is created by the length of each pulse, the pulses nearing either edge of the
wave being ‘on’ for a shorter amount of time and the middle pulse being ‘on’ for the
greatest amount of time.

Siemens. (unknown) DC Drives. Surry, Siemens.

When the AC wave form reaches equal amplitude with the amplitude of the
DC wave form then the AC output will increase only in frequency and not voltage.
The frequency is increased by shortening the duty cycle of the pulses; this is shown
in the example below
 Siemens. (unknown) DC Drives. Surry, Siemens.

In the above diagram the duty cycle of the PWM has been halved and as a
result the frequency of the AC output has doubled, without a loss in voltage output
The above PWM technique is used in inverter circuits to fire the SCR’s to
create an AC output of the desired voltage, frequency and shape of wave output,
from a standard DC input.
Below shows a gate controlled SCR, and the effect a pulsing gate voltage has
on the output. The SCR is fed a standard AC waveform but the device will not
conduct without a gate voltage. In this case the gate voltage is pulsed at the same
frequency as the AC waveform, but with about a 45 0 lag, this has the effect of
reducing the wave by a quarter, this in turn reduces the RMS and average output
voltages proportionally. This can be said to be a form of voltage control.

Bhatt, A. (2008-9) Single phase AC Motor speed controller.

http://multyremotes.com/ac-motor-speed-control.htm. Accessed 28/12/09.

The above technique is used to control the level of DC voltage output from a
rectifier. A half wave rectifier output is shown below

Free Electronics Projects-Electronics circuits and hobby designs diagrams. (2008)

Half wave rectifiers. http://www.circuitstoday.com/half-wave-rectifiers. Accessed
5/1/09.

http://www.circuitstoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/half-wave-rectifiers-
diagram.jpg
If the two techniques are combined it is possible to chop the wave form, by
firing the SCR’s at a given angle of the AC waveform using PWM, this will lower the
output DC voltage depending on the amount of waveform removed. This is the way a
rectifier can be controlled using PWM to both convert AC voltage to DC voltage and
adjusts the magnitude of the DC voltage output.
5 Readand review Moodle handout on DIAC_SCR circuits in an anticipation of a
Q & A formative review. Read round this area!