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Basic concepts
1.1.Thermodynamics as a science
Thermodynamics is a science based on phenomena which studies the matter from the point of
thermal motion; it studies the body properties and energy transfer among bodies,which are
produced by internal molecular motion. The matter is made of microscopic particle which
interacts and are in perpetual motion, known as thermal motion.Thermodynamics studies the
phenomena produced at microscopic level to groups of particles investigating their
macroscopic, measurable effects and establishes relations between measures which are
observable and measurable,such as volume,pressure,temperature,concentration of chemical
solutions.
Thermodynamics stands on two relations from kinetic molecular theory:
2 N mv 2
3V 2
3
mv 2
kT
2
2
23
In which k is Boltzmann constant k 1,38 .10 J / k
In other words pressure and temperatureare measures which features the group, the assembly of
molecules, not a given molecule.
The technical thermodynamicsstudies the processes of producing, transmitting and use of
energy in its form as heat and work, applying its own laws to heat engines and installations.
Thermodynamics operates with measures and concepts which define thermal
phenomenon.Examples of thermalphenomena are as follows:
Heat transfer between two bodies having different temperatures;
Phase changes of substances ;
Transformation of heat in work and reverse in heatengines.
Main notions are thermodynamic system, state, process.
The thermodynamic system is made of a body or an assembly of bodies having a finite number
of particles,which is limited fromsurroundings through a boundary surface and which interacts
energetically.The system changes substance (mass) or energy as heat or work with the
surroundings.
An insulated system is not influenced in any way by the surroundings. This means that no heat
or work or mass crosses the boundary of the system.
An adiabatic or thermal insulated system does not change heat with the surroundings. A
mechanical insulated system does not change work with the surroundings.
Some thermodynamic analysis involves a flow of mass into or out of a device. So, we can
discuss about open systems. If there is no mass flow, the system is closed. The terms closed
system and open system are used as the equivalent of the terms system (fixed mass) and control
volume (involving a flow of mass).
The surface of a control volume is referred to as a control surface. Mass, as well as heat and
work, can flow across the control surface.
Thus, a system is defined when dealing with a fixed quantity of mass and a control volume is
specified when an analysis is to be made that involves a flow of mass.
1.3.State. State parameters
The state may be identified or described by certain observable, macroscopic properties, like
temperature, pressure, density. Each of the properties of a substance in a given state has only
one definite value and these properties always have the same values for a given state, regardless
of how the substance arrived at that state.
A state property can be defined as any quantity that depends on the state of the system and is
independent of the path (prior history) by which the system arrived at the given state.
Conversely, the state is specified or described by its properties.
Thermodynamic properties can be divided into two general classes: intensive and extensive
properties. An intensive property is independent of mass; the value of an extensive property
varies directly with the mass. Pressure, temperature and density are examples of intensive
properties. Mass and volume are examples of extensive properties. Extensive properties per unit
mass, such as specific volume, become intensive properties.
We will refer not only to the properties of a substance, but also to the properties of a system.
Then we necessarily imply that the value of the property has significance for the entire system
and this implies what is called equilibrium. For example, if a gas is in thermal equilibrium, the
temperature will be the same throughout the entire system and we may speak of the temperature
as a property of the system. We may also consider mechanical equilibrium and this is related to
the pressure. A system is in mechanical equilibrium if there is no tendency for the pressure at
any point to change with time as long as the system is isolated from the surroundings. If the
chemical composition of a system does not change with time, that system is in chemical
equilibrium. It means, no chemical reactions occur.
When a system is in equilibrium as regards all possible changes of state, we may say that the
system is in thermodynamic equilibrium.
For fluids there are at least three macroscopic measures which are state parameters,usually
pressure, temperature and volume, called fundamental state parameters. The values of
parameters of state do not depend on previous history or path of the system, depend only on
instantaneous coordinates of the system.When a system passes from a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium to another one,the variation of a parameter of state will cause the variation of other
ones,showing a dependency between parameters of state, called state equation.
1.3.1.Specific volume
The specific volume of a substance is defined a s the ratio between volume V and mass m
being noted with v (m3/kg).
v
V
m
m3
kg
1 m3
kg
m3
V
V
Mv
m
n
kmol
M
The molar volume is the volume reported to number of kilomol of substances contained (nnumber of kilomol, M-molar mass).
The kilomol has two definitions :
- molar mass of a substance expressed in kilograms ( ex. 1 kmol de O2 = 32 kg as MO2 =
32kg/kmol) or
-a quantity of matter which contains inthe same conditions a number of molecules equal to
Avogadro number( 1 kmol = NA molecule = 6,023.1026 molecule).
1.3.2.Temperature
Although temperature is a property familiar to us , an exact definition of it is difficult.
From our experience we know that when a hot body and a cold body are brought into contact,
the hot body becomes cooler and the cold body becomes warmer. If these bodies remain in
contact for some time, they appear to have the same hotness or coldness.
Because of the difficulty in defining temperature, we define equality of temperature.
Consider two blocks of copper, one hot and the other cold, each one in contact with a mercury
in glass thermometer. If these two blocks are brought into thermal contact , the mercury
column of the thermometer in the hot block drops at first and in the cold block rises, but after a
period of time no further changes in height are observed. It is said that both bodies have the
same temperature when they reached the thermal equilibrium.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when two bodies have equality of temperature
with a third body, they in turn have equality of temperature with each other. It is based on the
transitivity of the thermal equilibrium. Two systems found in thermal equilibrium with a third
one are in thermal equilibrium between them (meaning that they have the same
temperature).Based on this property, a thermometer (or more general a thermometric body = a
body having a thermometric property) can compare different thermal equilibrium states of the
bodies.
Temperature represents a parameter of statewhich describes the heating state of a system, state
dependable on the molecular energy of every component.
Temperature is a physical fundamental measure and it can be determined measuring the
variation of a physical measure,generally called thermometrical measure, which is sensitive,
preferable as linear as possible, to temperature variation. For example when we measure the
temperature of our body with a mercury thermometer we measure in fact the expasion of the
mercury produced at the contact with the body,expansion quantified by the variation of height
of mercury column in the thermometer.Otherthermometric measures are variation of the length
of a metal rod, variation of the electric resistivity (thermometer is called thermo-resistance),
variation of the thermo-electromotor voltage (thermometer is called thermocouple), variation of
a gas in a constant volume enclosure ( gas thermometer), variation of light intensity of an
incandescence source (optic pyrometers).
