Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008) 176e187

Review

Aerated food gels:

fabrication and
potential applications
R.N. Zuniga and J.M. Aguilera*
Chemical & Bioprocess Engineering Department,
Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Avda. Vicuna
Mackenna 4860, Macul, Santiago, Chile (Tel.: D56
562 3544254; fax: D56 562 6865808; e-mail:
jmaguile@ing.puc.cl)
Aerated gels contain both bubbles and entrapped water, thus
offering ample versatility in product development. Dispersed
air (or other gases) provides an additional phase within the
gel that may accommodate new textural and functional demands. Many food polymers form gels and their target properties may be enhanced by combining materials (mixed polymer
gels) or introducing a finely dispersed fat phase (emulsion
gels). Traditional methods to generate bubbles in foods as
well as non-conventional technologies (membrane processes,
microfluidics, etc.) are revised and their potential applications
in producing aerated gels are discussed. Aerated gels may find
applications in reducing the caloric density of foods and inducing satiety, as carriers of flavors and nutrients, and in novel
gastronomic structures.

Introduction
Food gels are soft solids containing considerable
amounts of an aqueous phase (i.e., >80%) that have received
much attention lately among food scientists (Aguilera &
Rademacher, 2004; Hermansson, 2007; Nishinari, Zhang,
& Ikeda, 2000; Renard, van de Velde, & Visschers, 2006;
Totosaus, Montejano, Salazar, & Guerrero, 2002). The presence of gel-like structures is ubiquitous among most highmoisture processed foods: jellies, yogurt, processed meats,
etc. Air is also a component of several food products usually
present as a dispersed phase of bubbles or pores within a matrix. Air bubbles are abundant structural elements in solid
food foams, for example, bread, cakes, aerated chocolate
bars and meringue, in semi-solid foams such as whipped
* Corresponding author.
0924-2244/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2007.11.012

cream or mousses and in beverages like milkshakes

(Aguilera, 2005; Campbell & Mougeot, 1999). Even natural
products such as fruits and vegetables contain large amounts
of water immobilized within cells and some of them, most
notably apples, contain an appreciable quantity of air (e.g.,
w25%) occluded in pores (Lazarides, Fito, Chiralt, Gekas,
& Lenart, 1999). The importance of bubbles in food processing has been confirmed by a well attended second conference
of Bubbles in Foods that took place in Windermere (UK)
in September 2006.
Emerging evidence that obesity is increasing worldwide
at an alarming rate has caught the attention of nutritionists
and food technologists (WHO, 2000). Entrapping abundant
amounts of water and/or air in gel matrices may be one alternative to design products that promote satiety with reduced caloric density (Aguilera, 2005). The food industry
has been using proteins and polysaccharides for many years
as structuring agents to immobilize large quantities of water
in the form of gels (Aguilera, 1992; Harris, 1990; Imeson,
1992) and aeration has become one of the fastest growing
unit operations in the past decade (Campbell & Mougeot,
1999). Thus, the presence of bubbles in gel-based food
products may result in unique properties conferred by the
additional gaseous phase and the increased internal surface
area (Nussinovitch, Velez-Silvestre, & Peleg, 1992). This
paper reviews initially, traditional and non-conventional
methods to incorporate bubbles in liquids, since this is a prerequisite to make aerated gels. Next, some of the materials
and processes used to produce functional gel matrices are
revised. Finally, potential applications of aerated or gasified
food gels are presented and discussed.
Dispersing gases in foods
Aerated foods
Introducing a gas phase into a food matrix not only
affects its texture and firmness making the product lighter,
but also changes the appearance, color and mouth-feel
(Campbell & Mougeot, 1999). Although the final continuous matrix of an aerated food may be liquid (e.g., beer
foam), viscoelastic (e.g., marshmallows) or solid (e.g., meringue) bubbles are initially dispersed in the bulk of a liquid
solution or a viscous dispersion. Because aerated liquids are
thermodynamically unstable, bubbles must be stabilized at
their aireliquid interface usually by surface active agents
such as proteins and emulsifiers or solid particles, like fat
crystals. Furthermore, drainage and bubble coalescence is

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177

retarded by increasing the viscosity of the liquid in lamellae

between the bubbles. If bubbles become physically entrapped in a gel network the food will be stable (Boom, 2007).
The type of gas influences structure and stability of aerated products. Foams containing N2 or air bubbles will
coarsen slower than those consisting of CO2 bubbles, since
diffusion is largely determined by the solubility of the gas
(Weaire & Hutzler, 1999). In aerated chocolate, the type of
gas can be related to the internal structure, as shown recently
by Haedelt, Beckett, and Niranjan (2007). Gases highly
soluble in chocolate (CO2 and N2O) yielded macro-aerated
structures while those exhibiting low solubility (N2 and
Ar) formed structures containing microbubbles.
An aerated structure may facilitate mastication, enzyme
accessibility to substrates and enhance flavor delivery. It is
essential for the manufacturer to be able to control the size
and size distribution of air bubbles as well as the spatial dispersion of the gaseous phase in order to control the quality
of the product (Lau & Dickinson, 2005).
Bubbles are desirable elements in gastronomy creations.
Mousses and souffles, recognized as emblematic forms in
culinary art, are classic examples in which the incorporation and retention of bubbles is a critical factor in the success of the dish. Besides, modern innovative cooks exploit
bubbles in their creations, as is the case of champagne
grapes from Homaru Cantu and the famous airs and
foams of Ferran Adria (also known as the chef who invented air).

