1 THE FIVE WAYS

Aquinas

1.1 AQUINAS COSMOLOGICAL ARGUMENT

GOD:

FOR THE

EXISTENCE

OF

Part I. The Argument from Motion.

Thomas argues that since everything that moves is moved by another, there must
thereby exist an Unmoved Mover.

Part II. The Argument from Efficient Cause.

The sequence of causes which make up this universe must have a First Cause.

Part III. The Argument to Necessary Being.

Since all existent things depend upon other things for their existence, there must exist at
least one thing that is not dependent and so is a Necessary Being.

Part IV. The Argument from Gradation.

Since all existent things can be compared to such qualities as degrees of goodness, there
must exist something that is an Absolutely Good Being.

Part V. The Argument from Design.

The intricate design and order of existent things and natural processes imply that a Great
Designer exists.

2 THE ARGUMENT FROM DESIGN

Paley

2.1 PALEYS

ARGUMENT FOR

GODS

EXISTENCE:

A. In contrast to a stone, a watch has an obvious complexity indicating purpose and function
which, in turn, implies an intelligent creator.
B. Natural processes are even more so than a watch incredibly interwoven and intricately
contrived such that these processes also imply an intelligent creator.
C. Every manifestation of design in the watch, Paley says, is part of, and is surpassed by,
the works of nature.

2.2 ARGUMENT

FROM

ANALOGY:

The material universe resembles the intelligent productions of human beings in that it exhibits
P1
design.
The design in any human artifact is the effect of having been made by an intelligent being.

P2

Like effects have like causes.

P3

Therefore, the design in the material universe is the effect of having been made by an
intelligent creator.

3 EVIL AND OMNIPOTENCE

Mackie

3.1 THE PROBLEM

3.1.1
a.
b.
c.
d.

OF

EVIL:

All cannot be true:

God is omnipotent
God is omniscient
God is wholly good
Evil exists

1. If something is wholly good, it always eliminates as much evil as it can

2. If something is omnipotent, it can do anything.

3.1.2 Fallacious Solutions

1. Good cannot exist without evil, since evil is necessary as a counterpart to good
1.1.God is not omnipotent or omnipotence is limited
2. Evil is necessary as a means to good
2.1.God is bound by causal laws or bound by his own causal law
3. A universe with some evil is better than a universe with none
3.1.God is not concerned with minimizing evil
4. Evil is necessary for free will
4.1.God did not produce perfect beings

3.1.3 Paradox of Sovereignty:

Can a legal sovereign make a law restricting is own future legislative power?

4 THE ARGUMENT FROM EVIL

Inwagen
Problem:

The world contains vast amounts of truly horrendous evil, and claims that this would
not be the case if there were a God.
Solution:
1. Humans enjoyed the beatific vision and also possessed preternatural powers
which enabled them to protect themselves against natural evils
2. The fall of the original group of humans into sin led to the loss of both the beatific
vision and of the preternatural powers.
3. Humans became subject to destruction by the random forces of nature, and also to
an ever-worsening series of man-made evils in the horrific treatment of humans by
other humans.
4. God, in his love and mercy, put into operation a plan to rescue human beings
Issues:
If God is all knowing and all powerful, then he would not have necessarily needed to rescue
human beings in the first place. Even if humans were granted the power of freewill, which
allowed them to experience both good and evil, then why was it necessary for random acts
of evil to be a property of the universe? While Inwagen does comment on the issues of
Mackie and his generalization of freewill, Inwagen falls into the same shortcoming by
ignoring random acts of evil on animals. In order for Inwagens argument to work, Humans
must be the quintessential and unique creation of the universe above all other life that
uniquely exhibits evil. However, this is a desperate simplification.
Solution:
1. Horrors are an inevitable consequence of the separation of humans from God
Issues:
If evil is required for freewill and God provides beatific vision and preternatural powers that
enable humans to protect themselves against natural evils, then why did God produce
flawed humans? To keep humans from straying, freewill is preserved by not creating flawed
beings. While the option to do evil or to not love God is a natural free choice, only a flawed
being that does not see the utility or logic in loving God would choose to live without his
presence.

5 THE ETHICS OF BELIEF

Clifford

5.1 CONCLUSION:
1.
2.
3.
4.

No justified belief with insufficient evidence

Question all beliefs
Inquiry is necessary for mankind
No time to inquire: no time to believe

6 THE WAGER
Pascal

6.1 SUMMARY:
1. You should believe in God.
2. The chance that God exists is positive and finite.
3. If you believe in God and he exists, youll get an infinite reward. If you believe in
God and he doesnt exist, youll have only a finite loss.
3.1.[This may not be true, and even if it is true its not something that Pascal
has any right to claim.]
4. Believing in God has an infinite expected utility.
5. If you dont believe in God and he exists, youll either win nothing or else youll
lose something. If you dont believe in God and he doesnt exist, youll win only a
finite gain.
5.1.[This may not be true, and even if it is true its not something that Pascal
has any right to claim.]
6. Not believing in God has a finite gain or negative expected utility.
7. Believing in God has a much higher expected utility than not believing in God.
8. You should do that which has the higher expected utility.
8.1.[Maybe we shouldnt adopt beliefs on the basis of utility. And maybe its
impossible to do so, anyway.]