Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PRACTICES IN INDIA
By
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
HAMIRPUR (HP) - 177005, INDIA
November, 2014
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Index
Aim
Objectives
Research Methodology
Literature Review
Case studies
Conclusion
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1.1 Aim:
To find out suitable heating/cooling passive systems which can optimize indoor
temperatures for a certain climate in India w.r.t. Thermal Comfort.
1.2. Objectives:
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2. Literature review:
2.1 Energy
Energy is a property of objects, transferable among them via fundamental interactions,
which can be converted in form but not created or destroyed. The joule is the SI unit
of energy, based on the amount transferred to an object by the mechanical work of
moving it 1 meter against a force of 1 newton.
Work and heat are two categories of processes or mechanisms that can transfer a given
amount of energy. The second law of thermodynamics limits the amount of work that
can be performed by energy that is obtained via a heating processsome energy is
always lost as waste heat. The maximum amount that can go into work is called the
available energy. Systems such as machines and living things often require available
energy, not just any energy. Mechanical and other forms of energy can be transformed
in the other direction into thermal energy without such limitations.
2.2 Sectorial Energy demand in India (As per International Energy Agency)
Sectorial energy demand reflects the economic structure of a country. In 1990, the
building sector was Indias largest energy consumer, representing 42% of Indias total
primary energy demand (TPED).The share of buildings dropped to 29% in 2009 and
will decrease to about 18% in 2035. (Figure 1)
include energy resources derived from fossil fuels, waste products from fossil sources,
or waste products from inorganic sources. Renewable energy resources may be used
directly, or used to create other more convenient forms of energy. Most renewable
forms of energy, other than geothermal and tidal power, ultimately derive from solar
energy. Energy from biomass derives from plant material produced by photosynthesis
using the power of the sun. Wind energy derives from winds, which are generated by
the sun's uneven heating of the atmosphere. Hydropower depends on rain which again
depends on sunlight's power to evaporate water.
Waves
Architects can achieve energy efficiency in the buildings they design by studying the
macro and microclimate of the site , applying bioclimatic architecture principles to
combat the adverse conditions .A few common design elements that directly or
indirectly affect thermal comfort conditions and thereby the energy consumption in
the buildings are listed below:
Orientation
Landscaping
Location of water bodies
Ratio of built-form to open spaces
Plan form
Building envelope and fenestration
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External wall
Thermal insulation
Building material
Roof
Windows
Size
Orientation
Shading device
Natural ventilation
Daylight
a. External Walls: Mathur and Chand (2003) believe that thermal resistance of a
wall can be increased by introducing an air cavity. Similarly, Mallick (1996)
asserts that variation in wall thickness can make a considerable difference in
the comfort level of houses in tropical climates. The field measurements and
computational energy simulations to examine the effectiveness of passive
climate control methods such as facade construction in a typical 14 storey
residential building of Singapore by Wong and Li (2007) depict similar views
as of Mallick (1996). Wong and Li (2007) from their study concluded that the
use of thicker construction on east and west external walls can reduce the solar
radiation heat gain and hence, the cooling load can be reduced by 7%-10 %
when the thickness of external wall is doubled (229 mm concrete hollow block
instead of 114 mm concrete hollow block).
b. Thermal Insulation: Tham (1993) in his study of various energy conservation
strategies obtained results that do not encourage wall insulation. His study
concludes that by adding 50 mm of polystyrene as wall insulation, only 1.7 %
reduction in total energy use is achieved. He also suggests that if savings in
operation cost were compared to the cost of installation, wall insulation would
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not be economically feasible. This finding, yet again conflicts with the results
of Bolatturk (2008) and Cheung (2005).
c. Building Materials: Gut and Ackerknecht (1993) recommend using the
following building materials in tropical climates:
1. Burnt clay bricks can be used in tropical climates because they have good
thermal resistance and good regulating property against humidity.
2. Timber has good thermal resistance and is a good regulator of humidity.
3. Matting of bamboo, grass and leaves are good because they are not airtight
and allow proper ventilation.
