MATHCAMP 2011.

POINT-SET TOPOLOGY
ALFONSO GRACIA-SAZ

Each of these fifteen handouts complements one of fifteen lectures delivered at Canada/USA
Mathcamp 2011. The lectures contained motivation and proof of many of the results. The
lectures also had a large exploratory component where I lead students to derive the right
definitions or statements by themselves.
If you have any questions or comments, or if you find any errors, please let me know at
alfonso@mathcamp.org.

ALFONSO GRACIA-SAZ

1. Topologies
Definition. Given a set X, a topology on X is a collection of subsets of X, that we will call open sets,
satisfying the following properties:
(T1) The total space X and the empty space X are open.
(T2) Any arbitrary union of open sets is open.
(T3) Any finite intersection of open sets is open.
A topological space is a set together with a topology.
In more formal notation, a topological space is a pair (X, ) where X is a set, and P(X) is the family
of open sets1, satisfying:
(T1) X , .
[
(T2) If I is any set of indices, and Ui for all i I, then
Ui .
iI

(T3) If U, V , then U V .
Definition. A homeomorphism between two topological spaces (X, X ) and (Y, Y ) is a bijection f : X Y
such that U X is open in X if and only if f (U ) Y is open in Y . This means that these two topological
spaces are the same.
Definition. Let (X, ) be a topological space, and let x1 , x2 , be a sequence in X. We say that the sequence
(xn ) converges to a point y X (or that y is the limit of (xn )) when the following property is satisfied:
For every open set U , y U X, there exists n0 N such that xn U for all n n0 . In
words, given any open set containing y, said open set contains the whole sequence, except for
finitely many terms.

Problems
(1) Consider the set with three elements X = {0, 1, }. How many different topologies can you define
on X? Some of these topologies are homeomorphic to each other. How many non-homeomorphic
topologies can you define?
(2) In which of the previous topologies on X does the sequence 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, converge to ?
(3) We define a topology in the set C = { campers sitting in class}. A set U C is open when it satifies
the following property: If x U and y is the camper sitting right behind x, then y U . Prove
that it is actually a topological space.
(4) One day a certain number of campers come to class and they sit in a particular way so that C is
homeomorphic to the set X with one of the topologies you calculated in problem 1. What are the
possible topologies on X for which this can be true?
(5) How many non-homeomorphic topologies are there in a set with n elements? Note: This is an open
problem and it is unlikely that there is a answer in the form of a nice, clean expression as a function
of n.

1P(X) = {subsets of X}

MATHCAMP 2011.

POINT-SET TOPOLOGY

2. Closed sets
Examples of topologies that you can define on any set X:
Discrete topology: all sets are open.
d = P(X)
Indiscrete topology: the only open sets are the total space and the empty set.
i = {, X}
Cofinite topology: the closed sets are the finite sets and the total space.
cof = {X \ A | A X is finite} {}
We have also defined the usual topology on RN : a set V RN is open iff it satisfies the following property:
for every point y V , there is an (N-dimensional) disc centered at y contained in V .
Definition. Given a topological space (X, ), a set A X is closed iff X \ A is open.
Theorem. The family of closed sets F of a topological space (X, ) satisfies the following properties:
(C1) the empty set and the total space are closed F, X F
(C2) arbitrary intersection of closed sets is closed
\
If Vi F for all i I, then
F
iI