extend the range of physical properties, to increase the interfacial area (at constant gas volume), to decrease syneresis and to disperse air (and possibly aromas) imperceptibly,
thus, reducing the caloric density. Air cells smaller than
80 mm would be largely unnoticeable to the eye. Bubbles
within a food increase crack-stopping (effectively enlarging
the radius of curvature of the crack tip), ductility and fracture toughness (Buckman & Viney, 2002; Vincent, 1998).
Control of bubble size and size distribution is a major challenge not yet achieved in industrial food processing. In conventional foaming methods, there is little control over the
formation of individual bubbles, therefore they are not uniformly distributed and the product presents a wide distribution of bubble sizes (including some large size outliers).
Decreasing the size of bubbles and avoiding polydispersity
would minimize the effect of buoyancy and the vertical
stratification of bubbles, thus giving a better appearance.
Monodispersed bubbles can greatly reduce Ostwald ripening by reducing the effective Laplace pressure difference
due to their similar size. From a scientific viewpoint monodispersed bubbles are useful in fundamental studies because
the interpretation of results is much simpler than for polydispersed populations (Yasuno et al., 2004). Alternatively,
bottom-up approaches can be used to incorporate gases
at the level of individual bubbles. Bulk (conventional)
and localized novel techniques to incorporate bubbles into
liquid or viscoelastic media are described schematically
in Fig. 1.

Conventional methods to incorporate bubbles to foods

Conventional methods to incorporate bubbles into a liquid or viscoelastic medium include (Campbell & Mougeot,
1999; Weaire & Hutzler, 1999): (i) nucleation of gas bubbles in a liquid which is supersaturated; (ii) shaking or beating the liquid; (iii) generating a gas by fermentation or
chemical reaction; (iv) blowing gas through a thin nozzle
or single orifice; and (v) by sparging or blowing gas
through a porous plate.
Mechanical agitation, extensively used to produce liquid
food foams, is inefficient in the use of energy, most of it going into agitation of the bulk liquid and not to form interfacial area. High-shear stresses are necessary to deform and
disrupt large bubbles of air incorporated in the whipping
process (van Aken, 2001). Thus, energy input may shear
sensitive ingredients such as proteins resulting in loss of
functional properties (Charcosset, Limayem, & Fessi,
2004). The phenomenon called overbeating reported
for long whipping times, results in excessive protein coagulation at the airewater interface, leading to aggregation
and low interfacial activity decreasing the final overrun
(Lau & Dickinson, 2004, 2005). The problem is one of localizing the energy in the formed elements (bubbles) rather
than dissipating it in the bulk of the mixture.
There are several reasons why it would be desirable to
decrease the size of bubbles in foods and control their shape
and size distribution, among them, to modify texture, to

Novel methods to incorporate bubbles to foods

Dispersing gases with membranes
Membranes have been used to incorporate air bubbles
into surfactant and protein solutions (Bals & Kulozik,
2003a, 2003b; Kukizaki & Goto, 2006, 2007). Membrane
processes use an applied pressure to force the gaseous
phase through the membrane into the continuous liquid
phase (Fig. 1a) (Charcosset et al., 2004; Vladisavljevic &
Williams, 2005). Although many types of membranes
(e.g., ceramic, metallic and polymeric) could be used to
disperse gases, Shirasu Porous Glass (SPG) membranes
are preferred because of their homogeneity of pore structure and high-mechanical strength (Kukizaki & Goto,
2006, 2007). Surface properties of membranes (hydrophilic/hydrophobic surface) influence particle characteristics for liquid/liquid dispersions. It is essential that the
membrane surface is wetted by the continuous phase
(Boom, 2007). However, this has been not studied yet for
gas/liquid dispersions.
Droplet or bubble formation using orifices involves one
of the following two mechanisms: shear-induced detachment from the surface of the membrane by flow of the continuous phase (Charcosset et al., 2004; Kukizaki & Goto,
2006; Vladisavljevic & Williams, 2005) and spontaneous
formation by interfacial tension, without continuous-phase
flow (Boom, 2007; Yasuno et al., 2002).

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Conventional

Novel

Bulk

Localized

gas
(a) Membrane

Bulk

+
(c) Electrochemical
sonotrode

Mechanical agitation
Fermentation
Chemical reaction
Orifice
liquid gas liquid
(b) Microdevices

(d) Ultrasound

Fig. 1. Conventional and novel mechanisms to incorporate bubbles in food (not at scale).