Glass thermometer
Thermocouple
Thermoresistance
Gas thermometer
Pyrometer
For every type of thermometer it must be set a temperature measurement scale in such a
way that temperature measurement to be done through a simple reading. Fixing the temperature
scale is called calibration and it can be done bringing thermometer in thermal contact with a
body in a reproducible state ( ex. water in thermal equilibrium with vapours , water in thermal
equilibrium with ice, melting point of some metals). To those perfect reproducible states are
associated accurate values of temperature.
S2.
1.3.2.Temperature (continued)
tH=aLH+B.
For anyintermediatetemperaturebetweentC and tH ,called t, corresponds a
length L. Substituting a and B itisobtained for anyintermediatetemperature t
.
t=tC+ OB
OB/CE=OA/AE -Thales theorem
OB=(OAxCE)/AE=(L-Lc)(tH -tC) /(LH-LC)
t =tC+ (L-Lc)(tH -tC) /(LH-LC), based on interpolation formula and similarity
of triangles.
212 0F
373,15K
100 C
273,15K
0C
0K
-273,15 C
32 F
0
-460 F
Gas A
Gas B
-273,15
t (C )
pr
p
100% vac 100%
pa
pa
p=pa pr
in which it is considered the plus sign when relative pressure is an over
pressure called manometric pressure pr=pmand the minus sign when relative
pressure is a loss of pressure called vacuum pressure pr=pv.
Barometers measure absolute atmospheric pressure pbar.
In thermodynamic calculation, it is used the absolute pressure.
Unit
kgf/m2
bar
10-5
at
kgf/cm2
atm
0.102.10-
0.987.10-
torr
mm Hg
mm H2O
750.10-5
0.102
0.987
750
0.10.105
10-4
9.68.10-5
735.6.10-4
104
0.968
735.6
104
1.013
10.332
1.013
760
1.013.104
1.333.10-
13.6
13.6.10-4
1.32.10-3
13.6
10-4
9.68.10-5
735.6.10-4
1
N/m2=Pascal
0.102
1 bar
105
0.102.105
1.02
1 kgf/m2
9.81
9.81.10-5
1 at
1kgf/cm2
9.81.104
0.981
1 atm
1.013.105
1 torr
1mm Hg
133.3
1mmH2O
9.81
9.81.10-5
TN 273 .15 K or t N 00 C
m kg
V m3
mg N
V m3
or g .
1.4.Process measures. Work and heat
The thermodynamic process or state transformation is a physical
phenomenon in which the bodies exchange energy in form of heat and
mechanic work.As a consequence of energy variation the thermodynamic
system modifies its state of energetic balance meaning the modification of
thermodynamic state. A thermodynamic transformation means the passing of
a thermodynamic system from an initial equilibrium state to a final
equilibrium state,through continuous,successive, intermediate equilibrium
states. Any thermodynamic process is featured by specific measures called
process measures which depend on the path the system passes that mean
they depend on intermediate states of the system.The intermediate state can
be equilibrium states or not. Classification of thermodynamic processes can
be done after several criteria.
a. After relative variation of state parameters:
i
f
(a)
(b)
Cyclic processes when initial state is the same with final state;
Non cyclic processes (open), when initial state differs from final
state.
Work and heat are macroscopic formsof energy transfer between bodies
Work and heat do not feature the state of the system at a given moment (they
are not state parameters).Work and heat represent specific process measures.
Work and heat are not forms of energy, but forms of energy transfer.
1.4.1.Work
Let us consider a gas in a cylinder of an internal combustion engine which
expands and actuates upon the piston. Hitting the piston wall the molecules
modify axial components of the speeds; the variation of molecular energy
will transmit to piston as work,which is a ordered form of energy transfer
because it affects only one direction components of the molecular speeds.
Work sums at macroscopic level (piston motion) the effect of molecule
motions.
In mathematical calculations there are used three formulas for work. In
English literature the abbreviation of work is W,in Romanian one is L
(Lucrumechanic-Mechanic Work).
a) Work produced by state transformation (Boundary work)
It is considered an enclosure with gas at pressure p.Outside the enclosure
there is external pressure pe. In time interval dthe volume of gas is
increasing with dV. For an elementary surface dSfrom initial surface with
L p e dV
L1 2 L , never L2 L1 L
f.
p
i
pi
f
pe
V
Vi
Vf
L1 2 pdV
1
The work is equal to area under curve made with abscissa V.From graphic it
is noticed that transformation i-f or 1-2 can actuate also on other paths and
work of the transformation 1-2 could have different values according to
specific path (intermediate states ) on which the system works. In other
words in the transformation from state 1 to state 2, the work depends on the
path of the transformation.
b)Flow Work (work consumed to actuate a fluid)
Considering a pipe through which a fluid is flowing,if we imagine three
zones of the same lengthl at constant pressure p = constant.It is called work
consumed to actuate a volume of fluid V in an environment of constant
pressure p or flow work ,the product
Ld pSl pV
only tothe increase of energy of the fluid accumulated in the reservoir at the
end of the flow pipe.
One of the forms of energy applied to a fluid is enthalpy, I, being the sum
between U, internal energyand product pV.
enthalpy I U pV J .
c)Shaft work is the total mechanical work performed upon or consumed by a
heat engine taking into account both the thermodynamic processes of the
working agent in the engine and intake and exhaust processes into and
outside engine. It is considered the same source of working agent which
enters and leave the engine.
2
f
pe
V
Vi
Vf
1.4.2.Heat exchange
Heat is classified in sensible heat and latent heat. Sensible heat is related to changes
in temperature of a gas or object with no change in phase (I).Latent heat is related to
changes in phase between liquids, gases, and solids (II).
Heat is a form of macroscopic transfer of energy, generally produced between two
bodies with different temperatureswithout mechanical interactions.
What is called exchange of energy as heat at macroscopic scale is an exchange of
molecular kinetic energy at microscopic level.
When water is heated in a bowl by a flame, the amplitude of the molecule motion is
increased.The molecules of the fluid took the energy from the bowl, the water
temperature increases (sensible heat) and there is an exchange of kinetic energy from
gas to water. Heat is a disordered form of energy transfer the flame contains highly
activated molecules.
The heat exchange inan elementary process is expressed
Q mcdt
in which m mass of the body , c- real specific heat and dt- difference of
temperature.