Embodied Energy is the sum of all the energy required to produce any goods
or services, considered as if that energy was incorporated or 'embodied' in the
product itself. Low embodied energy construction is preferred which can be
done by using:
Local/regional Materials (within 500km range as per GRIHA)
Recycled Materials/ construction waste
Low energy materials
Rapidly renewable materials
d. Roof: The roof is an important element of design when it comes to conserving
energy because this part of the building receives most of the solar radiation and
its shading is not easy. Vijay Kumar et al. (2007) claim that Indian concrete
roofs in single or two storey buildings with 150 mm thickness of reinforced
cement concrete (RCC) and a weathering course (WC) having 75100 mm
thick lime brick mortar, account for about 50%- 70% of total heat transmitted
into the occupant zone and are responsible for the major portion of electricity
bill in air-conditioned buildings. Naharand Sharma in Tang and Etzion (2004),
Vijay Kumar et al. (2007) and Alvarado and Martinez (2008) conclude that the
heat entering into the building structure through roof is the major cause for
discomfort in case of non-air-conditioned building or the major load for the
air-conditioned building.
Alvarado and Martinez (2008) studied the impact of a simple and passive
cooling system in reducing thermal loads of one- storied roofs. Their results
demonstrate that the aluminum polyurethane insulation system with an
optimal orientation reduces the midpoint temperature of a cement-based roof
significantly. The results also exhibit that the roof insulation system can reduce
the typical thermal load by over 70% while effectively controlling thermal
fluctuations.
e. Windows:
e.1. Size: Openings are important design elements for admitting daylight, air
flow, providing cross ventilation and views. Gut and Ackerknecht (1993)
recommend that windows should be large and fully openable, with inlets of a
similar size on opposite walls for proper cross-ventilation in tropical climates.
Liping et al. (2007) claim that ventilation and indoor air quality can be
improved by increasing the window to wall ratios (WWR), but it would also
increase solar heat gain. There has always been a conflict with daylight
provision and exclusion of solar penetration in designing windows.
e.2. Orientation: Gut and Ackerknecht (1993) note that openings in hot and
humid regions should be placed according to the prevailing breeze so that air
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can flow through the internal space. However, this is difficult to achieve in
multi-unit housing.
e.3. Shading Device: Cheung et al. (2005) studied the effects of shading
devices (overhangs and wing walls) along with five other passive design
strategies on the cooling load for an apartment. The length of the overhang and
wing wall were 1.5 meters each. Their results suggest that the longer the
shading, the greater the reductions in both annual required cooling energy and
peak cooling load. They concluded that the use of such shadings, achieved
savings of approximately 5% in annual required cooling energy. However,
according to Mowla (1985), the length of shading devices depends on the
orientations, width of the opening, height of the openings, horizontal shadow
angle (characterizes a vertical shading device) and vertical shadow angle
(characterizes a horizontal shading device). Hence, it is not reasonable to
conclude that shading devices should have arbitrary lengths in general for all
orientations.
Wong and Li (2007) used horizontal shading devices of lengths 0.3m, 0.6m
and 0.9 m on both east and west facades of 14-storied building to study the
effect on cooling load. Their results show that 3%, 7% and 10% energy can be
saved by using 0.3 m, 0.6 m and 0.9 m respectively on east facades of the
studied building. Similarly, 3%, 6% and 9% energy can be saved by using 0.3
m, 0.6 m and 0.9 m respectively on west facades of the studied building. This
study by Wong and Li (2007) considers east and west orientations but does not
consider other parameters such as width of the opening, height of the openings,
horizontal shadow angle and vertical shadow angle.
e.4. Natural ventilation: Ventilation is the movement of air. According to
Watson & Labs (1983), ventilation has three useful functions in the building
sector. It is used to:
1. Satisfy the fresh air needs of the occupants
2. Increase the rate of evaporative and sensible heat loss from the body
3. Cool the building interior by an exchange of warm indoor air by cooler
outdoor air.
