1

5.

VISCOUS FLOW APPLICATIONS

5.1 Introduction
- In the earlier sections the emphasis has been on the
direct application of the laws of mechanics to either
simple, or simplified flow systems, in order to calculate
parameters of practical interest.
- Attention is now turned to more complex, viscous
flows.
- The Objectives are:
I

To use the laws of fluid motion to develop an

understanding of the behaviour of viscous fluids.

II

To use the process of dimensional analysis to

develop calculation techniques for viscous flows
that make use of available empirical data.

5.2 Dynamics of Fluid Motion

! Flow Acceleration / Deceleration

- Here the aim is to show what the
effects of acceleration and deceleration
are on the static pressure of the fluid.
- Consider accelerating flow in the
converging channel, shown here.
- From the momentum principle
-

F = m ( U 2 - U 1)

The positive force needed to maintain flow

acceleration, is generated by the change in fluid
pressure, along the direction of flow.
F = A1P1 -A2P2

- For a small element along the channel of area A and

length U shown here:
The Mass Flow Rate m is: m = D A U.
The Force is: F = AP -A(P+)P) = -A)P
Rate of Momentum change:
m ( U+ )U -U) = D A U )U

- )P A = D A U )U

or -()P/)x) = D U ()U /)x)

Thus: Pressure Gr. = Density X Acceleration

Change in Velocity Related to Change in Pressure

Increase in Velocity
Reduction in Pressure

Reduction in Velocity
Increase in Pressure

- The same conclusion can be arrived at by considering

Bernoullis equation :
(P/D) + .5 V2 + gz = Constant
- Thus neglecting changes in z :
Increase in V
Reduction in V

Reduction in P
Increase in P

! Flow Curvature.
- Consider the corner flow shown below :
- This is a 2-dimensional flow
-The x direction and
acceleration in the y
direction, "X and "Y.

- Curvature in the flow streamlines, leads to a centrifugal

(normal to the flow streamlines) acceleration.
- As shown in equation 1.3.4, this acceleration in the
radial direction, increases the pressure along the radius
of curvature of the flow streamlines.

dP/dr = D V2 / r
A curved streamline is associated with a pressure
gradient across it
- Example:

! Viscous effects and boundary layers.

- As seen in Section 1.3, in real fluids, deformation
produces internal forces (stresses) between adjacent
layers of fluid that move relative to each other.

- External forces or pressure gradients are needed to

overcome these stresses.
- Wall driven flow. External
force applied to the moving
wall.

J =-: (dU/dy) Fp= J (L b)

8
8
Viscosity
Plate
Area
Channel Flow
- A pressure difference
must be imposed

JW = -: (dU/dy)W
- A )P = 2 JW (L b)

- Fluid motion is governed by the balance between

viscous and pressure gradient forces.

D[Acceleration] = - Pressure Gradient + Viscous

Force
- A most important consequence of viscosity, is the
formation of near-wall boundary layers.
- In real (viscous)
fluids, the fluid
layer in contact
with a solid surface
is always at rest.
- The difference in velocity between the stationary
fluid at the solid surface and the moving fluid layers
above it, leads to shear deformation.
- The shear deformation creates a shear stress which
opposes the fluid motion.
- A region of slow moving fluid therefore grows,
when a fluid moves over a solid surface, known as the
wall-boundary layer.

5.3 Visual Description of Fluid Motion

! Steady Flow
- Consider the example of flow over a wing.
- Place smoke-emitting probes in the flow.

- The smoke trails reveal the loci of all the fluid particles
that pass through the probe positions, A and B.
- These loci are called Streaklines
- In Steady Flows, these lines are also Streamlines.

- The fluid velocity is always tangent to the streamlines.

No Flow Across a Streamline

- The mass flow rate between any two streamlines

must therefore be constant.
- Any wall is a streamline.
- Bunching of streamlines indicates flow acceleration
- Diverging streamlines indicate deceleration

! Unsteady Flow
- Consider the same example as before, but for unsteady
conditions.
- At time smoke would start to follow the path shown by
the stream lines a and b, denoted by the dotted lines.

- By time t+)t, the smoke will start to follow the new

set of streamlines through a and b, denoted by the new
pair of dotted lines.
- While the smoke trails continue to be streaklines, they
are no longer streamlines.

In unsteady flows, streaklines are not the

same as streamlines

5.4 Qualitative Discussion of External Flows

5.4.1 Boundary Layer Flows
A. Flow over a Flat Plate

- In real, viscous, flows, the solid surface always brings

the fluid particles in contact with it to a stop.
- The velocity gradient between the wall and the fluid,
gives rise to a viscous shear force which opposes the
fluid motion.
- This shear force slows down fluid layers above the wall,
giving rise to a boundary layer, within which the fluid
velocity increases from zero to the free-stream value, U4.
- As the fluid moves further downstream, the thickness
of the boundary layer, *, grows. Because the viscous
forces act for longer.