2
t2
t2
t1
t1
Caloric capacity can be also defined as the physical quantity of heat absorbed by a
body in order to modify its temperature with 1 unit (1 grade). Unit of measure is J/K.
Specific heat is a physical property of the substances which depends on the
nature,phase of the body, temperature and for gases,on the nature of thermodynamic
process in which the heat transfer is done ( at constant pressure or at constant
volume). Specific heat or the caloric capacity of unit of mass is the physical measure
numerically equal to sensible heat quantity exchanged by unit of mass of a body with
the surroundings in order to modify its temperature with 1 unit. Between specific heat
c and caloric capacity C, there is the following relation: C = mc
Q J
c
mt kgK
Q mcdt
with m, the mass of the body expressed in kg, t is temperature variation of the
body, in degrees .
b) Specific heat reported to 1 kmol of substance (molar specific heat )
Q J
cM
k molK
n
Q nc dt
M
Q J
C N
VN t mN3 K
Q VN C N dt
with VN, volume expressed in normal state, t is temperature variation of the body .
A gas can be heated ( or cooled) in several ways, keeping some parameters constant.
A gas can be heated at constant volume or at constant pressure. Experiments showed
that the heat at constant pressure of the same amount of gas for the same difference of
temperature is higher than the heat at constant volume (of the same amount of gas
for the same difference of temperature). In other words a gas can have two specific
heats according to the nature of the process:
- Specific heat at constant pressure (marked with index p)
J
J
J
cp
; cM p kmolK ; C Np m 3 K
kgK
kmolK
kgK
mN K
For gases , cp and cv have different values (cp>cv) but to solid and liquid substances
the difference between values is very small and is neglected.
There are the following equivalent relations between the three types of specific heats
cM Mc 1kmol M kg
3
cM 22.414 C N l kmol 22.414 mN Avogadro
Specific heat of bodies increases with the increase of temperature the variation c=c(t)
can be done graphically or analytically.
Analytically c is made of a sum of polynomials which follow the form of graphic:
c a bt dt 2 et 2 ft 3 gt 3 .......
The specific heat values depend on the nature of substances and vary with
temperature;their values are measured and can be found in thermodynamic tables.
( http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/specific-heat-solids-d_154.html,http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/specificheat-fluids-d_151.html,http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/spesific-heat-capacity-gases-d_159.html)
Example Air properties
Temperature
(oC)
Density
(kg/m3)
-100
1.980
1.009
1.293
1.005
40
1.127
1.005
80
1.000
1.009
140
0.854
1.013
180
0.779
1.022
250
0.675
1.034
300
0.616
1.047
400
0.524
1.068
c p m c p tt 0 f t
cm c tt0 ct tm
or cm
t1 t2
2
,
m
This coefficient is defined as heat quantity required for changing the phase of the unit
of mass from a substance,at a constant temperature and pressure. The unit is
J/kg,being an intensive measure. For the same substance the latent heat of
vaporization is equal to latent heat of condensation and the latent heat of fusion is
equal to latent heat of solidification.
Questions
1. What studies thermodynamics ? Give examples of thermal phenomena.
2. What is a physic system?What is a thermodynamic system ?
3. What is an isolated system?
4. What is the difference between an open and a closed system ?
5. How do you express the state of a system ?
6. What is thermodynamic equilibrium ?
7. What are extensive parameters ? What are intensive parameters ?
8. How is classified pressure according to measurement method ?
9. What type of pressure is measured with manometers and vacuum-meters ?
10.What type of pressure is measured with barometer ?
11.What property is described by temperature?
12.What is a thermal measure (or quantity) ? Do you have some examples ?
13.Can be directly measured the temperature of a body ? Why ?
14.How do you enounce the zeroth law of thermodynamics?
15.What is a scale of temperature ?
16.How do you classify the scales of temperature and which are they?
17.Which are the relations between the origins and units of the scales ?
18.How was determined the lowest temperature and what is its meaning ?
19.How is defined the specific volume?
20.How is defined the molar volume ?How is defined the kilomole?
21.Which are normal physical gas state ?
22.How is defined the density ? How is defined the specific gravity ?
23.What are finite thermodynamic processes ?
24.What is the difference between quasi-static and non-static processes?
25.When a process is reversible ?When a process is irreversible ?
26.What is mechanic work ?
Joule's Heat Apparatus, 1845, Joule's apparatus for measuring the mechanical equivalent of heat
Further experiments and measurements by Joule led him to estimate the mechanical equivalent of
heat as 838 ftlbf of work to raise the temperature of a pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit.
He announced his results at a meeting of the chemical section of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science in Cork in 1843 and was met by silence.
Joule was undaunted and started to seek a purely mechanical demonstration of the conversion of
work into heat. By forcing water through a perforated cylinder, he was able to measure the slight
viscous heating of the fluid. He obtained a mechanical equivalent of 770 ftlbf/Btu (4.14 J/cal). The
fact that the values obtained both by electrical and purely mechanical means were in agreement to
at least one order of magnitude was, to Joule, compelling evidence of the reality of the
convertibility of work into heat.
Joule now tried a third route. He measured the heat generated against the work done in
compressing a gas. He obtained a mechanical equivalent of 823 ftlbf/Btu (4.43 J/cal). In 1845,
Joule read his paper On the mechanical equivalent of heat to the British Association meeting in
Cambridge. In this work, he reported his best-known experiment, involving the use of a falling
weight to spin a paddle-wheel in an insulated barrel of water, whose increased temperature he
measured. He now estimated a mechanical equivalent of 819 ftlbf/Btu (4.41 J/cal).
In 1850, Joule published a refined measurement of 772.692 ftlbf/Btu (4.159 J/cal), closer to
twentieth century estimates.
U U cin U pot
U cin U cintrasition U cin rotation U cin oscillatio n
Molecules of liquid and gas may have translation and rotation motions; in the
molecules the groups of atoms have oscilation motions.
For example, internal energy of a gas enclosed in a vessel is composed of : kynetic
energy of translation and rotation of gas molecules; potential energy of molecules
depending on molecular interaction forces; kinetic and potential energies
corresponding to atom oscilation within molecules;electron energy from atoms;
motion and interaction energy of particles which compose the nucleus of atoms.The
last two forms of energy are contained in intermolecular energy E0.