(C3) finite union of closed sets is closed

If V1 , V2 F then V1 V2 F
Theorem. We can define a topology by saying which ones are the closed sets. We can choose any family of
subsets to be the closed sets, as long as they satisfy axioms (C1),(C2),(C3). Equivalently, given a set X and
a family of subsets F P(X) satisfying (C1), (C2), and (C3), there exists exactly one topology on X for
which the family of closed sets is F.
Problems
(1) In the following topological spaces, give an example of a set which is open but not closed, a set which
is closed but not open, a set which is neither open nor closed, and three sets which are both open and
closed. Why did I ask you for three of the last type instead of only two?
the natural numbers with the cofinite topology (N, cof ).
the topology in the space of campers sitting in class.
R2 with the usual topology.
(2) Can we define a topology in R in which the open sets are exactly the countable sets and the total
set? Can we define a topology in R in which the closed sets are exactly the countable sets and the
total set?
(3) Characterize all the topological spaces which the property that a subset V is open if and only if V is
closed.
(4) Let (X, ) be a topological space and let A X. We say that A is sequentially closed when for every
sequence x1 , x2 , . . . in X convergent to y X, if xn A for all n, then y A.
(a) If A is closed, is it sequentially closed? Either prove it or find a counterexample.
(b) If A is sequentially closed, is it closed? Either prove it or find a counterexample.

ALFONSO GRACIA-SAZ

3. Continuous maps
Two more examples of topologies:
The cocountable topology on any set (X, coc ): The closed sets are the countable sets2 and the total
space.
coc = {A X | X \ A is countable} {}
Given a topological space (X, ) and A X, the topology that A inherits from is A := {V A | V }.
Definition. Let (X, X ) and (Y, Y ) be two topological spaces. Let f : X Y be a map.
f is continuous when for every open set V Y , its preimage f 1 (V ) X is open.
f is sequentially continuous when the image of every convergent sequence converges to the image of
the limit:
If x1 , x2 , . . . is a sequence in X convergent to a X,
then f (x1 ), f (x2 ), . . . is a sequence in Y convergent to f (a) Y .
Theorem. Every continuous functions is sequentially continuous. The converse is not true in general, but
it is true for Rn with the usual topology.

Problems
(1) Consider the following map from the real line with the usual topology to the space of campers sitting
in class:
f :RC
f (x) = Francois
f (x) = Jenny

if x 0
if x < 0

How should the campers sit in class so that this map is continuous?
(2) Consider the identity map (R, 1 ) (R, 2 ) where 1 and 2 could be the usual topology, the discrete
topology, the indiscrete topology, the cofinite topology, and the cocountable topology. For which
choices of 1 and 2 is the identity map continuous?
(3) Let f : X Y be a map between two topological spaces (X, X ) and (Y, Y ). Prove that the following
statements are equivalent:
f is continuous.
For every closed set V Y , its preimage f 1 (V ) X is closed.
(4) (Hard!) Let (X, X ) and (Y, Y ) be two topological spaces. Let Z = X Y be the cartesian product
of X and Y (as sets). We want to define a topology on Z.
(a) Let us define a good topology as a topology in Z that will make the projection maps (x, y)
Z x X and (x, y) Z y Y continuous. Show that there exists a unique good topology
with the property that if is another good topology, then . (Think this carefully.
There are lots of things to prove!)
(b) Let us use in Z. Consider sequences (xn ) in X and (yn ) in Y ; define a sequence (zn ) in Z by
zn := (xn , yn ). Prove that (zn ) converges to z = (x, y) in Z if and only if (xn ) converges to x in
X and (yn ) converges to y in Y .
(c) Find one example that shows that, in general, is not the only good topology satisfying the
property in 4b.
The topology is called the product topology and will be very important later in the course. In
particular, we will use it to prove the axiom of choice.

2In this class, we consider that a finite set is countable. Some authors like to distinguish between countable (which implies

infinite) and numerable (=finite or countable). Not here.