In membrane processes the energy-intensive, mechanically induced shearing is not required to create small bubbles and foaming is possible with an energy input orders of
magnitude smaller than in conventional methods (Boom,
2007). Hence, materials which are sensitive to localized
shear stresses such as proteins, are not affected to a large
extent (Bals & Kulozik, 2003a, 2003b; Charcosset et al.,
2004). However, if shear-induced protein denaturation or
liberation of substances is required to improve foaming,
shearing or heating may be done before membrane
processing.
In membrane processing, bubble diameter increases with
both gas flow rate and pore size (Bals & Kulozik, 2003a).
The porosity of the membrane surface is an important parameter because it determines the distance between two adjacent pores. This distance is critical to ensure that two
adjacent bubbles do not come sufficiently close to coalesce
(Charcosset et al., 2004). In SPG processing, mean diameters of microbubbles and polydispersity are larger for protein than for surfactant solutions (Table 1), probably due
to the different adsorption kinetics (Kukizaki & Goto,
2007).
The main limitation of the membrane process is a low
dispersed phase flux through the membrane associated
with monodispersed bubbles. However, membrane systems
are particularly suitable for large scale production because
they are easy to scale-up, by adding more membranes to
a module (Charcosset et al., 2004).
Microengineered devices
The application of micromachining techniques in nanotechnology has prompted the use of microfluidic devices
(MFDs). MFDs are process elements that deal with small
amounts of fluids (106e109 L) that flow in channels

where at least one characteristic dimension on the order

of 10e100 mm (Garstecki, Ganan-Calvo, & Whitesides,
2005). They have the advantage of precise fabrication and
replication, portability, small volume and short reaction
times (Sugiura, Nakajima, Iwamoto, & Seki, 2001). The
hydrodynamics on the micron scale of MFDs involves significant effects of interfacial tension, rheology and laminar
flow, thus allowing a better analytical and reactive performance (Kobayashi, Nakajima, Chun, Kikuchi, & Fujita,
2002). The physics, fabrication methods and applications
of MFDs in food engineering has been recently reviewed
by Skurtys and Aguilera (2008).
For the purpose of this presentation, MFDs will be separated into microchannel (MC) arrays and flow-focusing
(FF) devices. The operational principle of MC devices is
to drive the disperse-phase fluids to pass through a microchannel structure which has a designed geometry, similar
to membrane processes (Hsiung, Chen, & Lee, 2006).
MC is a promising technology to enhance the quality of
biphasic food products, such as emulsions and foams,
since these devices can generate uniform droplets or bubbles in liquids of micro and nanosizes (Kobayashi et al.,
2002; Kobayashi, Nakajima, & Mukataka, 2003; Kobayashi, Uemura, & Nakajima, 2007; Sugiura et al., 2001). Yasuno et al. (2004) studied monodispersed microbubble
formation when the continuous phase was an aqueous solution containing surfactants or proteins. The average bubble
size increased with increasing continuous-phase viscosity
and it was larger for protein than for surfactant solutions
(Table 1).
Active devices utilizing FF techniques can generate
droplets or bubbles with uniform and tunable sizes. In
a typical microfluidic FF device (Fig. 1b), two immiscible
phases flow through separate channels (one central for the

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179

Table 1. Diameters of air bubbles produced by membranes and microengineered devices

Methods

Process conditions

Continuous phase

Bubble diameter (mm) References

Membranes

Membrane pores, 7e140 nm

Continuous-phase flow, 6.2 L/h
Shear-induced detachment

Whey protein isolate

solution, 10% wt

180e370

Bals & Kulozik, 2003a

Membrane pores, 43e85 nm

Transmembrane/bubble point
pressure ratio, 1.1e2.0
Shear-induced detachment

Sodium dodecyl sulfate

(SDS), 0.3% wt

0.36e0.72

Kukizaki & Goto, 2006

Membrane pores, 3.07 mm

Transmembrane/bubble point
pressure ratio, 1.1
Spontaneous formation by
interfacial tension

SDS, 0.3% wt
Tween 20, 1.0% wt

27.8
31.3

Kukizaki & Goto, 2007

Sodium caseinate
solution, 1.0% wt
Bovine serum albumin
(BSA), 1.0% wt

39.5

SDS, 0.3% wt

33.6

Tween 20, 1.0% wt

Sodium caseinate
solution, 1.0% wt
BSA solution, 1.0% wt

39.1
48.9

Microchannel arrays

Microchannel dimension
(16 mm width  4 mm depth)
Spontaneous formation by
interfacial tension

Flow-focusing devices Orifice diameter, 100e210 mm

Liquid flow rate, 24e310 mL/s
Gas flow rate, 0.2e40 mL/s

Water/ethanol and water/

glycerol solutions

Exit channel with square section Glycerin solution,

(100 mm width  500 mm length 50% volume
 30 mm height)
Liquid flow rate, 20 mL/h
Gas flow rate, 46 mL/h
Orifice diameter, 250e500 mm
Liquid flow rate, 60e310 mL/s
Gas flow rate, 4e10 mL/s

