ASSIGNMENT 1

Climate Change: Mitigation

and
Adaptation
Infrastructure and Human
Settlements

MANSI NAGPAL
M.Sc. Resource Management
and Design Application
Environment Management &

Sustainable Development

INFRASTRUCTURE AND HUMAN SETTLEMENTS

CLIMATE CHANGE: MITIGATION AND ADAPTATONS

Climate Change is a serious global environmental concern. It is primarily caused by the

building up of Green House Gases (GHG) in the atmosphere. The global increases in carbon
dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land use change, while those of
methane and nitrous oxide are primarily due to agriculture. Global Warming is a specific
example of the broader term Climate Change and refers to the observed increase in the
average temperature of the air near earths surface and oceans in recent decades. Its effect
particularly on developing countries is adverse as their capacity and resources to deal with the
challenge is limited.
Climate Change Mitigation refers to efforts to reduce or prevent emission of greenhouse
gases. Mitigation can mean using new technologies and renewable energies, making older
equipment more energy efficient, or changing management practices or consumer behavior. It
can be as complex as a plan for a new city, or as a simple as improvements to a cook stove
design. Efforts underway around the world range from high-tech subway systems to bicycling
paths and walkways. Protecting natural carbon sinks like forests and oceans, or creating new
sinks through green agriculture are also elements of mitigation.
THE INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC)
The UNFCCC entered into force on 21 March 1994. The 195 countries that have ratified the
Convention are called Parties to the Convention. The UNFCCC is a Rio Convention,
adopted at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992.
The ultimate objective of the Convention is to stabilize Green House Gas concentrations "at a
level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human induced) interference with the
climate system." It states that "such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient
to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to Climate Change, to ensure that food production is
not threatened, and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.

The Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, which commits its Parties by setting internationally binding
emission reduction targets. Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible
for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150
years of industrial activity, the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under
the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities."

INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE (IPCC)

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is a specialised body jointly established by
the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological
Organisation mandated to prepare scientific assessments on various aspects of Climate
Change. The IPCC is currently engaged in the preparation of Fifth Assessment Report on
Climate Change through three working groups viz. Working Group I on Climate Change will
present the physical science basis; Working Group II on Climate Change deals with impacts,
adaptation and vulnerability; and Working Group III deals with assessment for mitigation of
Climate Change.
Human Settlements, Infrastructure and Spatial Planning, is contained in Working Group IIIs
volume on mitigation. Scattered throughout the two volume report of Working Group II,
Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability, are insights regarding the susceptibility of human
settlements to the consequences of climate change and their ability to plan for them and
become climate change resilient.
Its outcomes have been that the cities in developed countries have lower per capita energy
use and GHG emissions than the national average; that the key drivers of emissions are
density, land use mix, connectivity, and accessibility; and that key mitigation strategies
include co-locating high residential with high employment densities, achieving high land use
mixes, increasing accessibility and investing in public transit.
Cities and other human settlements are at the forefront of climate change. As large emitters of
GHG emissions, they significantly contribute to climate change. Simultaneously, due to their
concentration of population and infrastructure assets, cities are especially vulnerable to the
impacts of climate change. Infrastructure investments in the near future will determine the

emission paths of cities in the long-run. Hence, cities are a point where adaptation is
necessary and mitigation is possible, in a context of sustainable development.
The IPCC report also brings out the negative areas that needs to be taken care of for reducing
the GHG emissions and mitigating climate change impacts like there is little scientific
understanding of the magnitude of the emissions reduction from altering urban form and the
emissions savings from integrated infrastructure and land use planning; and, perhaps most
importantly that there is a lack of scientific understanding of how cities can prioritize
mitigation strategies, local actions, investments, and policy responses that are locally
relevant. The emissions are influenced by a variety of physical, economic and social factors,
development levels, and urbanization histories specific to each city.
MAJOR ISSUES
Human Settlements and Climate Change
1.

