Han Dynasty

206BC-220AD
Chinese
interested in establishing political and commercial relationship with the
outside world through diplomatic missions and official and non-official trade
(Zhang Qian)
Export: silk and gold
Import: spices, woolen fabrics, horses, precious gems, and unfortunately
smallpox

Zhang Qian:

Imperial envoy to the world outside China during 2nd century BCE
explored central Asia

Tang Dynasty

618-907AD
Mongo-turco
ambivalent attitude towards foreigners: fascinated by what strangers brought
(merchandize and culture) but do not trust them
expansion and shift from land to sea (ceramics)
Export: tea, ceramics
Import: exotic merchandizes; new foods; foreigners; foreign entertainment;
knowledge

Song Dynasty

962-1276AD
Chinese
Song authorities promote international trade as a source of revenue but
restrict the outward flow of hard currency
leading position on the sea
export: silk fabrics and threads, metals, ceramic wares, tea
import: horses and fur, sulfur, spices, ivory, rhinoceros horns, glassware,
pearls, coral

Yuan Dynasty

1271-1368AD
a part of Mongol empire
inhibited commercial exchanges to monopolize international trade and gain
vast profits; encouraged religious diversity to counter Confucianism
Islam in Xinjiang
export: printing technology

import: science and technology dominated by the Arabs (Persians and Central
Asians)

Ming Dynasty

1368-1644AD
last Chinese dynasty
encourage overseas trade as a source of revenue
Zhenghe's expeditions (to showcase Ming's power and establish diplomatic
relations)
Export: silk, embroidery and find e ceramics; educational materials
Import: spices

Tribute system: foreigners

ruler or representative goes to China to pay homage

send significant hostages
gifts
do not necessarily recognize the superiority of China; just a way to peacefully
acquire desired Chinese merchandise without stealing them from border raid.

Tributary system: China

guarantee the other country's security

bestow gifts
major mechanism for official state-to-state relations for Chinese Dynasties
diplomatic system, a lot of activities outside diplomatic relations
main elements of it came into being during Han

How the Ming governed the Han

90 percent of the population

Adopt Ming system
Forced changes: queue (loyalty) and ban foot binding
Balanced high level officials
Policies of segregation (no emigration, no intermarriage)

How the Ming governed the Mongols

Qing authorities understood Mongols very well

Mongol banners
Trusted
Sought religious guidance from Tibet

Tibetans

Patronage of Lamas

Tibet recognized Qing as protector

Manchus

8 banners: forced Manchus to work across different clans

Manchuria: preserved for Manchus; off-limits to other ethnic groups
Greatly outnumbered by Han: 1/250

Xinjiang

Not a historically unified region

Two part alongside the Tian mountains: Dzungaria in the north and Tarim in
the south
3 campaigns in Eastern Turkestan by Emperor Qianlong: not to expand
territory but to put an end to instability to the area

The First Opium War (1840-1842)

The British East India Company was trying to find something to sell to the
Chinese, because they were losing millions of silver off imports every year
from their tea addiction, which could be bought by people from different
classes and there was no domestic competition. To solve this, they started
exporting opium to China which got addicted. Imperialism is addicted to
expanding to new market due to industrialization. (Britain was producing
products at lower prices and higher efficiencies so they needed to find a new
market: China)
In 1793 the BEIC send Lord George MaCartney to China in hopes to expand
trading privileges, open up more trading ports, and to establish diplomatic
residence. The controversy with this was whether MaCartney should kowtow
in from of Emperor Qianlong. As a result of this, the request was refused
therefore no change in policy was made.
One of the biggest problems of the Qing dynasty was that they were losing
money to the massive smuggling business. They debated whether or not to
legalize it because of the massive tax revenue that could be generated, but
eventually it was not legalized due to fears that existing problems would be
made even worse. Lin Zexu targeted dealers and distributors, and
confiscated opium and pipes. As a result of Britains noncompliance, he
decomposed 2.6 million lbs of opium. As a consequence, Britain called for
war, and a conflict started in 1839. Lin Zexu was then sent on exile.
The purpose of the Treaty of Nanjing was free trade, but it was unequal
because China was getting nothing in return. They were forced to give up
Hong Kong, and pay all the expenses of the war and the opium that was
destroyed/not sold because of the ban. In addition, there were tariff limits,
and China lost the right to set, control, and collect their own tariffs. Treaty
ports were made, and extraterritoriality clauses were established. In addition,

a most favored nation clause established which promised that each country
would receive every right and privilege that every other country would
receive.
Transition in Chinas relationship with foreign countries: From tributary
system to equal individual countries.

Chinese learning for the essence; western learning for its utility. Some
reforms that were established were the Zongli Yamen to deal with all
programs that involved western matters or technology. Tongwenguan was
established to train diplomats and send them abroad. Military technology was
also developed, and education programs were initiated to educated students
in both Chinese and Western learning in hopes to send students abroad.
The Ryukyu Islands were an important tributary state for China, but China
was unaware of its relationship to Japan. In 1871 over 50 sailors from the
Ryukyu Islands were killed in Taiwan. In 1873 the Japanese claimed that they
had the right to speak for the islands. As a result, China paid for the victims
of the killing, and recognized Japans sovereignty over the Ryukyus.