Watson & Labs, 1983 explain that natural ventilation can be generated by the
following two forces:
1. Temperature difference between the outdoors and the indoors (thermal
force). When a mass of air inside the room is heated, it expands and becomes
less dense and rises. If openings are provided at different heights on the
buildings envelope, the indoor pressure is higher at the upper opening and
lower at the lower opening. These pressure differences generate an inward
flow at the lower opening and an outward flow at the upper one. When thermal
forces discharge air from a building, the action is termed as stack effect.
2. Wind flow against the building (wind pressure force). As wind blows against
a building, the air in front of the building is compressed and creates a pressure
zone. The air next to the leeward wall and above the roof expands and the
pressure is reduced, creating a suction zone. These pressure differences
between any two points on the buildings envelope determine the possibility
for ventilation when openings are provided at these points (driving force) and
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if air can flow inside the building through openings with the higher pressure to
openings exposed to a zone with lower pressure. Cross- ventilation is defined
as the situation in which outdoor air can flow in through inlet openings,
located in the pressure zone, and flow out via outlet openings located in the
suction sections of the building
Guidelines for inducement of air motion for providing cross-ventilation as
recommended by various authors are compiled as follows:
There should be windows on opposite walls: one window should be on
windward wall and the other on leeward wall (Mathur & Chand, 2003).
However, as residential buildings in India are compact and not outward
oriented, all rooms do not have windows in opposite walls. In such cases, two
windows may be designed instead of a single window. Another possibility
might include a door on the opposite facade of a wall with the window to
promote cross-ventilation. However, it would not be as effective as having
two windows on opposite walls.
Windows located diagonally opposite to each other, with the windward
window near the upstream corner, perform better than other window
arrangements (Mathur & Chand, 2003). In typical residential buildings of
India, not all rooms are provided with windows on opposite. Even if they are,
as rooms are not very large (about 10 square metres) windows are placed in
the center of the facade because placement of furniture depends on window
location.
Horizontal louvers like sunshades, over a window deflect the incident wind
upward and cause a reduction in air motion in the zone of occupancy .A
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horizontal slot between the wall and horizontal louver prevents upward
deflection of air and ensures a downward flow (Mathur & Chand, 2003).
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Roof overhangs help air motion in the working zone inside buildings (Watson
& Labs, 1983). However, this is only possible on the top most storey.
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Wall projections such as fin, wing wall can be used to direct wind flow into
particular areas. (Watson & Labs, 1983). Compared to roof overhangs, fins
seem to be more effective because they direct air flow in all floors. However,
they might not always be easy to plan.
Figure 10. Wing wall outside window, Source: Watson, D. & Labs, K. 1983.
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Figure 11. Air-damming action of parapet , Source: Watson, D. & Labs, K. 1983.
http://web.utk.edu/~archinfo/Zero_Energy/images/SmartLab/dayl
ighting.jpg
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In this system sunlight enters in the rooms through windows, warming the
interior space.
The glazing system generally located on the southern side to receive maximum
sunlight
During winter.
The glazing system is usually double glazed with insulating curtains to reduce
heat loss during night.
South facing glass admits solar energy into the building , wee it strikes
thermal storage
Materials such as floors or walls made of adobe, brick, concrete, stone, or
water.
The direct gain system uses 60%-70% of solar energy striking the windows.
In this system thermal mass is located between the sun and the living space
The thermal mass absorbs the sunlight that strikes it and transfers it to be
living space.
The indirect gain system uses 30-40% of the suns energy striking the glass
adjoining the thermal mass.
1. Trombe Wall
A trombe wall is thermally massive wall with vents provided at the top and
bottom
The outer surface of the wall is usually painted black for maximizing
absorption and the wall is placed behind glazing with the air gap in between.
The total area of the each row of vent is about 1% of the storage wall
area(Source: Levy , Evans, and Gardstein 1983)
Water Wall are based on the same principle as that for Trombe wall, except
that they employ water as the thermal storage material.