41.1

51.1
5e120

Ganan-Calvo & Gordillo, 2001

w46

Gordillo et al., 2004

Gelatin solution, 1e5% wt 70e200

dispersed phase and one or more outer channels for the

continuous phase) that meet at the junction of these channels upstream of a small orifice. The outer fluid exerts
pressure and viscous stresses that force the inner fluid
into a narrow thread, which breaks inside or downstream
of the orifice at regular time intervals (Anna, Bontoux,
& Stone, 2003; Garstecki et al., 2005; Skurtys & Aguilera,
2008). The diameters of droplets or bubbles generated by
these devices are comparable or smaller than the orifice
width (Anna et al., 2003; Gordillo, Cheng, Ganan-Calvo,
Marquez, & Weitz, 2004). A major advantage is that bubble formation is not controlled by surface tension as in
membrane processing and in MC devices (Garstecki
et al., 2005; Gordillo et al., 2004). Bubbles with uniform
and tunable size as well as sophisticated foam architectures may be generated by controlling the flow rate ratio
of the continuous and dispersed phases, as shown in
Fig. 2 (Ganan-Calvo & Gordillo, 2001; Garstecki et al.,
2004; Hsiung et al., 2006; Skurtys, Bouchon, & Aguilera,
2007). Mean diameters of microbubbles produced by FF
devices are shown in Table 1.

Yasuno et al., 2004

Skurtys et al., 2007

FF devices presents two main disadvantages for real industrial applications in which mass production of bubbles is
required: the gas fraction is limited to very small values and
the scale-up of these devices is a hard task due to the threedimensional centering of the injection needles with the exit
orifices (Gordillo et al., 2004).
Electrochemical reactions
Gas bubbles generated by electrochemical reactions
have attracted research interest in many disciplines. Since
electrochemical reactions occur primarily in aqueous solutions, gases like hydrogen and oxygen are usually generated
in the form of bubbles at the surface of electrodes (Fig. 1c)
(Wedin, Davoust, Cartellier, & Byrne, 2003; Zhang et al.,
2006). Gases detach from these surfaces as soon as the
buoyancy force overcomes the surface tension effects holding the bubble in place. Electrolysis can generate small
bubbles in the order of micro or nanometers (Lee, Sutomo,
Liu, & Loth, 2005; Wedin et al., 2003). Zhang et al. (2006)
using tapping mode AFM demonstrated that the formation
of bubbles at the surface of electrodes is a sequential

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R.N. Zuniga, J.M. Aguilera / Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008) 176e187

Fig. 2. Different foam architectures generated in a 2.75 mm internal

diameter glass tube for a gelatin solution (3% wt) and selected values
of gas fraction (U) [U gas flow rate/(gas flow rate liquid flow rate)].
(A) U 60%; (B) U 96%; (C) U 97%. Courtesy Dr. Olivier Skurtys.

process of formation, growth and coalescence of nanobubbles, followed by the release in the form of microbubbles.
Micro-fabrication of electrolytic bubble generators
could allow direct control of bubble size and size dispersion, release location and release frequency (Lee, Sutomo,
et al., 2005). Tuning the applied voltage or the reaction
time, the formation of nanobubbles and the release of microbubbles can be controlled (Zhang et al., 2006). In addition, some studies on electrochemically generated bubbles
have shown a decrease in bubble size and a narrower bubble size distribution with greater applied voltages and the
concomitant increase in gas production (Lee, Sutomo,
et al., 2005; Shin & Yiacoumi, 1997; Zhang et al., 2006).
Monodisperse bubbles with diameters within the range of
100  50 mm were formed by an electrochemical bubble
generator designed by Wedin et al. (2003). Lee, Sutomo,
et al. (2005) were able to produce microbubbles (100 mm
in diameter and 90% of the bubbles within 20 mm of the
mean diameter) by varying the area and spacing between
electrodes.
Although electrolytic bubble generators may prove practical at laboratory scale, they may not be viable at production levels due to high cost, low energy efficiency, etc.
Further development is needed before such devices become
practical for large scale applications requiring formation of
a cloud of bubbles (Lee, Sutomo, et al., 2005).
Ultrasound
Another way of creating microbubbles is acoustic cavitation (Fig. 1d) that implies the formation, growth, and implosive collapse of microscopic bubbles in liquids subjected