Internal energy U J , kcalis a state measure or quantity meaning that it depends only
by the state of the system. When a system passes from a state having U1internal
energy to another state having U2internal energy, no matter if the process is reversible
or not, variation U=U2-U1of internal energy does not depend on intermediate states
throgh which the system passed,it depends only on the initial and final states ( their
internal energies).Internal energy is an additive measure meaning that the internal
energy of a system is equal to the sum of energies of the components.The ratio of
internal energy to the mass od the system is called specific internal energy and is
noted with u.
m kg
U mu u J / kg
c) Oswald:
Perpetual motion machine of the first kind does not exist.A perpetual motion
machine of the first kind is a machine which produces more work L than equivalent
heat Q,thus meaning it produces energy from nothing; in this way,it violates the law
of conservation of energy.
In a thermodynamic process the variation of internal energy of the system equals the
sum of mechanic equivalents of all energy changes between the system and
surroundings.Any form of energy can be expressed through mechanical equivalent,J.
2.3. Mathematical formulation of first law for open systems
An open system is a thermodynamic system changing energy and mass with the
surroundings.
For a heat engine (a device that converts heat energy into mechanical energy or more
exactly a system which operates continuously and only heat and work may pass
across its boundaries) is expressed the energy balance of the system for period of
time, meaning the balance energy transfer forms and mechanical and thermal
energies.
Q 1-2
L t1-2
2
w1
Heat engine
h1
w2
h2
Reference plan
Fig.4.Scheme of energy changes in a heat engine
It is consider a heat engine from fig. 4 in which point 1 represents the intake of
thermal agent and point 2 represents the exhaust of thermal agent .The heat engine is
supplied by fuel which is burned releasing heat Q1-2; the heat engine produced shaft
work noted Lt1-2. The thermal agent in point 1 has pressure p1,temperature T1, specific
volume v1 , specific internal energy u1and specific enthalpy i1and it gets into the
engine withw1velocity level difference h1.
The thermal agent in point 2 has pressure p2, temperature T2, specific volume v2 ,
specific internal energy u2i specific enthalpy i2and it gets out engine
withw2velocity at a a level difference h2.
Masic balance equation written between points 1 and 2 indicates mass conservation
m1=m2= m .
Energy balance equation written on the control area between points 1 and 2 is:
E1 Ereceived E2 Ereleased
V1 mv 1 m 3
Ereleased Lt p2V2
V2 mv 2 m 3
Q1 2 J
q1 2
m kg
l Lt J
t m kg
Replacing in energy balancefor 1 kgof thermal agent passing through the engine
u2 u1
w22 w12
g h2 h1 p2v2 p1v1 q12 lt
2
J
kg
w22 w12
g h2 h1 q12 lt
2
In which i u pv
1) i2 i1
Diferentiating it is obtained
w2
g dh q12 lt
2
1) di d
J
kg
In which lt vdp
1
Relation 1)has a general character and can be applied in any open system having L
and Q as forms of energy transfer.The second equation is true for mechanical energy
transfers (pumps, etc.).
2.4.Mathematical formulation of first law for closed systems
A closed system is a system which do not change mass with the surroundings,for
example the gas from the cylinder of a piston engine.For equations (1) and (1) from
aforementioned chapter for open systems,considering intake and exhaust velocities
zero and the same value of reference levels.
w1 w2 0
h1 h2
u2 u1 p2 v2 p1v1 q12 lt
It is obtained
2
u 2 u1 q12 vdp d pv
1
1
2
vdp
4)
dU Q pdV
pentru m kg
dI Q Vdp
U
Q 1-2
L 1-2
A.For adiabatic processes Q12 0 the first law becomes a relation between U and
L.When system does not receive energy from exterior, meaning that is adiabatically
isolated, then it could perform work only on the variation of internal energy, Q=0
resultingL = -dU and in this situation work does not depend on intermediate states,
meaning that in this particular situation work is a total diferential (dL=-dU).
B. For isochoric processes (V = ct.) with variation of volume zero,work of the
isochoric transformation is zero Liz 0 and first law becomes a relation between U
and Q.If the system does not perform work upon exterior and exterior does not
perform work upon the system, the heat received by the system from exterior
determines an increase of its internal energy and L=pdV=0 and dQ = dU or
Q1-2 = U2 - U1 .
In the isochoric process the heat is a total differential.
C.When
Q12 0 the.agent .receives .heat
When agent receives heat and performs work, if these quantities are equal,internal
energy remains constant.
In other words when internal energy does not change during its interaction with
the environment, then system cannot perform work unless it receives energy from
exterior.For dU=0,it is obtainedL = Q or Q1-2 = L1-2.
2.5 Caloric equation of state
The quantities intenal energy U and enthalpyIare called caloric state quantities
reprezenting thermal forms of energy.
Rule The state of thermal equilibrium of a system is completely determined if are
known two intensive state parameters and masses mj of components of the system.
Intensive parameters are pressure, temperature,specific volume.
It is considered a monocomponent system (1 body ), having mass of 1 kgfor which
any state quantity can be expressed in function of two intensive parameters.
u f T , v
It is expressed:
.By differentiation
i f1 T , p
u
u
du T dT v dv
v
T
d i i dT i dp
p
T p
T
q v
cv dT
U f t , v
U
cv
T v
Similarly results :
i
cp
T p
u
du cv dT v dv
T
d i c dT i dp
p
p
U
dU mcv dT v dV
d I mc dT I dp
p
p
(Maxwell Boltzmann)
m molecule mass
N number of molecules in V
Out of the two relations, pV kNT , where k 1,38 .10 26 -the Boltzmann constant
For a constant mass of gas (N = constant)it results :
pV
constant - the ecuation of state for a hypotetical perfect gas.
T
In certain pressure and temperature conditions, gases in nature almost obey the
rigurousrelations for the hypotetical perfect gas: these generic conditions consist of
small and medium pressures and medium and high temperatures so states that are
far enough from the liquefying point.
Gases in the nature that are in such conditions can be considered perfect gases; the
simple laws established in XVII-XIXcenturies that are not rigurously correct were
determined by experiments on gaseous bodies in the nature, in pressure and
temperature conditions far away of liquid states, thus obtaining the laws of perfect
gases. The approximation of the simple laws of gases is sometimes under the errors
introduced by mathematical models of the phenomena.
3.1.Laws of the perfect gas
For a constant mass (kg) of perfect gas, these laws are as follows:
a) Thermal state equation
pV
ct or pV mRT
T
pV
pV
RT
mRT
1kg
mkg
nRM T
nkmol
RM T
1kmol
R is called the constant of the gas. Its value doesnt depend on its status, but only on
its nature and thermal properties.