10

- In the case of a boundary layer developing over a Flat

Plate, the free-stream velocity, U4, remains constant
along the streamwise, x, direction.

- Thus from Bernoulli' s equation, the pressure gradient

in the streamwise direction is zero :
P + DU42/2 + Dgz = Const

d ( P + DU42/2 + Dgz ) /dx = d (Const)/dx

Since U4 and z do not vary with x :

(MP) / (Mx) = 0

- Consequently, as the flow moves downstream, the

wall shear stress reduces the momentum of the boundarylayer fluid.
- The rate of growth of the boundary layer is dictated
by ratio between the inertial and the viscous forces.

- Where

U a characteristic velocity
D a characteristic length
Re the flow Reynolds number

11

- At low Reynolds numbers, the viscous force is

stronger relative to the inertia force and thus the
boundary layer grows faster.
When the Reynolds number increases, and the
inertia force becomes more important, the boundary layer
grows more slowly.
B. Flow Over A Concave Surface

- In flow over a concave surface the free-stream velocity,

U4, is reduced in the flow direction, x, because the flow
area is increased
From Continuity :
U. A = Constant As A increases U reduces
From Bernoulli's equation, ignoring changes in elevation:
P + 0.5DU42 = Const.

As U4 is reduced, P is increased

12

- The pressure gradient therefore opposes the fluid motion

and is consequently said to be an Adverse Pressure
Gradient.
- Because the boundary-layer fluid has lower momentum,
the adverse pressure gradient is able to reverse its flow
direction and create a region of Flow Separation.

- At the start of the separation (Separation Point), the

gradient of the velocity in the direction normal to the wall
becomes zero.

 Students are at this point advised to attempt

QUIZ8 on Blackboard

13

5.4.2 Flows Around Obstacles

A. Flow Around A Cylinder

Points of Interest
- Velocity is reduced to zero along the central streamline,
leading to a stagnation point at the front of the cylinder.
- According to Bernoulli's equation, a Stagnation Point
is a point of maximum local pressure.

At stagnation point U0 = 0.
- Flow accelerates over the
front half of the cylinder where the pressure gradient is
favourable.
- Over the second half, as the flow area increases, the
pressure gradient becomes adverse (positive)
.

- As before, the adverse pressure gradient causes flow

separation behind the cylinder.

14

- Once flow separation occurs,

the static pressure remains
constant because the freestream velocity no longer
changes.
- Therefore pressure in front of
the cylinder is greater than the
back pressure, giving rise to a pressure drag force, FD.
B. Flow Over A Square Block

Points of Interest
- Again a stagnation point is formed in the middle of the
front face, causing a region of high pressure.
- The presence of 90o corners causes flow separation
because real fluids cannot turn round 90o corners.
- As in the case of the cylinder, the pressure is lower at
the rear of the block due to the flow separation.
- Again this gives rise to a pressure drag force, FD.

15

5.4.3 Flows Around Aerofoils

A. Low Angle of Incidence

Points of Interest
- A stagnation point is formed at the front of the aerofoil.
Explanation of Lift based on Bernoullis
- The fluid moves faster over the upper side than over
the lower side.
- From Bernoullis equation
(P + 0.5D U42 = const.):
The pressure over the upper side is lower than that of the
lower side.
- This gives rise to an upward pressure force known as
the Lift Force, FL.
- The above situation is equivalent to the wing being
exposed to uniform flow on both sides and also
surrounded by a vortex.
- This phenomenon is known as the Magnus Effect. To
be further discussed at the end of this Section.

16

- A small drag force is also present.

- The above explanation ignores the fact that there is a
boundary layer around the aerofoil.
- Viscous effects become important and use of Bernoullis
questionable.
Explanation of lift based on curvature of streamlines

- As already noted, when fluids follow a curved path

there is a pressure change across (normal to) the
streamlines, with the pressure increasing with the distance
from the centre of curvature.
- As can be seen in the figure above, diagram, the flow is
forced to follow a curved path around the wing, which
leads to:

17

a)

An increase in the fluid pressure below the wing

from the free stream value P4 to a higher
value over the lower surface of the wing.

b) A decrease in fluid pressure above the wing

from the free stream value p4 to a lower value
over the upper surface of the wing
The end result is again a pressure difference between the
lower and upper surfaces of the aerofoil, which gives rise
to force normal to the flow direction.
Explanation of Lift Based on Deflection of the Flow

This is perhaps the simplest way of explaining the

generation of lift force.