to high-intensity ultrasound (generally between 20 and

100 kHz) (Suslick et al., 1999). Depending on the liquid
and conditions used, these bubbles may be on the order
of nanometers or micrometers in diameter (Cho, Kim,
Chun, & Kim, 2005; Lim & Barigou, 2005; Louisnard
et al., 2001). Bubbles emerge from gas nuclei formed in
the bulk of the liquid or in the vessel walls (Louisnard
et al., 2001) as well as from ions present in the solution
(Cho et al., 2005; Lee, Kentish, & Ashokkumar, 2005). Surfactants play an important role both in nucleation (by lowering the surface tension of the solution) and stability of the
formed bubbles (Cho et al., 2005; Lee, Kentish, et al.,
2005).
Sonication of aqueous solutions of different surfactants
produced stable nanosize bubbles (<1 mm in diameter)
with a narrow size distribution. Bubble diameter did not depend on the pH of the solution, but increased slightly with
the addition of salts and decreased when surfactants were
added (Cho et al., 2005). Simultaneous sonication and air
blowing in binary aqueous solutions produced a concentrated cloud of small bubbles (w10 mm) which remained
stable for about 1 min. The cloud was stable due to the
small size of bubbles and disappeared by rising under buoyancy (Louisnard et al., 2001). Pneumatical generation of
protein-stabilized foams assisted by ultrasound resulted in
a much finer and more uniform texture of the foams.
When ultrasound power increased the mean bubble size
was reduced and their size distribution narrowed (Lim &
Barigou, 2005).
The application of high-intensity ultrasound cause
changes in proteins that may be used advantageously in
bubble formation. Ultrasonication increased the surface activity of proteins thus lowering the surface tension of bovine serum albumin solutions and increasing the rate of
protein adsorption at the airewater interface (Gulseren,
Guzey, Bruce, & Weiss, 2006; Guzey, Gulseren, Bruce, &
Weiss, 2006). Gulseren et al. (2006) concluded that the
magnitude of the structural and functional changes induced
in proteins could be controlled by varying sonication time
and highlighted that potential future applications may include controlled alterations of lipid and gas interfaces in
emulsions, foams and gels.
One problem using ultrasound is that the collapse of
bubbles in a multibubble cavitation field produces hot spots
(effective local temperatures of w5000  C have been reported) and pressures of w1000 atm (Suslick et al., 1999;
Thompson & Doraiswamy, 1999), phenomena that may affect thermolabile and pressure-sensitive food components.
Also, as a result of cavitation of microbubbles, free radicals
may be formed which can promote undesirable chemical
reactions (Thompson, & Doraiswamy, 1999).
Gels and gel structure formation
Food gels
A gel can be defined as three-dimensional continuous
polymeric network holding large quantities of solvent

R.N. Zuniga, J.M. Aguilera / Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008) 176e187

(aqueous solution) that shows mechanical rigidity during

the observation time (Aguilera, 1992). Generally, gels contain two dispersed components (or phases): a continuous
network imparting the solid character to the gel through
its long-range continuity of structure at the molecular or
sub-micron (particulate gels) levels, and a liquid phase
that provides the liquid-like properties (Clark, 1992;
Nishinari et al., 2000). In a sense, gels are a form of solid
water at ambient temperature.
The ability of food polymers to produce gels depends on
the formation of junction zones between polymer molecules or aggregates that restricts the expansion of the network. Thus, continuous network of interconnected
material spanning the whole volume becomes swollen
with a high proportion of liquid (Aguilera & Rademacher,
2004; Hermansson, 2007). In effect, polymer molecules
are aggregated into one immense molecule with a threedimensional structure that entraps the liquid. Structure
build-up occurs gradually in situ from the polymer solution
to the gel state depending on externally controllable conditions such as gelling time, temperature, pressure or solution
composition (pH, ionic strength, low molecular weight solutes, presence of specific ions, etc.). It is this network structure and its relation with the liquid phase that gives gels
their characteristic rheological and textural properties. In
this regard, gels cover a wide spectrum of textural properties as is shown in Fig. 3. These properties, in turn, will determine a wide spectrum of sensory and physicochemical
properties of food gels, for example, appearance, taste
and stability that make them valuable as food matrices
(Aguilera, 1992; Clark, 1992; Renard et al., 2006). Different mechanisms of gel structure formation and examples of
gelling polymers are presented in Table 2.
Mixed and filled gel matrices
The versatility to build functional gels matrices is
greatly extended when mixed and filled gels matrices
Gelatin
Seaweed polysaccharides

Strong

Gel strength

Gellan
Soy protein isolate
Whey protein isolate

Weak
Brittle

Ductil

Type of fracture

Fig. 3. Schematic classification of food gels based on their strength and

fracture properties.

181

are considered (Fig. 4). Gel properties can be dramatically

changed by addition of a second gelling agent (Aguilera,
1992; Aguilera & Rademacher, 2004; Hermansson, 2007;
Morris, 1990). Often a blend of gelling polymers provides
improved properties than those of a single component gel
and sometimes synergistic effects may be found (Table
3). A few examples involving milk gels follow. Aguilera
and Baffico (1997) reported that addition of small amounts
of native cassava starch to a whey protein solution resulted
in stronger gels after thermal gelation. In contrast, supplementing whey protein solutions with skim milk powder
produced weaker mixed gels. Turgeon and Beaulieu
(2001) found that addition of 0.1% of k-carrageenan (and
added calcium) increased the hardness and deformation at
fracture, and reduced the syneresis of whey protein gels.
It is well known that pre-heating of milk induces whey protein aggregation on the surface of casein micelles, increasing gel firmness and serum holding capacity in yoghurt
(Kulozik, Tolkach, & Hinrichs, 2003).
The incorporation of a finely dispersed lipid phase into
the polymer solution further expands the versatility of the
formed gel matrices. The extra lipid phase may serve as
carrier for fat-soluble nutrients and flavors. Moreover,
membrane-coated fat globules can interact with the
polymer matrix providing improved strength (Aguilera &
Kessler, 1989). Advances in the study of fat-filled gels,
including aerated emulsion gels, are reviewed by Dickinson
(2006). Aerated gels filled with internally produced CO2
gas bubbles were prepared by Nussinovitch et al. (1992).
Although mechanical properties of these gels were different
from pure gels no control over the bubble size and gas fraction could be achieved.
Innovative applications of aerated gels
New dietetic foods e gels and nutrition
There is increased evidence that the quantity, composition and microstructure of the food ingested affects health
(Norton, Moore, & Fryer, 2007; Parada & Aguilera,
2007). One approach to development of dietetic foods is
based on proper selection of the food components and their
relative amounts, for example: (i) use of non-caloric ingredients; (ii) immobilizing high quantities of water; and (iii)
incorporating air as small dispersed bubbles. Examples of
low calorie analogs occluding large amounts of water in
microgels are some ultralight margarines (de Deckere &
Verschuren, 2000).
The physical form of the food may profoundly alter the
sensation of fullness and satiety. Addition of a bulking
agent such as guar gum has been proposed to control
body weight by increasing the feeling of fullness, thus reducing the energy intake (French & Read, 1994; Pasman,
Saris, Wauters, & Westerterp-Platenga, 1997). The task is
not easy as it has been shown that, in liquid dietetic foods,
calorie content has an additive effect in increasing the sense
of satiety (French & Read, 1994; Marciani, Gowland,
Spiller, et al., 2001). In solid foods, the microstructure