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POINT-SET TOPOLOGY

4. Neighborhoods
Definition. Let (X, ) be a topological space. A set N X is called a neighborhood of x when there exists
an open set V X such that x V N .
Proposition. A subset of a topological space is open iff it is a neighborhood of all of its points.
Theorem. Let (X, ) be a topological space. For every x X, let Nx be the set of neighborhoods of x. Then,
they satisfy:
(N1) Every point has at least one neighborhood:
Nx 6= for all x X.
(N2) Every point belongs to every one of its neighborhoods:
x N for all N Nx
(N3) Every superset of a neighborhood of a point is a neighborhood of said point:
If V Nx and V W , then W Nx
(N4) The intersection of two neighborhoods of a point is a neighborhood of said point:
If N1 , N2 Nx then N1 N2 Nx
(N5) Every neighborhood of a point contains a subset, containing said point, which is a neighborhood
of all of its points:
If N Nx , then there exists V X, x V N , such that V Ny for all y V
Theorem. Let X be a set. For every x X, let Nx P(X) be a family of subsets. Assume that these
families of subsets satisfy axioms (N1), (N2), (N3), (N4), (N5). Then there exists a unique topology on X,
such that Nx is the set of neighborhoods of x in X for that topology.
This last theorem means that we can define a topology on a set by just saying which sets are neighborhoods
of which points. And we can choose any families of neighborhoods, as long as they satisfy axioms (N1), (N2),
(N3), (N4), (N5).
Another example of topology:
The Sorgenfrey line: (R, Sor ): N R is a neighborhood of x R iff there exists  > 0 such that
[x, x + ) N .
Problems
(1) Let f : X Y be a map between topological spaces. Which ones of the following conditions are
equivalent to which ones?
(a) f is a homeomorphism.
(b) f is a bijection and f is continuous.
(c) f is a bijection, f is continuous, and f 1 is continuous.
(2) We are going to prove the infinitude of primes using point set topology!
Given a, b Z, let us define the following set of integers: Sa,b := {a + nb | n Z}.
(a) Prove that there exists a topology p on Z defined by the following property: A subset N Z
is a neighborhood of a Z exactly when there exists b > 0 such that Sa,b N .
(b) Prove that for every a, b Z, b 6= 0, Sa,b is both an open and a closed set on (Z, p ).
(c) Note that
[
Z \ {1, 1} =
S0,p
primes p

and that {1, 1} is not open. Now, assume there are finitely many primes, and get a contradiction.

ALFONSO GRACIA-SAZ

5. Basis of neighborhoods
Notation: In this class, almost = but for finitely many.
Definition. Let (X, ) be a topological space. Given a point x X, let Bx P(X) be a family of neighborhoods of x (that means, a subset of the set of neighborhoods of x). We say that Bx is a basis of neighborhoods
of x iff every neighborhood of x contains one of the neighborhoods in Bx :
B is a neighborhood of x for every B Bx , and
If N is a neighborhood of x, then B Bx such that B N
Notice that there are many different basis for a given topology. It tends to be useful to find a small one.
Proposition. Let (X, ) be a topological space. Let x1 , x2 , . . . be a sequence in X and let a X. Let Ba be
a basis of neighborhoods of a. Then TFAE:
(1) The sequence converges to a.
(2) For every neighborhood N of a, xn N for almost all n.
(3) For every basic neighborhood B Bx , xn B for almost all n
Definition. A topological space (X, ) is called first countable iff every point has a countable basis of neighborhoods.
Theorem. Let (X, X ) and (Y, Y ) be topological spaces. Assume (X, X ) is first countable. Let f : X Y
be a map. Then f is continuous iff f is sequentially continuous.
Theorem. Let (X, ) be a first-countable topological space. Let A X. Then A is closed iff A is sequentially
closed.

Problems
(1) (Challenge!) Construct a non-first countable topology on a countable set.
(2) Among the examples of topological spaces we have so far (discrete, indiscrete, cofinite, cocountable,
usual topology on RN , Sorgenfrey line, campers in class), which ones are first countable and which
ones arent?
(3) Let (X, X ) and (Y, Y ) be topological spaces and let f : X Y be a map. Prove that TFAE:
f is continuous
If x X and N Y is a neighborhood of f (x) Y , then f 1 (N ) is neighborhood of x in X.
A third statement to be added here by you, using basic neighborhoods.
(4) Can we define a topology using basic neighborhoods?
Come up with a list of axioms ? that will make the next two theorems true:
(a) Let (X, ) be a topological space. For each x X let Bx be a basis of neighborhoods for x. Then
the families Bx satisfy the axioms ?.
(b) Let X be a set. For each x X let Bx P(X) be a collection of subsets of X. Assume
they satisfy the axioms ?. Then there exists a unique topology on X for which Bx is a basis of
neighborhoods for x, for every x X.