- As shown above, the fluid enters the control volume

with only a horizontal velocity component and it also has
a vertical downward component.
- From the force-momentum principle the conclusion is
that the wing exerts a downward force on the fluid.

18

- From the principle of action and reaction, then we must

conclude that the fluid exerts an upward force on the
wing.
B. High Angle of Incidence
The lift rises with " up
to " . 12 - 13o, at which
point the flow over the
upper surface of the
aerofoil separates.
- The separation bubble pushes
the flow streamlines away
from the upper surface of the
aerofoil.
- The fluid velocity over the
upper surface of the aerofoil is
thus reduced.
- The lower velocity over the upper surface raises the
pressure and hence reduces lift.
- At the same time the drag force is increased.
- This phenomenon is known as aerofoil Stall.

19

The Magnus Effect

It occurs when there is cross flow past a cylinder or
sphere spinning about their own axes.
Streamline Plots

As shown in the diagrams, the

rotation of the cylinder about an axis
normal to the cross-flow, re-directs
more fluid over th side which moves
in the same direction as the flow and
slows down the fluid over the side
which opposes the fluid motion.
Heinrich Gustav
As in the aerofoil flow, pressure is
Magnus
lower in regions of high velocity and
(1802 1870)
German Physicist high at low-velocity regions.
Consequently a force normal to the
direction of the flow develops on the spinning object

20

Flow Visualisation Tests

This rotation-generated lift force is often exploited.

Footballers and Tennis players often use
spin to bend the trajectory of a ball.
In the 1920s, Anton Flettner used the
Magnus effect to develop a highly
efficient form of ship propulsion, by
replacing the sails of a boat with two
rotating 50 ft high cylinders.
Anton Flettner The resulting vessel outperformed
1885-1961 conventional sailing boats while using
only a fraction of the fuel of propeller
conventional systems.

21

The Flettner Rotor Ship

It first crossed the Atlantic in 1926.

Recent proposal to revive the Flettner Propulsion

system.

22

5.4 Qualitative Discussion of Internal Flows

5.4.1 Channel Or Pipe Flows.
- As the flow enters the channel, as in the case of the
flat plate, boundary layers develop along both walls.
- Eventually, the two boundary layers meet in the
middle of the channel.
- The flow then no longer changes in the streamwise, x,
direction and is thus said to be fully-developed.
- For laminar fully-developed flow, the velocity profile
has a parabolic shape.
- From Continuity, centreline velocity in the fullydeveloped region must be greater than inlet velocity:

- As noted earlier, the rate at which the boundary layers

grow and, consequently, the entry length needed for the
flow to become fully-developed, depend on the flow
Reynolds number.

23

As :

Re (=U.D / < )
Rate of Boundary
Layer Growth
Entry-length Needed
for Fully-developed
Flow Conditions

Increases
is Reduced

Increases

- Finally it is worth emphasizing that the finite velocity

gradients at the walls give rise to viscous stresses that
oppose the fluid motion.
- The wall shear stresses cause a drop in static pressure
in the flow direction. Thus :
dP / dX < 0

24

5.4.2 Flow Over A Step.

Points of Interest
- A stagnation point is formed on the forward facing
face, near the corner of the step, causing a region of
high pressure (Bernoulli's)
- The pressure on the face of the step is thus higher than
that further upstream.
- As explained in previous examples, the combination of
an adverse pressure gradient and boundary layer flow,
leads to flow separation in the step corner.
- A second, smaller separation region is formed over the
narrower region of the passage, due to the fact that a real,
viscous, fluid cannot turn round a sharp 90o step.
- This second separation region can be removed by using
a rounded instead of a sharp step.

25

5.4.3 Flow Over An Expansion.

Points of Interest
- From Continuity, the increase in cross-sectional area
leads to a reduction in average velocity.
- From Bernoulli's principle, the reduction in the
streamline velocity in the flow direction leads to an
increase in pressure.
- The combination of adverse pressure gradient and of
low-momentum boundary layer fluid, again leads to
flow separation in the corner regions.
- Rounded corners does not prevent separation.
- Flow separation causes a drop in static pressure
- In practice gradual expansions are used in internal
passages to avoid this.

26

5.5 Three-dimensional Flows

5.5.1 Horse-shoe Vortex

Points of Interest
- This is a three-dimensional flow and it occurs around
the foot of an obstacle.
- As shown in previous examples, a stagnation point is
formed at the front face of an obstacle, that creates a
region of adverse pressure gradient upstream of the
obstacle.
- The direction of the boundary-layer fluid is thus
reversed and a flow recirculation bubble is formed along
the upstream corner.
- The flow then carries this separation bubble around
the foot of the obstacle creating the horse-shoe vortex.