182

Table 2. Physical and chemical mechanisms to produce biopolymer gelation

Source

Example

Basis of mechanism

Heat setting

Protein

Globular proteins

Unfolding or dissociation of native protein by heat exposing reactive sites. Unfolded molecules
associate and aggregate leading to the formation of the junction zones of the gel.
The mechanism is predominantly tailetail association via non-covalent bonding. Domains of the
molecule undergo a conformational change that exposes previously hidden amino acid side-chains
to the solvent, resulting in increased proteineprotein interactions allowing the formation of
junction zones.
During gelatinization of starch, amylose and amylopectin are released and become solubilized.
Upon cooling, the free amylose (single helices) become ordered into microcrystalline regions
surrounding swollen granules, forming the junction zones. Starch gels are composites of amylose
matrices filled with swollen granules.

Myosin

Polysaccharide

Starch

Cold setting

Protein
Polysaccharide

Gelatine
Agar

Junction zones created by partial reformation of the triple helices found in collagen during cooling.
When hot solutions are cooled below 40  C bundles of double or single helices are formed. These
helices are precursors of superjunctions of helices and of the junction zones.

High pressure

Protein

Globular proteins

Pressures above 200 MPa induce conformational changes leading to denaturation, aggregation and
formation of the junction zones. Particulate gels formed are stabilized mainly by hydrogen bonds,
although disulphide bonds may be present at higher pressures.

Ionic

Polysaccharide

Gellan gum

Formation of double helices followed by ion-induced association of the double helices to form the
junction zones.
Helical chains become associated of into double helices. Because of the anionic nature of the
molecule, carrageenans require counter-ions to form the junction zones.
Junction zones are regions of polyguluronic (alginate) or polygalacturonic acid (pectin) linked to
similar regions in another polymer chain by calcium ions (so-called eggbox arrangement).
The junction zones are aggregates of chains of various sizes promoted by hydrogen bonding and
hydrophobic interaction.

Carrageenans
Alginate, low methoxil pectin
High methoxil pectin
Cold gelation

Protein

Globular proteins

Soluble protein aggregates are prepared by heat treatment at a pH well above the isoelectric point
and in the absence of salts. After cooling, formation of junction zones is induced by lowering the
pH or adding salts.

Acid

Protein

Globular proteins, myosin

Lowering the pH, changes the net charge of proteins and allows denaturation to form clusters or
aggregates. These clusters may be considered as the junction zones of the gel.
Upon acidification, colloidal calcium phosphate in the micelles is solubilized and aggregation of
the partly disintegrated micelles occurs due to charge neutralization. At temperatures above 10  C
junction zones and network structure is formed.

Casein

Enzymatic

Protein

Globular proteins
Casein

Formation of junction zones is based on the introduction of covalent cross-links between proteins
by the action of the enzyme transglutaminase.
Enzymatic hydrolysis of k-casein by the proteolytic enzyme chymosin releases the so-called
caseinomacropeptide (CMP) and causes the casein micelles to destabilize and aggregate to form
the junction zones and lead to a particle gel (curd).

R.N. Zuniga, J.M. Aguilera / Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008) 176e187

Types

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183

Fig. 4. Nomenclature of gels based on the type and number of phases forming their structure.

has a major influence on the sensation of satiety by slowing

down the rate of breakdown in the gastrointestinal tract.
Several human studies have indicated that meals containing
solids typically have a greater effect on satiety than liquids
meals of equivalent volume and energy content (Hoad
et al., 2004). It is believed that a slower breakdown in the

stomach can lead to a more lasting sensation of satiety

(Norton, Frith, & Ablett, 2006). In a study with human volunteers and monitored by MRI hard agar gel beads
presented a delayed exit from the stomach while softer
gel beads were rapidly broken down and emptied at the
same rate as a liquid model meal (Marciani, Gowland,

Table 3. Examples of the effect of adding a second polymer on selected properties of mixed gelsa
Ratiob