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POINT-SET TOPOLOGY

6. Basis of open sets

Definition. Let (X, ) be a topological space. A basis of open sets is a collection of open sets, which we will
refer to as basic open sets, such that every open set can be written as union of basic open sets.
Giving a basis of open sets is another way to define a topology. It is often useful to find a small one.
Theorem. Let (X, ) be a topological space and let B be a basis of open sets. Then we have:
[
(B1) The union of all basic open sets is the total space:
B = X.
BB

(B2) The intersection of any two basic open sets is a union of basic open sets:
Given any B1 , B2 B and x B1 B2 , there is B3 B such that x B3 B1 B2 .
Theorem. Let X be any set and let B be a collection of subsets satisfying (B1) and (B2). Then there
exists a unique topology on X that has B as a basis of open sets.

Product topology, Part 1

Definition. Let X be a set. Let 1 and 2 be two topologies on X. Assume that 1 2 . Then we say that
1 is coarser than 2 , or that 2 is finer than 1 .
Definition. Let (X, X ) and (Y, Y ) be two topological spaces. Then the collection
{V W | V X open, W Y open }
is a basis for a topology in the cartesian product X Y . We call it the product topology.
Theorem 6.1. The product topology on X Y makes the projection maps
X : X Y X

Y : X Y Y

(x, y) 7 x

(x, y) 7 y

continuous. Moreover, it is the coarsest topology on X Y with this property.

Theorem 6.2. Assume the sequence (xn ) converges to x in the topological space X and that the sequence
(yn ) converges to y in the topological space Y . Then the sequence (xn , yn ) converges to (x, y) in X Y with
the product topology.

Problems
(1) In each of the following cases, I list two topologies on R2 . Are they the same? Does one of them
contain the other?
The product of two copies of R with the discrete topology and the discrete topology on R2 .
The product of two copies of R with the indiscrete topology and the indiscrete topology on R2 .
The product of two copies of R with the cofinite topology and the cofinite topology on R2 .
(2) Prove that X Y with the product topology contains a subset (with the inherited topology) which
is homeomorphic to X. Same for Y .
(3) We will explore whether the property in Theorem 6.2 can be used to define the product topology.
(a) Prove that if X and Y are first countable, then so is X Y (with the product topology).
(b) Assume that X and Y are first countable. Consider all the topologies we can define on X Y
satisfying the same property that we describe for the product topology in Theorem 6.2. Prove
that the product topology is the finest among all those topologies.
(c) Find an example that shows that if we do not require X and Y to be first countable, then the
previous statement is not true.

ALFONSO GRACIA-SAZ

7. More on basis and subbasis

Definition. A topological space is called second countable when there exists a countable basis of open sets.
Lemma. Let X be a set and let S P(X) be any collection of subsets. Let B be the collection of finite
intersections of elements of S. Then B is the basis of a topology S on X. This topology has the property of
being the coarsest topology among all topologies on which all the elements of S are open. We say that S is a
subbasis for S and that S is the topology generated by S.

Notation for products of sets

Notation. Let I be an index set. For every i I, let Xi be a set. Then the product set is defined as:
Y
[
X :=
Xi = {x : I
Xi | x(i) Xi }
iI

iI

Lemma (Axiom of Choice.). The product set X is nonempty iff every Xi is nonempty.
When the set I is finite (or countable), this definition agrees with the usual definition of product set:
X1 . . . Xn := {(x1 , . . . , xn ) | xi Xi for all i I}
We can use a similar notation in the general case:
Y
X :=
Xi = {(xi )iI | xi Xi for all i I}
iI

Given such a product, we define the projection maps:

j :

Xj

(xi )iI 7 xj
Given two sets Y
X and Y , the set of functions
product set
Y.