27

- This phenomenon can be found in many applications.

At ground level around tall buildings, at the junction
between the wing and the body of an aeroplane, at the
foot of turbine blades etc.

28

5.5.2

Trailing Vortices

Points of interest
- This is a phenomenon generated at the tips of a wing.
- It originates from the fact that, as mentioned earlier, the
pressure below the aerofoil is greater than that above it.

- As a result, fluid is driven around the wing tips from

the lower to the upper surface.
- A pair of counter-rotating vortices is therefore
generated, behind the wing.
- This is a phenomenon that tends to reduce the
aerodynamic performance of a wing by:
- Reducing the difference between the upper and lower
pressures.
- Increasing the drag force on the wing.

29

EXAMPLE OF REAL WING-TIP VORTEX

PRESSURE AND FLOW COMPUTATIONS

30

EXAMPLE OF WING-TIP WINGLETS

i At this point students are advised to attempt:

- Quiz9 on Balckboard
- Tutorial 9

31

5.6 Turbulence
- It has been known for a long time that rapid flow tends
to be more complex than that of a slow moving liquid.

Rapid Water Flow in a Channel

Sketch of Water Flow in a Fountain by Leonardo

Da Vinci.

32

- As noted by Osborne
Reynolds, a professor of
engineering at Manchester
University, in the 1890s, while at
low velocities flow streamlines
remain steady, at high velocities
flow becomes unstable.

Osborne Reynolds

Osborne Reynolds Flow Visualisation Water Tank.

33

Osborne Reynolds Dye Injection Experiment

Computer Simulation
Flow Visualisation Experiment
Flow Development in a Boundary Layer.

- This is because at low velocities the viscous forces are

strong enough to dump any flow instabilities. This type of
flow is known as laminar flow.

34

- At higher velocities, the inertia of the fluid increases.

- Instabilities that occur cannot be damped by the viscous
forces. Instead they are amplified leading to an unstable
fluid motion known as turbulent motion.

- Turbulence enhances mixing between adjacent fluid

layers, leading to more uniform flow across boundary
layers and steeper velocity gradients at the walls.

- As a result, in turbulent boundary layers the wall shear

stress is greater than in laminar ones.
- In external flows this causes a higher rate of increase
in boundary layer thickness.
- In internal flows this leads to higher frictional losses in
static pressure.

35

- The steeper velocity profiles also increase the resistance

of boundary layers to flow separation

- This is sometimes made use of to reduce the size of

flow separation, and thus pressure drag. Golf balls and
aircraft wings are two obvious examples.
- Transition from laminar to turbulent flow is determined
by the ratio of the inertia to the viscous forces.
- This ratio, as shown earlier, is represented by the flow
Reynolds number, Re/ U.D / <.
- U and D are relevant velocity and length scales.
- In pipe and duct flows the flow is normally turbulent
at Re values greater than 2,000. For other flows this
value is different.

36

Consequences of Turbulence
- As explained earlier, in simple terms, turbulence
enhances the mixing of momentum and of other fluid
properties.
- The consequences of this can often be positive.
- The delay of flow separation is one such example.
Turbulence also
- Increases the rate of exchange of thermal energy
between a fluid and a solid surface. This is often exploited
in cooling and heating applications, through the
introduction of turbulence-generation features.

- Increases the speed of the

flame front through a premixed
air-fuel mixture.
Internal combustion engines
and gas-turbines are
consequently able to operate at
higher speeds and thus produce
more power.

37

5.7 Drag and Lift Calculation in Viscous External

Flows.

! In general a body immersed in a fluid stream can

experience :
- Drag
- Lift
- Moments
! A body symmetric about the direction of flow, would
only experience drag.

As shown in the dimensional analysis Section,

available information on forces acting on immersed
bodies is presented in dimensionless form

- Moreover, dimensional analysis shows that for each

geometry the dimensionless force coefficient CF, depends
on only the flow Reynolds number Re.
- Where CF / F/(0.5DU2A)

and

Re / DUL/:

- With A and L being a surface and a length characteristic

of the body.

! The consideration of specific applications helps to

further clarify the above concepts.

38

5.7.1
Drag Force
! In the case of a Flat Plate and also of other very
slender bodies parallel to the flow direction, the drag
force is generated by skin friction.
- The sheared area (in this case l.w) is therefore used for
the definition of the area a in the Drag Coefficient, CD.