Urban population

The worlds urban population is 3.2 billion (48,6%) , 0.6 to 1.2 billion (10-23% of world
population) are estimated to live in near coastal regions. Most of the urban population
growth in small- to medium-sized urban areas Nearly all of the future urban population
growth in developing countries In many developing countries, infrastructure and urban
growth will be greatest, but technical capacities are limited, and governance, financial,
and economic institutional capacities are weak. Zoning and other land use laws can be
used to encourage compact, mixed-use, walkable development.
2. Urban emissions
Cities are major emitters of GHG emissions. The scale of emissions is in large parts
determined by the infrastructure and, in part, by the way it is used. The main sources
are direct emissions from energy generation from fossil fuels for (residential and nonresidential) buildings, vehicle use and industry as well as indirect emissions from the
generation of electricity for different purposes.
3.

Human settlements and climate change :

AR4 discusses the effects of sea-level rise on coastal settlements, physical
infrastructure and water supplies. The vulnerability of urban areas to sea level rise is
greatly increased when coinciding with increasingly frequent extreme weather events
such as storms causing coastal and river flooding .According to SRES,over 100

million people will be flooded annually (in case of an above 40cm rise).Further stress
is put upon cities by Urban Heat Island (UHI) effects or the loss of permafrost. These
impacts go beyond urban areas, since these areas mostly play a leading role in
regional and global economy. Climate change further has an impact on infrastructure
being common to all human settlements such as buildings, transportation networks,
water supply, wastewater infrastructure and energy facilities [IPCC Technical Report
VI].
Land use planning plays a significant role in local government activities to both mitigate
greenhouse gases (GHGs) and adapt to a changing climate. Many of the key strategies for
coping with climate change are linked to land use planning:

Growth of vehicle-related GHG emissions are influenced by transportation

infrastructure.

Compact development protects ecologically valuable open space and requires

less energy and materials to build and operate.

Reducing GHG emissions from deforestation requires policies to protect

woodlands and other valuable carbon sinks.

Land use planning is critical in enabling communities to adapt to sea level rise,
more frequent extreme weather conditions, and other climate-related hazards.

Smart growth is a term that covers a range of development and conservation strategies that
help protect the natural environment and make communities more attractive, economically
stronger, and more socially diverse. Land use planning is an essential part of any smart
growth strategy, and it is especially important when efforts to mitigate GHG emissions and
adapt to climate change are needed.
Integration of Land Use Planning and GHG Mitigation Efforts
The most effective GHG mitigation measures take place in the context of a broader effort to
systematically address some of the most prevalent sources of emissions. Smart growth
strategies play an important role in reducing a community's GHG emissions:

If neighborhoods designed to make walking, biking, and public transit safe and
convenient, many car trips could be avoided.

Studies of residential developments have found that high-density development

emits less than half as much GHG per capita as low-density development.

Governments wishing to integrate climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies into
their land use planning activities have tools at their disposal:

Zoning and other land use laws can be used to encourage compact, mixed-use,
walkable development.

Brownfield redevelopment activities can both preserve open space and minimize
additional infrastructure costs.

Offering smarter transportation choices can be a cost-effective way to reduce

emissions and minimize the costs associated with building additional roads.

Local governments are uniquely equipped to integrate climate strategies into land use
planning. Foremost, they have jurisdiction over land use and have a special understanding of
the spatial needs of the community. Local governments can integrate GHG mitigation
strategies into land use planning by engaging the public and specific city departments to
address multiple benefits, such as health and safety. Key departments that can support smart
growth initiatives include:

Housing

Public health

Public works

School boards

Transportation

USE OF ZONING TO PROTECT EVIRONMENT

Municipalities across the world are incorporating natural resource preservation principles into their zoning
ordinances. They are not doing so uniformly, but their collective progress is impressive. Some local
legislatures describe the protection of the natural environment as a specific purpose of zoning. Localities
may protect open space in zoning districts by adjusting applicable density, lot size, and setback restrictions.
For example, conservation zoning districts permit only private land uses that are compatible with the
natural environment, while agricultural zoning districts preserve agricultural land for farming purposes and
open space. Municipalities in several places have identified environmental protection as a purpose or goal
of their zoning regulations.