Heat Transfer through water walls is much faster than that for trombe walls.
In this technique, incident solar radiation is trapped by the roof and is used for
heating Interior spaces.
The system usually consists of an inclined south facing glazing and a north
sloping insulated surface on the roof.
Between the roof and the insulation, an air pocket is formed which is heated by
the solar radiation
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Passive cooling systems are least expensive means of cooling a home which
maximizes the efficiency of the building envelope without any use of
mechanical devices.
It rely on natural heat-sinks to remove heat from the building. They derive
cooling directly from evaporation, convection, and radiation without using any
intermediate electrical devices.
All passive cooling strategies rely on daily changes in temperature and relative
humidity.
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Figure 16.Various Design strategies of passive cooling for different comfort variables
a. Passive Ventilation
Outdoor breezes create air movement through the house interior by the 'pushpull' effect of positive air pressure on the windward side and negative pressure
(suction) on the leeward side.
Also, designers often choose to enhance natural ventilation using tall spaces
called stacks in buildings
With openings near the top of stacks, warm air can escape whereas cooler air
enters the building from openings near the ground.
The windows, play a dominant role in inducing indoor ventilation due to wind
forces.
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With the design of high ceilings throughout the breeze zone combined with
clerestory windows at the 14 ceiling height on three walls, the rising hot air is
allowed to escape which in turn does two things.
Firstly the rising air creates a low pressure zone on the cool mass floor, pulling
air along the floor from other areas of the house as well as any open doors.
Secondly the rising and escaping air creates an interior low pressure that
should pull in large volumes or exterior air from the patio doors.
Depending on the primary wind direction and which doors are opened relative
to time of day and shade, we can create a breeze of cooler incoming air.
b. Shading:
Extend the overhang beyond the sides of the window to prevent solar gain
from the side.
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Use slatted or louvered shades to allow more daylight to enter, while shading
windows from direct sunlight.
Wind tower in
Jodhpur Hostel to
catch favorable cool
wind from southwest for passive
cooling
After a whole day of air exchanges, the tower becomes warm in the evenings.
During the night, cooler ambient air comes in contact with the bottom of the
tower through the rooms.
Warm air moves up, creating an upward draft, and draws cool night air
through the doors and windows into the building.
The system works effectively in hot and dry climates where fluctuations are
high.
A wind tower works well for individual units not for multistoried apartments.
In dense urban areas, the wind tower has to be long enough to be able to catch
enough air.
d. Courtyard Effect:
Due to incident solar radiation in a courtyard, the air gets warmer and rises.
Cool air from the ground level flows through the louvered openings of rooms
surrounding a courtyard, thus producing air flow.
At night, the warm roof surfaces get cooled by convection and radiation.
If this heat exchange reduces roof surface temperature to wet bulb temperature
of air, condensation of atmospheric moisture occurs on the roof and the gain
due to condensation limits further cooling.
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If the roof surfaces are sloped towards the internal courtyard, the
cooled air sinks into the court and enters the living space through
low-level openings, gets warmed up, and leaves the room through
higher-level openings.
Daily and annual temperature fluctuations decrease with the increase in depth
below the ground surface.
Therefore, the ambient air ventilated through this tunnel will get cooled in
summer and warmed in winter and this air can be used for cooling in summer
and heating in winter.
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Each room in the south block has a 'solar chimney; warm air rises and escapes
through the chimney, which creates an air current for the cooler air from the
underground tunnels to replace the warm air.
The same mechanism supplies warm air from the tunnel during winter.
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f. Evaporative cooling:
It is effective in hot and dry climate where the atmospheric humidity is low.
Increase in contact between water and air increases the rate of evaporation.
The presence of a water body such as a pond, lake, and sea near the building or
a fountain in a courtyard can provide a cooling effect.
The most commonly used system is a desert cooler, which comprises water,
evaporative pads, a fan, and pump.