Re = DU4L/:

S For Laminar Flow, Re < 5 X 105:

CD = 1.328 Re-1/2
- For Turbulent Flow, Re > 5 X 105:
CD = 0.031Re -1/7
Note that the above correlations provide the Drag
force on only one of the two sides of the plate. If
both sides are exposed to the flow stream then the
resultig answer needs to be multiplied by 2.

39

! In general, Drag is caused by :

- Skin Friction
- Pressure difference, mainly due to flow
separation behind the body.

- When there is flow separation, pressure drag is higher

than skin friction, unless the thickness of the body is less
than 20% of its length.
- The size of the separation region depends on the frontal
area of the body,
- CD is now defined in terms of the frontal area.

The value of CD depends on the width of the

separation region.

- By streamlining the shape of a body, the value of its

CD, can be reduced dramatically.

40

- As already discussed, another way to reduce drag is to

make the boundary layer is turbulent.
- As indicated earlier, turbulent
boundary layers are flatter.
- The wall shear stress is thus
higher
- For a given pressure gradient separation occurs later.

Use of Turbulence to Reduce Drag on a Golf Ball

41

5.7.2

Lift Force

The lift force is non-dimensionalised through the lift

coefficient, CL.

Ap = Chord x Span
- The drag coefficient for an aerofoil is also defined in terms
of the same area.

The dimensionless data included at the end of these

notes provide the values of drag and lift coefficients
for two- and three-dimensional bodies of various
shapes.

- The examples that follow show how this information

can be applied.

42

Example 1.
A low porosity parachute, such as
the one included in the list of
dimensionless data, has a 10 m
diameter and is to be used to drop a
load of 100 kg. Calculate its
terminal velocity. The air density
may be assumed to be 1.2 kg/m3.
Solution
Velocity V Constant
Acceleration = 0 Net Force = 0

Weight W = Drag Force FD

From Dimensionless Data CD=1.2
But CD = FD / (0.5 D A V2)
= FD / (0.5 D 0.25 B d2 V2)
= FD /(0.125D B d2 V2)

V2 = FD /(0.125 CD D B d2 )
= mg / (0.125 CD D B d2 )
V2 = 100 x 9.81/(0.125x1.2x1.2x3.142x102)m2
V = 4.2 m/s

43

Example 2
The flag pole shown in the
diagram is 10m tall and has a
diameter of 10 cm. As also
shown, it is exposed to a
horizontal wind stream, with
the speed U increasing
linearly with vertical height z,
according to the equation, U=
U4 (z/*). U4 = 40m/s and *=20 m.
Calculate:
a) the drag force exerted on the flag pole,
b) the moment that needs to be applied at point
a to keep the flag pole in place.
The density of air may be assumed to be 1.2 kg/m3 and the
drag coefficient of a cylinder in cross flow CD may be
assumed to be equal to 1.
Solution
L=10 m, d-0.1m, U = U4 (z/)), )=20 m & D=1.2 kg/m3
Comment: Because the velocity of the flow across the
flag pole varies over its length, we need to use integration
to calculate both the drag force and the aerodynamic
moment.
a)

Drag Force.

- Consider a small cylindrical element of thickness *z and

a height z from the ground.

44

- Area projected in the flow direction A = d.*z

- Drag Force Due to Cross Flow U, *F :

*F = CD 0.5 D A U2 = 0.5 D CD d *z [U4(z/)) ]2

= [0.5 D CD d U42/)2] z2 *z
- For the Total Drag Force Integrate *F from Z=0 to
Z=l
F = I0L*F = [0.5 D CD d U42/)2] I0L z2 *z
= [0.5 D CD d U42/)2] [z3/3]0L
F = D CD d U42L3/6)2
= [1.2 x 1 x 0.1 x 402 x 103 / (6x202)]N
F = 80 N
b) Moment
- Again consider a small cylindrical element of thickness
*z and a height z from the ground.
- Moment due to cross flow U, *M :

*M = z *F = CD 0.5 D A U2 . Z
= 0.5 D CD d *z [U4(z/)) ]2 . z
= [0.5 D CD d U42/)2] z3 *z
- To calculate the total moment integrate *M from z=0 to
z=L

45

M = I0L*M = [0.5 D CD d U42/)2] I0L z3 *z

= [0.5 D CD d U42/)2] [z4/4]0L
M = D CD d U42L4/8)2
= [1.2 x 1 x 0.1 x 402 x 104 / (8x202)]Nm
M = 600 Nm

n At this point students are advised to attempt:

- Quiz 10 on Blackboard
- Tutorial 10

46

Drag Coefficient CD against Reynolds number

47

Drag and Lift Coefficients against angle of incidence

48