For a kmol of gas, the state equation becomes:
pvM MRT
pVM RM T
independent of the natureof the gas and having a value that can be computed out of
the state equation of the gas in normal physical conditions.
R
101325 22.414
J
8314.4 J
and R M
8314.4
kg.K
TN
273.15
kmolK
M
M
3
m
N
T K ,
p 2 , V m 3 , v
m
kg
RM
p N VMN
J
m kg, nkmol R
kgK
then
V
constant
T
d) Charles law
When V constant then
p
constant
T
e) Avogadro law(1811)
At the same pressure p and temperature T, in equalvolumesthey are the same numbers
of molecules.
- numbers of molecules
U
U
0
0 (independence on p or V)
V
p
and
Consequences:
- general expressions of caloric state equations:
U
dU mc v dT
dV
V T
I
dI mc p dT dp
p T
We obtain the following expressions of the caloric state equations for perfect gases:
dU mcv dT
dI mc p dT
For 1 kg
du cv dT
di c p dT
and, integrated,
U 2 U 1 mcvm T2 T1
J
I 2 I 1 mc pm T2 T1
c Mp
c Mv
C Np
C Nv
cM Mc
c M 22 .414 C N
J
- Mayer relation
c p cv R
kgK
J
Mc p Mcv MR or cM p cM v RM
RM RM
kmolK
J
R
cv
cp
k 1 kgK
k
cv
c c R
c k R J
p v
p k 1 kgK
RM J
cMv k 1 kmolK
c k R J
Mp k 1 M kmolK
One can notice that specific heats of perfectgas can be determined as a function of
adiabatic exponent k and of the constants of the gas.
For the hypotetic perfect gas, specific heats areconsidered constant and k = constant.
Specific heats of gases considered as perfectcan vary with temperature.Experiments
show that, for these gases, kstaysconstant in large intervals of temperature. For first
approximation computation, the following values are adopted:
- for monoatomic gases (He),k = 1.66
- for biatomic gases(N2, O2, H2, CO),k = 1.4
- for polyatomic gases(CO2, SO2.),k = 1.33
The hypotetic perfect gaswith punctiform moleculesbehave like a monoatomic gas,
with c constant and k constant. For gases of the nature with two or more atoms in the
molecule, the degrees of freedom in molecules movement appear progressively with
the increase of temperature.
- for low temperatures only translation
- for medium temperatures (e.g. atmospheric temperature) translation + rotation
- for high temperaturestranslation + rotation+ oscillation.
The real gas is different from the ideal gas (whose internal energy depends only on
temperature), as the internal energy of the real gas dependsalso on volume, so
U = U(T) - for the ideal gas
U = U(T, V) - for the real gas
In ideal gases, molecules dont interract and internal energy consists only of the
kinetic energy of the molecules, that depends only on the temperature of the gas. The
internal energy of the real gasconsists of the kinetic energy and potentialenergy of the
molecules, due to their interraction the potentialenergy depends on the distance
between molecules, so, on the volume of the gas.
3.4. Mixtures of perfect gases
In most installations, the gaseous thermal agents are not pure gases, but mixtures of
gases.
Examples:
- the air is a mixture of gases, mainly N 2 O2
- exhaust gases consist of CO2 H 2 Ovap SO2 O2 N 2 CO.....
A mixture of perfect gases behave like a perfect gas:
pV mRT
Temperature of the components can be considered as equal with that of the mixture:
T A TB TC T
gB
mB
m
gC
mC
m
b) component gases are separated by imaginary walls, each having the same
pressure p and temperature Tas the mixture.
A A
A
A
A A A
B B
B B
B B
B B B
B
B
C C
C
C
C C
C
C
C C C
C
B B
The partial volumes of the components are different because the partial enclosures
are different.
The sum of the partial volumes of the components is equal to the volume of the
mixture.
VA VB VC V
- Amagat law
VA
V
rB
VB
V
rC
VC
V
i ri 1
n
mA
m
m
RA B RB C RC g A RA g B RB gC RC gi Ri
m
m
m
i
R constant of the mixture is equal to he sum of the gas constants of the components,
weighted with the mass fractions.
2.Specific mass of the mixture
m
(density)
V
i i
Density of a mixture is equal to the sum of gas densities weighted with the volume
fractions.
V Vi mi vi
g i vi
m
m
m
RT
in which vi i are specific volumes of the components.
p
v
i V R T R T M i
i
i
M
ri i in which
i
m p p M
V RT RM T
n
p
p
M ri
M i M ri M i
It results the equality
RM T
RM T
i
n
Molar mass of the mixture M equals the sum of molar masses of the components
weighted to volume fractions.
5.Partial pressures of the gas components
For component i it is expressed the equations of state which correspond to both
hypothesis of the mixtures which are considered to be equal:
piV mi Ri T
p Vi mi RiT
pi
Vi
p ri p
V
The partial pressure of a component is qual to the pressure of the mixture p weighted
with the volume fraction of the component ri.
For example, for air at atmospheric pressure considered close to 1 bar:
p N 2 0.79 bar
Qi mi ci dt
n
n
m
c i ci g i ci
i m
i
ri cMi
cM
CN
r C
i
Ni
mi
mi
m
mi
- In hypothesis b) pVi mi Ri T mi
RM
T
Mi
gi
gi
Vi M i
RM T
1
p
V
Vi M i
RM T
ri M i
r M
i
By definition : ri
ri
ri
Vi
V
i
V
Vi
RM T mi
p Mi 1
RM T mi m
p Mi
gi
Mi
gi
Mi
rO 21% gO 23%
Example for air:
2
rN 2 79% g N 2 77%
g O2
ro 2 M o 2
0.21x32
0.23
ro 2 M o 2 rN 2 M N 2 0.21x32 0.79 x 28
g N2
rN 2 M N 2
0.79 x 28
0.77
ro 2 M o 2 rN 2 M N 2 0.21x32 0.79 x 28
m1c1 m2 c2 m3c3
m c T
m c
i i i
i i
it results if V is constant
T2
T1
U 2 U1 mc v m T2 T1 Q12
I 2 I1 mc pm T2 T1
Heating
Cooling
p2
p1
1
V
Fig. 8. Plot of the isochoric transformation in p-V coordinates
As the p/Tratio stays constant with pressure increase, e.g. passing from state 1 to state
2 (p2>p1), the temperature would increase, (T2>T1) resulting a heating of the gas. If
the process inverts, from state 2 to state 1, the gas would cool as the pressure
decreases.