A TYPICAL SECTION SHOWING PASSIVE SOLAR FEATURES OF
WALMI BUILDING,BHOPAL
In this system, wind catchers guide outside air over water-filled pots, inducing
evaporation and causing a significant drop in temperature before the air enters
the interior.
Such wind catchers become primary elements of the architectural form also.
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i. Roof sprays
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2.9.
ECBC 2007
Building Form
2.10.
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2.12
Cold
and
Cloudy
Cold
and
Sunny
Composit
e
Hot
and
dry
Moderat
e
Warm
and
Humid
Building
Orientation
Form and
Shape
Roof Spray
Earth
Sheltering
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Passive
down
draught
cooling
Evaporativ
e Cooling
Earth Air
Tunnels
Courtyard
Effect
Wind
Tower
Shading
Natural
Ventilation
Trombe
Wall/Water
wall
Roof
Collectors
Sunspaces
3. CASE STUDIES
3.1. INSPECTOR GENERAL OF POLICE (IGP) COMPLEX, GULBARGA
Location: Gulbarga, Karnataka
cooling (PDEC) tower system. Figure 30 shows a photograph of the building as well
as a sketch section of a typical PDEC tower to explain its principle.
Energy conscious features:
- Passive downdraft evaporative cooling (PDEC) towers for providing comfort
- Tinted glasses to reduce glare
- Alternative building materials such as composite walls to reduce heat gain and filler
slabs to reduce the quantity of concrete in the structure
- A central atrium to enhance cross ventilation and provide day lighting
- Solar PV lighting and pumps, rainfall harvesting and water conservation facilities
Incorporated
May. Considering that the PDEC system is used in these months, the predictions of the
energy savings of the building per annum, as compared to an air-conditioned building
maintained at 27.5 C, are as follows:
Estimated Cost of PDEC system = Rs. 17,50,000
Estimated savings per annum = Rs. 3,52,000
Simple payback period = 5 years (approximately)
Figure 18. Photographs of IGP Complex, Gulbarga and sketch showing the principle
of a PDEC tower
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Figure 19. Monthly prediction of the temperature of air exiting the PDEC tower
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Climate: Moderate
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- Two end rooms on the south side are provided with double glazed, vented
trombe walls for heating.
Performance of the building:
Figure 41 gives the measured temperature data, namely, the maxima and minima for
the Trombe wall room, green house, a room without solar heating (control room) and
ambient temperature. It is seen that in winter months, the maximum and minimum
temperature can be appreciably higher than both the ambient temperature as well as
the room without solar heating (control room).
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4. Conclusion:
After analyzing the available passive design strategies and case studies it has been
found that temperature difference of 10-25 c can be optimized in the indoor
environment by applying the passive design features. Beside the thermal mass of the
building, orientation and building shape also have serious impact on the indoor
environment. The solar passive design options should be used to create energy
efficient thermal comfort in the building interiors .Although analytical analysis and
practical implementation both have already been done by various professionals but
more research is needed for the perfect solar passive building design features in the
composite climate as it comprises of various seasonal varieties and related challenges.
References:
1. Dr Anupama Sharma, KK Dhote,R Tiwari , Climatic Responsive Energy Efficient
Passive Techniques in Buildings
2. Norbert Lechner Heating, Cooling, Lighting 4th Edition
3.Passive Cooling , Research and Design, AIA , fall 1979, volume 2 , number 3
4. Energy Efficient Buildings in India , TERI
5. Enegy Conservation Building Code 2007
6. Census of India 2011
7. Koenigsberger, et al. .Manual of Tropical Housing and Building (Part I) : Climatic
Design.. Part I, Longman Press, India, 1975.
8. V Gupta. .Energy Conservation Indian Myths and Realities.. Architecture Design,
vol 9, no 3, May-June, 1992.
9. A Krishan and M R Agnihotri. .Bio-Climatic Architecture: a Fundamental Approach
to Design.. Architecture Design, vol 9, no 3, May-June, 1992.
10. S Prakash. .Energy Conscious Architecture: an Endless Quest.. Architecture
Design, vol 9, no 3, May-June, 1992.
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