X Y := {f : X Y }

can be naturally identified with the

xX

The product topology

Q
Definition. Let (Xi , i ) be a topological space for every i I. Let X = iI Xi be the product set. We
define two topologies on X:
The product topology is a topology for which {i1 (Ui ) | i I, Ui Xi is open} is a subbasis. In
other words, thisY
is the coarsest topology that makes all the projection maps continuous. A basis for
this topology is { Ui | Ui Xi open for all i I, Ui = Xi for almost all i I}.
iI
Y
The box topology  is a topology for which { Ui | Ui Xi open i I} is a basis.
iI

These two topologies are the same for finite products. In general, unless otherwise stated, we always use the
product topology.

Problems
(1) Prove or find a counterexample:
(a) If a topological space is first countable, then it is second countable.
(b) If a topological space is first countable and the total space is countable, then the topological
space is second countable.
(c) An arbitrary product of first countable spaces is first countable.
(d) A countable product of second countable spaces is second countable.
(e) If X Y is second countable, then so are X and Y .
(f) The product topology of arbitrarily many discrete spaces is discrete.
(g) The product topology of arbitrarily many indiscrete spaces is indiscrete.

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POINT-SET TOPOLOGY

(2) Explore what convergence of a sequence means in the product topology and in the box topology.
Find an example that shows they are different. In particular, let Z be the space of real sequences
and notice that you can write Z as a countable product of copies of R. What does convergence in Z
with the product topology and with the box topology mean?
(3) Only for category-theory junkies! Breath. This is going to hurt a little.
On every category there is a notion of categorial product. In the category of topological spaces, this
notion would read as follows. Let I be an index set. Let Xi be a topological space for every i I.
(I am abusing notation and writing only a set when I mean a set with a topology.) The categorical
product is another topological space Z together with continuous maps fi : Z Xi for each i I
satisfying the following. Given any topological space W and continuous maps Fi : W Xi , there is
a unique continuous map H : W Z satisfying Fi = fi H for all i I.
Like in all categories, the notion of categorical product, if it exists, is unique up to unique isomorphism (in this case, up to unique homeomorphism).
Your challenge is to unravel what this mess means, and to prove that the cartesian product with
the product topology (but not with the box topology!) is the categorical product in the category of
topological spaces.

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ALFONSO GRACIA-SAZ

8. Compactness, Part 1
Definitions. Let (X, ) be a topological space.
An open cover is a family of open sets C whose union is the whole space

V = X.

V C

We say that (X, ) is compact if every open cover has a finite subcover.
We say that (X, ) is sequentially compact if every sequence in X has a convergent subsequent.
Theorem. Let (X, ) be a topological space which is either compact or sequentially compact. Let f : X R
be a continuous map (with the usual topology on R). Then f (X) is bounded.
Proposition. Let (X, ) be a topological space. TFAE:
(1) (X, ) is compact.
(2) If A is a collection of closed set and any finite intersection of sets in A is non-empty, then the
intersection of all sets in A is non-empty.
Y
Theorem (TYCHONOFF).
Xi is compact (with the product topology) if and only if Xi is compact for
iI

all i I.
Theorem. Tychonoff Theorem is equivalent ot the Axiom of Choice.

Problems
(1) Prove that any set with the cofinite topology is compact and sequentially compact.
(2) Let f : X Y be a continuous map. Assume X is compact and f is surjective. Prove that Y is
compact.
(3) Let X be a compact topological space and A X be a closed set. Prove that A is compact (with the
inherited topology).
(4) (Very hard!) Show with examples that compact does not imply sequentially compact and that sequentially compact does not imply compact.