The physical model of a thermodynamic system undergoing such a transformation is
that of a fluid container with fixed exterior walls. Heating by an external source gives
an increase of the temperature and of the pressure in the container.
3.5.2.The isobarictransform
The isobaric transformis characterized by a constant pressure, p= constant ,
pV
cons tan t . It results, for p constant,
T
V
T
V
cons tan t (the equation of the transformation) and 2 2
V1 T1
T
L12 L
1
pdV p dV
L12 pV2 V1 J
Q12 Q mc p dT
1
Q1 2 mc pm T2 T1 J
For heating, Q 0 , L 0
For cooling, Q0 , L0
Modification of caloric state variables:
U 2 U 1 mc vm T2 T1 J
I 2 I 1 mc pm T2 T1 Q1 2
Heating
p
Cooling
V1
V2
L12 L
1
L12
pdV
V
dV
dV
ct
p1V1
p1V1 ln 2
V
V
V1
1
1
L12 p1V1 ln
V2
p
V
p
p1V1 ln 1 mRT ln 2 mRT ln 1
V1
p2
V1
p2
Q 0
dT 0
dI Q Vdp Q Lt Lt Vdp
and, using the caloric state equations for the perfect gas:
dU mcv dT
dI mc p dT
dU 0
or Q12 L12 J
Q L
V2
p
V
p
p1V1 ln 1 mRT ln 2 mRT ln 1
V1
p2
V1
p2
Expansion
p2
Compression
V1
V2
3.5.4.Adiabatic transformation
The adiabatic transformation is the thermodynamic transformation without any heat
exchange with the external environment Q 0 Q12 0
Parameters p, T, V are variable and the goal is to find their relationship under these
conditions
dU Q pdV
dI Q Vdp
dU mcv dT
Caloric equations of state:
dI mc p dT
1st principle:
c
Vdp
where p k
cv
pdV
k is the adiabaticexponent that represents the ratio of specific heats of a gas n the
isobaric respectively in the isochoric transformation.
Integrating the
dp
dV
k
0 equation gives
p
V
k 1
It results
0
T
V
dp k dV 0
p
V
that, after integration, gives the equation of the adiabatic transform with parametersT
and V:
TV k 1 cons tan t
T1V1k 1 T2V2k 1
ReplacingVgives
k 1
k
T p
cons tan t or 2 2
T1 p1
k 1
k
L12 L
1
pdV
1
L12
dV
ct k ct V k dV
V
1
1
ct
V2k 1 V1k 1
k 1
the constant is replaced with p2V2k and then with p1V1k .
L12
p1V1 p2V2
mRT1 T2 mRT1 T2
or L12
1
k 1
k 1
k 1 T1
k 1
p1V1 p2 k
L12
1
k 1 p1
The heat exchange of the adiabatic transform is Q 0 Q12 0 , that means that for
L12
U 2 U1 mcvm T2 T1
where L12 U1 U 2 J Lt I1 I 2
mc
T
T
2
1
pm
2
1
pV k cons tan t
Expansion
p2
Compression
V1
V2
First law
dU mcvdT
Q mc n dT
dI mc p dT
c c
c c
mc p dT mcn dT Vdp
Vdp
Ratio p n
is noted with n p n and is called
cv c n
pdV
cv c n
mcv dT mcn dT pdV
p1V1 p2V2
dp dV dT dp ndV
dT
dV
n 1
0
;
0
T
p
V
T
V
p V
TV n1 cons tan t
-equation of the transformation in T,V or T1V1n1 T2V2n1
T
n 1
p n
p
T
-equation of the transformation in T,p or 2 2
T1 p1
cons tan t
p1V1n
pV ct
2
L12 ct
p 2V2n
p 2V2 p1V1
dV
ct
n
n 1
n 1
ct
V
dV
2
1
n 1
n 1
Vn
1
1
n 1
n
or
p1V1 p 2V2
n 1
mRT1 T2 mRT1 T2
1
n 1
n 1 T1
n 1
p1V1 p 2 n
1
n 1 p1
L12
L12
L1 2
c p cn
cn
ncv c p
cu
cp
k
cv
cv c n
n 1
nk
Q mcn dT m
cv dT
n 1
nk
Q12 mcnm T2 T1 m
cvm T2 T1
n 1
It is usual to express Q12 in function of Lmec
dU Q L
dL
dU
mc dT
n 1 k 1
1
1 v
1
Q
Q
mc n dT
nk
nk
k n
k n
Q
L , iar Q12
L12
k 1
k 1
cn
nk
cv
n 1
I 2 I1 mc pm T2 T1
polytropic
2iz
2ad
2pol
V
p
2iz
2pol
2ad
V
Fig.12.Reprezentation of polytropic expansion and compression in coordinate p-V
Observations:
Giving particular values to n the simple transformations can be deduced from
polytropic transformation.
a) n 1
b) n k
c) n 0
nk
cv ciz
n 1
nk
pV n ct pV k ct
cn
cv cad 0
n 1
nk
pV n ct p ct izobar cn
cv c p kcv
n 1
pV n ct pV ct
cn
d) n pV n ct p n V ct V ct izocor c n c v
The specific heats for different polytropic transformation can be obtained according
to n values from diagram.
cn
cp
cv
0
1-1
2-2
3-3
4-4
5-5
6-6 between (4-4, 5-5)
7-7 between (5-5, 1-1)
8-8between (2-2, 3-3)
3
p
7
1
2
8
3
7
4
6
Fig.14. Polytropic curves in the hypothesis that pass through a given point.
Fromthe point of view of the heat exchange the adiabatic splits the p-Varea in two
zones in any transformation which starts from a point of the adiabatic and
undertakes upwards the adiabatic, in zone I, the heat exchange is positive.
2
5 3
4
I
II
5
3
4
- example: A4 A 1, A2, A5
In any transformation which starts from A and undertakes under adiabatic curve 3-3
(zone II) the heat exchange is negative.
II Q0
Questions
1.
2.
Course 6
Chapter 4. Second law of thermodynamics
4.1. Thermodynamic cycles
It is called thermodynamic cycle (or a cyclic thermodynamic process) aseries of
succesive thermodynamic processes (or transformations) which undertake in such a
way that at the end of last transformation the thermal agent is brought in the initial
state of the first transformation.