System

Property

Skim milk powder, 1e9% w/w

Whey protein concentrate, 1e9% w/w
Total solids, 10% w/w; pH, 4.2e4.5

Firmness

1.7e1.9

Aguilera & Kessler, 1989

Whey protein isolate, 75e90% w/w of TS

Cassava starch, 10e25% w/w of TS
Total solids, 10e15% w/w

Elastic modulus

1.1e1.3

Aguilera & Baffico, 1997

Dried egg white, 6e9% w/w

a-casein, 1e4% w/w
Total solids, 10% w/w; pH, 7.0

Hardness

1.5e2.2

Matsudomi, Kanda, & Moriwak, 2003

Gellan gum, 0.2e0.8% w/v

Gelatin, 0.2e0.8% w/v
Total solids, 1% w/v

Hardness

0.34e0.77

Water holding capacity

0.84e1.59

Soy protein isolate, 1e17% w/w

Whey protein isolate, 1e17% w/w
Total solids, 18% w/w

Shear modulus

1.43e2.29

Syneresis

0.25e0.86

k-carrageenan, 0.2e0.5% w/w

Locust beam gum, 0.1e0.4% w/w
Total solids, 0.6% w/w

Youngs modulus

0.54e0.94

Force at fracture
Strain at fracture

1.33e1.86
1.12e1.39

a
b

The single gel is named first in table.

Ratio property of mixed gel/property of single gel, at the same total solids content.

References

Lee et al., 2003

Comfort & Howell, 2002

Koliandris, Lee, Ferry, Hill, & Mitchell, 2008

184

R.N. Zuniga, J.M. Aguilera / Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008) 176e187

Fillery-Travis, et al., 2001). These results confirm that

structures slowly digested in the stomach increase satiety
by a yet unknown mechanism thus providing a higher sense
of fullness. Enhancing satiation may restrict the daily food
intake and the desire of overeating, therefore, contributing
to control of body weight (Hoad et al., 2004). In this sense,
strong aerated gels could increase the initial sense of fullness but the effect of an aerated structure on the rate of
breakdown in the gastrointestinal tract needs to be determined. Designed aerated gels with tailored texture, low caloric density and flavor properties, may help in developing
new dietetic foods for the treatment of obesity.
According to Wansink (2007), over 85% of the population with weight problems has consumed an average excess
of 25 cal per day over a prolonged period of time. He suggests that adding small amounts of water or air to a recipe
while conserving the portion size and taste may help in preserving the perceived value of the food while decreasing the
calorie consumption. He concludes that a mere 10% reduction in daily calorie consumption would slow or even reverse the weight gain of these people in the long term. In
fact, it has been demonstrated that within limits people
eat by volume, thus, incorporating air would reduce the calorie density and make them feel just as full as with the normal food (Osterholt, Roe, & Rolls, 2007). A strategy in
food design may then be to maintain the taste perception
of demanded energy-dense foods while imperceptibly adding air as small bubbles and/or immobilizing water in the
food matrix as microgels, thus lowering their caloric content per portion.
Aerated aromatic gels
Aroma is a key factor in the acceptance of foods by consumers. Taylor (2002) has pointed out that the challenge for
food flavorists is to produce the same flavor perception
from different structures. The transfer of aroma compounds
within the food and their release in the mouth is influenced
by the concentration and chemical nature of the aroma
compounds as well as the composition and structure of
the food (Buettner & Schieberle, 2000; Seuvre, Philippe,
Rochard, & Voilley, 2006; Taylor, 2002). Mastication increases the surface area of the food exposed to the air in
the oral cavity facilitating the release of volatiles (van
Ruth & Roozen, 2000). Flavor release in the mouth is
a complex subject and many factors come into play (e.g.,
mouth volume, saliva composition, saliva volume, etc.)
that alter the rate and profile of volatiles reaching the
odor receptors (van Ruth & Roozen, 2000).
Food microstructure affects aroma release but results are
not always clear since flavor molecules may interact directly with macromolecules. Gelatinized starch granules
having lost most of granule integrity exhibited a lower volatile retention than native starch granules (Lopes da Silva,
Castro, & Delgadillo, 2002). Reducing droplet size in
emulsions enhanced the release of non-polar aromas (i.e.,
linalool) but had no effect on polar aromatic molecules