MATHCAMP 2011.

POINT-SET TOPOLOGY

11

9. Compactness, Part 2
Recall: Let (X, ) be a topological space. Let x1 , x2 , . . . be a sequence in X.
The sequence is convergent to a X (and a is a limit of the sequence) when
If a V X, V open, then xn V for all but finitely many n.
a is an accumulation point of the sequence when:
If a V X, V open, then xn V for infinitely many n.
A subsequence of x1 , x2 , . . . is another sequence that we obtain by removing some of the elements in
the sequence.
Recall: Let (X, ) be a topological space and let A X. Then A := {V A | V } is a topology on A
called the inherited topology from (X, ).
Definition. Let (X, ) be a topological space. An open cover is a collection of open sets U P(X) such
that
[
V =X
V U

Definitions.
A topological space is called compact iff every open cover has a finite subcover.
A topological space is called Lindel
off iff every open cover has a countable subcover.
A topological space is called sequentially compact iff every sequence has a convergent subsequence.
A topological space is said to satisfy the BolzanoWeierstrass property (BW) iff every sequence has
an accumulation point.
Theorem.
(1) (In general) compact = B-W; sequentially compact = B-W.
(2) (For first countable spaces) compact = sequentially compact = B-W.
(3) (For first countable, Lindel
of spaces) compact = sequentially compact = B-W.
Heine-Borel theorem. Let A RN . Then A is compact (with the inherited topology) if and only if A is
closed (in RN ) and bounded.
Problems
(1) (Very hard ) Find an example of a sequence in a topological space that has an accumulation point but
that has no convergent subsequence. (Actually, we can do even better. There is a topological space
X which is countable, together with a sequence in X that has no convergent subsequences, but such
that every point in X is an accumulation point of the sequence. Perverse, isnt it?)
(2) Consider the interval [0, 1] as a subset of the Sorgenfrey line with its inherited topology. Is it compact?
(3) Let X and Y be two topological spaces. Prove that X Y is compact with the product topology if
and only if both X and Y are compact. (This is a particular case of Tychonoffs theorem. The proof
of Tychonoffs theorem is sophisticated, but this statement is easier to proof.)

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ALFONSO GRACIA-SAZ

10. Hausdorff
Sneaky examples. These are some examples of non-first countable topologies defined on a countable set:
The Herreshoff topology (Mathcamp 2005) in N N: The open sets are the empty set and the sets
V satisfying the property:
For almost all n N, (n, m) V for almost all m N.
The Fauteux-Chapleau topology (Mathcamp 2011) in Q Q: The open sets are the empty set and
the sets V satisfying the property:
For every (a, b) Q Q \ {(0, 0)} there is r Q such that (sa, sb) V for all s > r, s Q.
The Jagadeesam topology (Mathcamp 2011) in Q: The closed sets are Q and the sets that do not
contain any sequence that would converge to an irrational number with the usual topology in R.
Definition. A topological space (X, ) is called Hausdorf or T2 when for every two different points x, y X,
there are open sets V, W such that x V , y W , V W =

Problems
(1) Prove or give a counterexample:
(a) In a Hausdorf topological space no sequence may have more than one limit.
(b) Let X be a topological space. Assume that no sequence has more than one limit. Then X is
Hausdorf.
(c) Let X be a first-countable topological space. Assume that no sequence has more than one limit.
Then X is Hausdorf.
(2) Let X be a topological space and let A X. Prove:
(a) If X is compact and A is closed in X, then A is compact.
(b) If X is Hausdorf and A is compact, then A is closed in X.
Note that this means that if X is a compact, Hausdorf topological space (which is quite common)
then the closed subsets of X are exactly the compact ones.
Coming next week...
The reign of terror of sequences is about to end. No longer shall we be constrained by countability. Down
with sequences! Long live nets and filters!