If it is considered the cycle 1A2B1,
p
A
Lc
Lc L
1
Lc
mec
)performed in the
L L
1 A2 B
1 A
2B
L L L
1 A 2
L2 B 1
- in transformation 1-A-2
- in transformation 2-B-1
dV 0 and
L pdV 0 L1A2 0
dV 0 and
L pdV 0 L2B1 0
L1 A2 area1A22 '1
L2 B1 area2B11'2'
p
A
Lc
Adiabate II
Adiabate I
1
1A
2B
Q Q Q
2
In which Q Q1A2 0
1A
The transformation 1A2begins on the first adiabate and undertakes upwards (beyond)
the adiabate.
2
Q Q
2 B1 0
2B
The transformation 2B1 begins on the second adiabate and undertakes downwards
(beneath) the adiabate.
It is noted heat amount received by the agent during the transformations of the
cycleQ, Q 0
It is noted heat amount released by the agent during the transformations of the cycle
Q0, Q0 0
Q Q Q0 or Q Q Q0 Lc Q Q0
In an work producing cycle performed by an ideal gas, only a part of the heat
received by the agent (Q) is transformed in work Lc, the rest of the heat being
released to the environment during the rest of the cycle transformations.
It is called thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle the expression :
t
Q Q0
Q0
Lc
t
1
Q
Q
Q
Reversibile process, in which the system passes from initial to final state
directly and reversely,exactly through the same points, on the same path.
In order to perform such a process, the external conditions should modify extremely
slow, so the system to adapt progresively to the new variations which gradually
appears;
First law represents the generalization of energy conservation law for thermal
processes and the second law was discovered during experimental research of heat
engines, and its content applies to other energy changes, not only of thermal
nature.The physicists noticed that heat engines cannot transform totally the absorbed
heat in work.The second law asserts the irreversibility of the natural processes
explaining terms of conversion of heat into work Q L and rounds the first law.
First law: Work turns into heat on the same equivalent ratio, meaning L Q and
Q L ,but it does not say anything about the possibility of reverse
transformation,emphasizing just the equivalence.
Second law says the possibility and the sense in which the processes are undertaken.
Work turns into heat L Q
spontaneously, integrally
(on its own-de la
sine).Heat turns into work Q L by means of a heat engine in which irreversible
processes take place and Q L transformation is partial.
The second law says that temperature differences between systems in contact with
each other tend to become equal and work can be produced from non-equilibrium
differences (temperature, pressure and density differences).For an isolated system all
parameters,particularly temperature will eventually have constant,uniform values. A
heat engine is a mechanical device that provides useful work from the difference in
temperature of two
Hot
source
bodies:
Heat
engine
Q0
Cold
sink
b. It cannot be reversed on the same path ( through the same intermediate states) a
process in which friction generated heat.(irreversibility of processes accompanied by
friction).
c.Clausius: A heat engine running continuously converting to work the heat
absorbed from a hot source without releasing heat to a cold source is impossible.
d. Kelvin:It is impossible to convert heat completely into work.
It is impossible to produce work in the surroundings using a cyclic process
connected to a single heat reservoir.
d.Oswald : Perpetual motion machine of the second kind is impossible.
Perpetual motion machine of the second kind is a machine which runs only with a hot
source.
e. The heat of a hot source cannot be converted into work without producing
changes to environment (heat release to environment ).
f.A thermodynamic system will naturally evoluate from the state with lower
thermodynamic probability to the state with higher thermodynamic probability.
Explanation : To understand the thermodynamic probability it is considered that N
molecules occupy a given volumeand it is surveyed the distribution of the molecules
in two halves of the volume.It is considered that at a given moment, N1 moleculesare
situated in left side and N2in right side.
N1
N2
N N1 N 2
Any change in molecules distribution will lead to a new state regarding system
distribution. A state is defined if it is in equilibrium and there are known some
characteristic quantities: mean kinetic molecular energy,mean potential molecular
energy, molecular distribution in the volume.
Molecules are continuously in motion,changing position and velocity.The distribution
of molecular velocities and positions ( coordinates)in the enclosure at a given
moment determine a micro-state of the system.As a result of a perpetual molecular
motion, the micro-states vary continuously.
At the equilibrium, the macroscopic properties of the system do not vary in time
even at molecular level the microstates change; this is possible because the
thermodynamic properties appear as an mean effect of the processes produced at
molecular level.
p
2 N mw 2 mw 2 3
kT
,
3V 2
2
2
that, in theory, at molecular level,are possible any kind of distribution (for example
N1 0 N 2 N ); flowing of a molecule from right to left or the change of position of
two molecules determine a new micro-state; applying the thermodynamic
probability,it is noticed that it is possible any distribution between N1and N2, but
every distribution has a different thermodynamic probability.
For a system made of N = 100 molecules,thermodynamic probability P resulted from
N distribution in N1and N2:
P
N!
N1 ! N 2 !
N1
0
10
20
30
40
45
50
N2
100
90
80
70
60
55
50
13
20
25
28
28
P
1
1,6.10
5,25.10
2,8.10
1,31.10
6,65.10
1,12.1029
All the experiments showed that at macroscopic level the molecules will distribute
uniformely N1 N 2 meaning that they reached the state with the highest
thermodynamic probability.
If it is measured in the two halves of the enclosure the pressure and temperature of
gas, at equilibrium, the values are equal.
Although at microscopic level are possible all the distributions, at macroscopic level
is evident the state which corresponds to maximum probability.
Second law says that the thermodynamic processes undergoes in the sense of
reaching the maximum thermodynamic probability.The content of second law is
connected to the microscopic interpretation, being a statistic law.
4.4 Carnot cycle
The most efficient cycle of transformation Q L is the cycle in which the agent gets
in contact to two heat sources; a heat source (thermostat) is a body with constant
temperature having infinite caloric capacity.The cycle is formed of two adiabates and
two isothermes:
1
Q
Lc
4
3
Q0
V
3-4 isothermal compression (T0 = ct), the agent released heat Q3 4 Q0 cold source
4 1 adiabatic compression Q41 0
The efficiency of Carnot cycle when the agent is an ideal gas is :
t
Q0
Lc Q Q0
in which Lc Q Q0
1
Q
Q
Q
For Carnot cycle when the agent is an ideal gas it can be written :
V2
V1
V
V4 V3
Q0 Q34 mRT 0 ln 4 in which
V3
V
Q0 mRT 0 ln 3
V4
V
mRT 0 ln 3
Q
V4
tc 1 0 1
V
Q
mRT ln 2
V1
V
V
But ln 3 ln 2 ,explained as follows :
V4
V1
Q Q1 2 mRT ln
- for 2-3
and
Q0 0 .