(Miettinen, Tuorila, Pironen, Vehkalahti, & Hyvonen,

2002). Emulsions encapsulated in microstructured gels
suppressed the release of lipophilic aromas in a low fat
product (Malone, Appelqvist, & Norton, 2003) and the
type of gelling biopolymer affected the release of aroma
from these gelled emulsions during mastication (Malone
& Appelqvist, 2003). It can be surmised that aromas contained in bubbles of aerated gels will be rapidly released
to the oral cavity during the mastication process. Thus,
the inclusion of aromas in aerated gel matrices would expand the spectrum of release mechanisms providing new
opportunities in product design and gastronomic creations.
Carriers of nutraceuticals and other
bioactive molecules
Nutraceuticals are defined as foods that contain a component which gives a specific physiological benefit beyond inherent general nutrition, thus preventing or alleviating
specific diseases (Ramaa, Shirode, Mundada, & Kadam,
2006). The effectiveness of nutraceuticals depends on preserving the bioavailability of the active component during
transit through the gut (Chen, Remondetto, & Subirade,
2006).
Microgels made from food hydrocolloids or proteins
have been proposed as generally recognized as safe
(GRAS) carriers for oral administration with the extra advantage that these nutraceutical microgels may help in
stabilizing the texture of the delivery system (Chen et al.,
2006). Moreover, the presence of acidic (carboxylic) or basic (ammonium) groups in proteins chains, which either accept or release protons in response to changes in pH, would
allow modulating the release of bioactive molecules from
microgels (Qui & Park, 2001). Particulate gels made of
b-lactoglobulin have been shown to release more iron
than filamentous gels in the presence of pepsin at pH 1.2
or pancreatin at pH 7.5, suggesting that enzymatic proteolysis depends on the microstructure of these gels (Remondetto, Beyssac, & Subirade, 2004).
If the trapped bioactive component happens to be an enzyme then an open porous microstructure would provide
a larger contact area for interaction with the infiltrating substrate (Szymanska, Bryjac, Mrowiec-Bia1on, & Jarzebski,
2007; Yiu, Wright, & Botting, 2001). If a digestive enzyme
needs to degrade the gel matrix then a large porosity and
high-pore interconnectivity would increase the rate of nutraceutical release (Neves, Kouyumdzhiev, & Reis, 2005;
Wachiralarpphaithoon, Iwasaki, & Akiyoshi, 2007). Hence,
tailoring the porous structure of an aerated gel would give
more opportunities for protection or release of a physiologically bioactive component (or a nutrient) in the gut.
Control of syneresis and water release
Some gels experience syneresis or a slow, timedependent de-swelling resulting in an exudation of liquid
(Lucey, 2002). From a thermodynamic point of view, physical gels are metastable because a significant amount of

R.N. Zuniga, J.M. Aguilera / Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008) 176e187

bonds stabilizing the network have a reversible or temporal

character. The permanent structural reorganization within
the material driven by a reduction in the free energy of
the system affects water hold-up (Renard et al., 2006). Water in gels can also be lost as a result of temperature fluctuations. The loss of liquid may result in shrinking of gels,
changes in texture and reduced quality. In aerated gels,
part of the syneresis could be trapped inside multiple gas
bubbles and would not appear in the surface of the product
during storage.
Water release from the gel matrix during oral processing
may be desirable in some foods, such as processed meat
products where it contributes to the perception of juiciness,
but in puddings and dairy products the fast release of water
is regarded as a defect. The expulsion of liquid is generally
related to large deformations and fracture during oral
processing (van der Berg, van Vliet, van der Linden, van
Boekel, & van de Velde, 2007). The presence of bubbles
is likely to change the fracture pattern of gels in the oral
cavity and the release of water.
Innovative high-moisture matrices
Several semi-solid foods are combinations of highmoisture gel matrices and dispersed microstructural elements such as fibers, fat globules or air bubbles (e.g.,
frankfurters, soft cheeses and mousses). Synthetic caviar
is a good example of a high-moisture structured gel matrix. It has a gelled center of gelatin and two protein coatings: an inner coating consisting essentially of the reaction
products of gelatin and vegetable tannins and an outer
coating formed by the reaction product of polyvalent metal
salts and an acidic polysaccharide (Nesmeyanov et al.,
1980).
Fresh fruits are hierarchical superstructures of cells having fairly thin cell walls that break in a brittle manner giving rise to desirable sensorial features such as crispness,
juiciness and enjoyable aromas (Kader, 2002; Vincent,
1991). Apple cells (100 mm in diameter) have air spaces between them that have been used to infiltrate fruit pieces
with various solutions (Lazarides et al., 1999). Some advantages of gel analogs of fruit pieces would be uniformity
in size and shape, decreased sugar content, improved flavor
and color stability during storage. However, a major problem in simulated fruits is related to texture. The crispy/
crunchy texture of fresh fruits (related to turgor pressure)
should be mimicked by correctly designing the fracture
properties of gels.
Foams and gels have gained notoriety among modern
chefs for their light and exquisite textures. Aerated gels
are gastronomic concepts in between the creations of two
of the most reputed chefs in the world: the airs of the
Spanish Ferran Adria` and the jellies of the British Heston Blumenthal. They and other top chefs are exploiting the
properties of food materials in well equipped laboratories,
a trend that has been called molecular gastronomy (This,
2006) but is actually a form of gastronomic engineering.

185

Conclusions
Gels are ubiquitous structures in high-moisture foods.
The ample availability of edible gelling materials and the
improved properties of mixed systems and emulsion gels
provide a wealth of opportunities for the design of simple
or complex structures with tailored properties. Introducing
a gaseous phase in the form of bubbles or open pores may
increase the spectrum of possibilities for texture formation
and perception, flavor encapsulation and/or release, delivery of bioactive molecules, control of satiety and creation
of gastronomic structures. New technologies that allow
control of the elements in the dispersed phase at the micron
scale are actively explored to make better aerated
structures.
Acknowledgments
Work on aerated gels is financed by the National Committee for Science and Technology (Chile) FONDECYT
project 1060713.
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