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POINT-SET TOPOLOGY

13

11. Nets
Definitions:
A partially ordered set (or poset) is a set I together with a binary relation which is reflexive (a a),
antisymmetric (if a b and b a then a = b), and transitive (if a b and b c then a c).
An directed set is a poset (I, ) such that for every a, b I, there exists c I such that a c, b c.
Definitions: Let (X, ) be a topological space. A net in X is an directed set (I, ) together with a map
x:IX
i 7 xi
For brevity we refer to the net as (xi )iI .
A point a X is a limit of the net (xi )iI , and the net is said convergent to a when it satisfies:
If N is a neigborhood of a then there exist i I such that xj N for all j i.
We say that the net is eventually in N .
Theorem 11.1. Let X be a topological space. Let A X. TFAE:
(1) A is closed.
(2) A is netly closed; this means that if a is a limit of a net (xi )iI in X and xi A for all i I, then
a A.
Theorem 11.2. Let X be a topological space. Then X is Hausdorff if and only if no net has more than one
limit.

Problems
(1) Define what it means for a map to be netly continuous. Prove that a map between topological spaces
is continuous if and only if it is netly continuous.
(2) Prove any of the implications in Theorems 11.1 and 11.2 that we did not do in class.
(3) Figure out what the correct definition of subnet of a net is, and what the correct definition of
accumulation point of a net is. We would like the definitions to satisfy that given a net, a point is
the limit of a subnet if and only if it is an accumulation point. Then we would also like a topological
space to be compact if and only every net has an accumulation point.

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ALFONSO GRACIA-SAZ

12. Subnets
Definition: Let x : I X be a net in a topological space X. A subnet is another net y : A X together
with a map : A I such that
respects order: if in A, then () () in I.
is cofinal: for any i I there is A such that i ().
y = x .
Definition: Let x : I X be a net and let a X. We say that a is an accumulation point of the net when
For any N neighborhood of a and i I there exists some j I such that j i and xj N .
Theorem. Let x : I X be a net and let a X. Then a is an accumulation point of the net if and only if
it is the limit of some subnet.
Definition: A topological space is netly compact when every net has an accumulation point.
Theorem. A topological space is compact if and only if it is netly compact.

Problems
(1) Let X be a topological space.
(a) Let x : I X be a net. Let C be the set of all of its accumulation points. Prove that C is
closed.
(b) Let C X be closed. Is there a net in X whose set of accumulation points is exactly C?
(2) Since a set is closed if and only if it is netly closed, knowing what the convergent nets are entirely
defines a topology. Can you come up with a set of axioms to define a topology via convergent nets
the same way we defined a topology via closed sets, neighborhoods, or basis?

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13. Zorns Lemma

Zorns Lemma: Let (P, ) be a poset. Suppose that for any subset C P which is totally ordered, there
exists an upper bound (i.e. there is b P such that c b for any c C). The P has a maximal element (i.e.
there exists m P such that for any p P , if m p, then m = p).
Axiom of Choice: For any set {Ai }iI of nonempty sets Ai , there exists a function h : {Ai }iI
such that h(Ai ) Ai for all i I.

iI

Ai

Note: Zorns Lemma implies Tychonoffs theorem. The Axiom of Choice implies Zorns Lemma. If we can
prove that Tychonoffs Theorem implies the Axiom of Choice, well have everything looped together nicely.
Problems
(1) On Tuesdays class Mark Sellke proposed an alternative theory of convergence. Lets explore it.
We will say that a sellke on a topological space X is a poset I together with a map x : I X.
We say that a point a X is a limit of the sellke when
Given a neighborhood N of a and give i I,
there exists j I such that i j and xk N for all j k.
In comparison with the theory of nets, sellkes do not require the poset to be directed, but impose an
extra condition on the definition of limit to compensate for it.
Compare the theory of nets with the theory of sellkes. In particular, can selkes solve any of the
six problems that we had for sequences?
(2) The Well-Ordering Principle states that for any set X there is a (total) ordering on X such that
any non-empty subset S X has a minimum element s (i.e. s S, s s.).
Prove that the Well-Ordering Principle implies the Axiom of Choice. Prove that Zorns Lemma
implies the Well-Ordering Principle.