T2V2k 1 T3V3k 1
T2V2k 1 T0V3k 1
- for 4-1
T1V1k 1 T4V4k 1
TV1k 1 T0V4k 1
V
V
2 3
V1 V4
When the ratios of volumes are equal, also are their logarithms ratios so they can be
simplified. The expression of the efficiency is:
tc 1
T0
T
Postulate: The efficiency of Carnot cycle does not depend on the natureof the agent, it
depends only on the temperatures of heat sources.
It was established that tc
Q
Lc
T
1 0 1 0 for Carnot cycle.
Q
Q
T
Q0 T0
Q
T
Q Q0
Lc
4
Q0
Q0
. It is not of interest that heat is
Lc
Course 7.
Chapter 4. Second law of thermodynamics (continued)
4.5.Clausius integral . Entropy
It is considereda reversible thermodynamic cycle 1ab2cd1, which is intersected by
infinite number of adiabates in cycle area.
Q
p
a
b
2
1
d
Q0
Q0
T0
Q
T
Q0
0 for
T0
1
1 A2 B
Q
T
Q
T
Q
Q
0
T 2B T
1A
As
2B
Q
T
1B
Q
T
it results that
1A
Q
T
1B
Q
T
temperature does not depend on the path, having the same value for path A or B.
Q
to be a total
T
Q
dS - being the mathematical expression of second law,in which
T
J
s
is
Kkg
Q
.
T
Q
Q
dS
S 2 S1
,
T
T
1
1
1
dS
Q
T
Q 0
dS = 0and S = constant,or S 2 S1 .
The reversible, adiabatic transformation is called isentropic because entropy is
constant S ct
Observation: In all transformations above,
Q
is Clausius integral.
T
Q
T
dU pdV
dS
T
fundamental thermodynamics equations
dI
Vdp
dS
Some particular relations for ideal gas are replaced in fundamental equations.
dU mc v dT
dI mc p dT
It will result :
pV mRT
dS
dS
mcv dT mRdV
T
V
mc p dT
T
p mR
V
T
mRdp
p
S 2 S1 mc vm ln
S 2 S1 mc pm
Replacing
temperature
from
S 2 S1 mc vm ln
p2
V
mc pm ln 2
p1
V1
dS
and
integrating,
it
results:
a
dT
1
T
d
1
c dS
S [J/K]
For any simple transformation of ideal gas for which there were made representation
in p-V coordinates, it must be ploted graphics in T-S coordinates as it follows:
Isochoric transformation V = constant
dS
Q mcv dT
T
T
S 2 S1 mcv ln
T2
T1
v
A
S [J/K]
dS v ct m cv
NB
AB
mc v T (T-temperature scale)
tgv
T J
Q mc p dT
S 2 S1 mc p ln 2
T
T
T1 K
0
dS p ct m c p
AB T mc p (T-temperature scale )
2
T
[K]
N
1
p
A
S[J/K]
1 T
1 T
and tg p
m cv
m cp
If are plotted two curves of V = constant and p = constant in the same T- S diagram
the curves intersecting in point N will be distincted as follows the exponential with
higher slope is the isochore and the exponential with smaller slope is the isobar.
T
[K]
V=constant
p=constant
N
p
A
S [J/K]
tg v tg p as cv c p
k k 1
cv
Q
T
Q
Q 1
J
S 2 S1
Q 12
T
T 1
T K
1
Q12 L1 2 p1V1 ln
V2
p
V
p
p1V1 ln 1 mRT ln 2 mRT ln 1
V1
p2
V1
p2
It can be written :
S 2 S1
for T = constant
Q1 2
V
p
mR ln 2 mR ln 1
T
V1
p2
Expansion
Destindere
T
Compression
S2
S1
dS 0
S cons tan t
J
S1 S 2
K
- The adiabatic transformation which is also reversible is called isentropic (of constant
entropy).
T
Expansion
eree
Compression
marere
dS
Q mcn dT m
cv dT
T
n 1
T1
n 1
T1
2
Expansion
M
1
p
S
1 T
1 n 1 T
dT
tg p
dS pol m cn m n k cv
Q0
T0
Q Q0 Lciclu
A34 AB Q0 0
2)In T-S coordinates for ideal gas transformations the isochores ( isochoric curves)
are parralel among them,the isobars also, the polytropic curves with the same n are
parralel too.
4.8. Clausius integral and entropy variation in irreversible processes
There are considered two Carnot cycles working between two sourses of heat of
temperatures Tand T0.
Qrev
Qirev
Heat
engine II
Heat
engine I
Lcrev
Lcirev
Q0irev
Q0rev
Cold source, T0
t
irev
Lc rev
Qrev
Lc i rev
Qirev
Q0 rev
Qrev
Q0irev
Qirev
T0
T
Q0 irev
Q0irev T0
Q
irev
0
Qirev T
T
T0
resulting
-expression of Carnot
b
2
1
d
Q0
V
Q0
T0
Integrating all Carnot function for all elementary irreversible Carnot cycle having the
form abcd,
Q Q0
Q
Q
T T0 0 T 0 ,1A2 B1 T 0
B
2
V
Q
0
T
1A2 B
Q
0
T
Q
Q
0
T
T
rev
irev
1A
2B
Q
In which for reversible transformation
1
T rev
2B
Q
1B T rev 1B dS or
2
Q
1B T rev S 2 S1
2
T rev
1B
2
Q
Q
resulting ( S 2 S1 )0 or S 2 S1
T
T
1 A
1 A
2
dS
Q
irev mathematical formulation of the second
T
T1
I
Q
T2
II
Fig.31.Adiabatic system
If the first body has a higher temperature than the second one it releases heat towards
the second Q 1-2 T1 T2 Q12
In the system dS0 as th heat exchange at finite difference is an irreversible process.
For body I:the analysis of irreversible process is done replacing real proces with an
equivalent isothermal, reversible process.
S I
Q
Q0
T1
Analog S II
Q Q
S 0 as T1>T2
T1 T2
w1
w2
p1,T1,i1
p2 ,T2,i2
In order to find out the thermodynamic properties of laminar flow it is written the
first law for closed systems as energy balance.
i2 i1
w22 w12
g h2 h1 q12 lt
2
J
kg
Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
of
of
is
is
is
is
is