INFRASTRUCTURE
Emissions associated with the construction and maintenance of infrastructure, including
highways, streets, bridges, tunnels, water, sewers, and pipelines. Infrastructure is part of the
land management system because infrastructure construction and maintenance are
intrinsically linked with land management. Developing greenfields requires infrastructure to
connect newly developed land with existing development. Emissions from constructing new
infrastructure can be substantially avoided by land reuse.

BUILDING SECTOR AND HUMAN INHABITATION

Approximately one third of the worlds energy use takes place inside buildings. This has
earned the building sector the dubious honor of being the Earths biggest contributor to
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Whats more, the construction industry consumes more
than one third of the planets resources and generates huge quantities of solid waste. Clearly,
any attempt to improve resource efficiency must take buildings into account.
If todays building sector has an oversized ecological footprint, there is considerable hope for
reducing it in the green future. Improving energy efficiency in buildings through greener
construction methods and retrofitting existing structures can make an enormous difference in
reducing GHG emissions. Moreover, many of these improvements can be realized at a low
cost, using existing technologies. Green construction can also have a positive effect on
productivity, public health, and even employment.
Carbon reduction is a complex challenge for all organisations, not least those in the
construction industry. Taking a cradle-to-grave view of the construction sector value chain
means considering all aspects of the design, construction, use and demolition of buildings and

infrastructure, beyond simple occupancy itself. Any energy efficiency improvements in

building occupancy mean that the carbon emitted indirectly through the supply chain could
form an even larger proportion of that building's lifetime footprint.
This indirect, embodied carbon arises from the extraction of various raw materials, the energy
intensive processes associated with the manufacture and delivery of the building materials,
and the activities of a multitude of contractors

Selection of raw materials. The extraction, production and transportation of basic

construction materials are both energy- and carbon-intensive, so it is critical to select
suppliers of building products and materials who are actively working to manage their

own carbon impacts.

Investigate the origin of the raw materials. Natural stone, for example, produces
minimal emissions during the production process but the transportation from the
source to manufacturing site can be the largest cause of emissions, e.g. in transporting
from quarries in India. In such cases, managing the transportation process is crucial to
managing supply chain emissions. This contrasts with concrete where typically the
carbon emissions during production are much higher than those released during

transportation.
Construction phase emissions. Key factors contributing to construction process
emissions include the multiple, temporary sites, transportation, waste arising, and

heavy machinery which is common in large building projects.

Influence the occupancy and use of buildings and infrastructure. These 'downstream'
emissions are generated in the use phase but are greatly influenced by specifications
from architects, choices made by developers and clients, and from the way the
buildings are used by the people who ultimately work and live in them. The purpose
and design of a building also contributes to its embodied carbon. The people using it,
the use of lighting, heating, ventilation and air conditioning, and the proportions and
differing insulating properties of glass, metal, concrete, brick and wood can all have a

tangible impact on the carbon footprint.

Rainwater harvesting and grey water recycling facilities provide 100% of toilet water

use and reduce overall water consumption by 20%.

Use of Appliances and Devices includes emissions resulting from the electricity and
fuel used by washing clothes, cooking, refrigeration, and the use of office equipment,
computers, and other appliances, as well as the industrial emissions associated with
extracting and processing the associated fossil fuels. These can be taken care of by

good habits of an environment concerned individual and using energy efficient

lighting fixtures, CFC free appliances.