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ALFONSO GRACIA-SAZ

14. Filters
Definitions: Let A be a set.
A filter on A is a non-empty collection F P(A) such that
(1)
/ F,
(2) If F1 F and F1 F2 , then F2 F,
(3) If F1 , F2 F then F1 F2 F.
Intuitively, we think of the sets in the filter as the subsets of A which are big enough.
A filter basis on A is a non-empty collection B P(A) such that
(1)
/ B,
(2) If B1 , B2 B then there is B3 B such that B3 B1 B2 .
Notice that if B is a filter basis on A, then F := {F A | B F for some B B} is a filter on A.
Examples:
The set of a neighborhoods of a point on a topological space is a filter.
Given a directed poset (I, ), define [i, ) := {j I | i j}. Then the collection {[i, ) | i I} is a
filter basis on I.
Definitions: A waffle on a topological space X is a triple (I, F, w) where I is an index set, F is a filter on
I, and w : I X is a map.
We say that the point a X is a limit of the waffle when
If N is a neighborhood of a, then there is F F such that w(F ) N .
We say that the point a X is an accumulation point of the waffle when
For every N neighborhood of a and for every F F, N w(F ) 6= .
Definitions:
Given two filters F1 and F2 on the same set, we say that F2 is finer than F1 if F1 F2 .
A subwaffle of a waffle (I, F, w) is another waffle (I, F2 , w) with the same index set and map, but
with a finer filter F F2 .
Theorem 14.1. An accumulation point of a waffle is the same as a limit of a subwaffle.

Problems
(1) Check that all the problems that we had for sequences and that we solved with nets also work with
waffles. Specifically, show that
(a) A function is continuous if and only if it is waffly continuous.
(b) A subset of a topological space is closed if and only if it is waffly closed.
(c) A topological space is Hausdorff if and only if no waffle has more than one limit.
(d) On a topological space, knowing the limit points of each waffle entirely determines the topology.
This will require for you to define some concepts first.
(2) Complete the proof of Theorem 14.1 that we only sketched in class.
(3) (Optional.) There is a theory of convergence that uses filters as the main objects, instead of sequences,
nets, or waffles. Given a filter F on a topological space X and given a point a X, we say that a is
a limit of the filter when F is a finer filter than the filter of neighborhoods of a. Explore the usual
results in this theory.

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15. Ultrafilters
Definitions:
A filter F on a set I is called an ultrafilter if there is no other filter on I finer than F.
An ultrawaffle is a waffle whose filter is an ultrafilter
Lemma. Every filter is contained in an ultrafilter.
Theorem 15.1. Let X be a topological space. TFAE:
(1) X is compact.
(2) Every waffle on X has an accumulation point.
(3) Every waffle on X has a convergent subwaffle.
(4) Every ultrawaffle on X is convergent.
Theorem 15.2. A waffle on a product of topological spaces (with the product topology) is convergent if and
only if the waffle on each factor space is covergent.
Note: The proof of Tychonoff Theorem using waffles is very short: just use Theorem 15.2 and characterization
(4) of Theorem 15.1.
Proposition: Tychonoff Theorem implies the Axiom of Choice.
Problems
(1) Complete the proof of any of the above results that we did not do in class.
(2) To conclude, a pretty counterexample. Recall the Herreshoff topology on N N: The open sets are
the empty set and the subsets A N N satisfying:
For all but finitely many n N, (n, m) A for all but finitely many m N.
Choose any bijection x : N N N. Think of x as a sequence on N N. Prove that this sequence
does not have any convergent subsequence, but that every point in N N is an accumulation point!