The Building HVAC and Lighting includes the emissions resulting from heating,
cooling, ventilation, and lighting residential and commercial buildings, as well as
industrial emissions associated with extracting and processing the associated fossil
fuels. Emissions from Building HVAC and Lighting are partially influenced by the
type of materials and construction used in buildings

CLIMATE CHANGE AND INDIA INITIATIVES

Indias emissions are estimated to be of the order of 1331.6 million tonnes of the carbon
dioxide equivalent Green House Gas (GHG) emissions in 2009. The emissions indicate an
annual growth of 4.2% from the levels in 1994. Whereas Indias CO2 emissions are only
about 4% of total global CO2 emissions and much less if the historical concentrations are
taken into account. Still India has been conscious of the global challenge of Climate Change.
In pursuance of the obligations cast on parties to the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC), India has undertaken to communicate information about the
implementation of the Convention, taking into account the common but differentiated
responsibilities and respective capabilities and their specific regional and national
development priorities, objectives and circumstances. The elements of information provided
in the communication include a national inventory of anthropogenic emissions by sources and
removals by sinks of all Green House Gases, a general description of steps taken to
implement the Convention including an assessment of impacts and vulnerability and any
other relevant information. India has submitted the Second National Communication
(NATCOM) to the UNFCCC in 2012. The first National Communication was submitted in
2004. As per the Second national Communication submitted by India to the UNFCCC, it is
projected that the annual mean surface air temperature rise by the end of the century ranges
from 3.5 c to 4.3 c whereas the sea level along the Indian coast has been rising at the rate of
about 1.3 mm/year on an average. These climate change projections are likely to impact
human health, agriculture, water resources, natural ecosystems, and biodiversity.10 Indias
strategy for addressing Climate Change is reflected in many of its social and economic
development programmes

1.
2.
3.
4.

National Environment Policy

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).
Prime Ministers Council on Climate Change
The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

The plan identifies eight core national missions

1. National Solar Mission
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
4. National Water Mission
5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
6. National Mission for a Green India
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change.
The NAPCC also describes other ongoing initiatives, including
(i)
Power Generation
(ii)
Renewable Energy
(iii)
Energy Efficiency
5. Parliamentary Forum on Global Warming and Climate Change

CASE STUDY: Private sector initiatives -actions on adaptation under

UNFCCC
Renewable Energy Building Resilience of Island Communities
Name of organization- Ankur Scientific Technologies Pvt. Ltd

Adaptation activity: Ankur Scientific Energy Technologies Pvt. Ltd., founded in India in
1986, manufactures biomass gasifier systems for large and small businesses, communities,
and individuals across Asia. Running on local biomass either rice husks or wood the
gasifiers are cleaner and cheaper than using liquid fuels. The payback period for companies
installing the gasifiers has been between five and twelve months. Among Ankurs
accomplishments is an installation that has provided electrification without interruption for
800 households on an island in Indias northern Sunderbans
With the success of this demonstration, policy-makers have now required the entire 10,000
km2 of the Sunder bans to be powered by biomass gasifiers and solar photovoltaic cells. By
using local resources, these gasifiers free their owners from dependence on liquid fuels,

which exhibit volatile prices especially when fuel supplies are cut off or limited because of
natural disasters.

COST-BENEFIT
For an area like the island in Sunderbans, electricity from a mainland source is both
expensive and at risk of being cut off during storms. Thus, local electrification makes the
community more self-sufficient, supports local development by providing consistent
electricity, and less vulnerable in the face of the storms that are likely to increase with climate
change.

REFERENCES
Adaptation

and

mitigation

options.

Retrieved

from

http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spms4.htm
Dhakal, S. (2014, July 1). Human Settlements and Climate Change Mitigation. Retrieved
from
http://www.adbi.org/files/2014.07.07.cpp.sess1.2.dhakal.human.settlements.climate.change.p
df
Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Guides EPA. (2014). Retrieved from
http://www.epa.gov/statelocalclimate/resources/strategy-guides.html
Concept paper for an IPCC Expert Meeting on Human Settlement, Water, Energy and
Transport Infrastructure Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies. (2014, January 1). Retrieved
from https://www.ipcc-wg2.gov/meetings/EMs/Proposal_Human_Settlements_EM.pdf