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Berninger,V.,andFayol,M.
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WhySpellingIsImportantandHowToTeachIt
Effectively
Writtenby:VirginiaW.Berninger,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,USA
andMichel
Fayol,UniversitBlaisePascal&CNRS,ClermontFerrand,France
Introduction
Spellingisacodethatuseslettersequencestorepresentspecificwordsthat
haveanassociatedpronunciationandmeaningwithinthementaldictionary.
Threekindsofcodescontributetospelling:aphonologicalcode(codingand
awarenessofsoundsinspokenwords),anorthographiccode(codingand
awarenessoflettersinwrittenwords),andamorphologicalcode(wordpartsat
thebeginningofwordsthatmodifyshadeofmeaningandatendofwordsthat
marktense,number,orpartofspeech).Forexample,thewordjumpedhas
fivesmallsoundsinit:/j/,/u/,/m/,/p/,and/t/(thesesoundsarecalled
phonemes).However,ithassixletters.Thatisbecausethelasttwo
letterscorrespondtoawordpart(morpheme)thatmarksthepasttensebut
correspondstoasinglesound.Inotherwords,thatsoundmightbe/d/asin
namedor
/ed/asinwanted.
Othersourcesofknowledgealsocontributetospelling.Theseinclude
vocabulary
knowledge(semanticfeaturesormeaningclues),phonotactics(permissibleand
probablesoundsequences,patterns,andpositionsinspokenwords),and
orthotactics
(permissibleandprobablelettersequences,patterns,andpositionsinwritten
words).
Forexample,inEnglish,wordsdonotbeginwiththe/m/soundfollowedby
the/l/sound
orgenerallyendwith/h/.Also,unotafollowsqandtheletterxdoesnot
doubleatthe
endofwordsbutl,f,andsmay.Furthercomplicatingmattersisthatthesame
word

pronunciationmaybeassociatedwithmultiplemeanings,whichlinguistscall
polysemy.
Syntax(partofspeechforaparticularwordandthepermissiblewordorderof
the
language)providesthecluesthathelpthewriterclarifywhichofthemultiple
meanings
forthatpronunciationisintended(e.g.,Hewoundtheclock.Thewounddidnot
heal.
Theboyreadtheredbook.)
Spellingknowledgemaybeexpressedasrules,statisticalpatterns,or
proceduresand
thesedifferentkindsofknowledgehavevariousimplicationsforinstruction.
Examplesof
Englishspellingrulesincludegeneralizationabout(a)whentodoublefinal
consonants
insyllablesasafunctionofaccentpatterns(e.g.,whentheaccentisonthe
second
syllable,doublethelastconsonantinthesecondsyllable,butwhentheaccent
isonthe
firstsyllable,donotdoublethelastconsonant).Thisruleisshownwhen
refer
becomesreferringbutnotwhentheaccentisonthefirstsyllableasin
secretwhich
becomessecretivenotsecretive)or(b)whentodroporaddletter(s)tothe
endofa
basewordwhenaderivationalsuffixbeginningwithiisadded(e.g.,finalsilent
eis
droppedwhenaddingingasintamebecomestaming)(Dixon&
Englemann,2001).
Frenchspellingrulesspecifythatcertainconsonantsdoubleincertainpositions
but
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vowelsdonotdouble(Pacton,Perruchet,Fayol,&Cleeremans,2001).
Phonotactics
andorthotacticsarebasedonabstractedstatisticalpatternsthatcapturethe
sound

sequencesinspokenwordsorlettersequencesinwrittenwords.The
abstractiontakes
placethroughselfteaching(Share,2004)inimplicitmemoryoutsideconscious
awarenessaschildrenrepeatedlyencounterwordsindifferentcodes(Pactonet
al.,
2005b;Pactonetal.,2001).Althoughsomeofthesestatisticalpatternscanbe
articulatedlikedoublingf,l,andsattheendofwords,manycannotbebutyet
influence
spellingknowledge.Mappingacrossdifferentunitsofspokenandwritten
wordsis
proceduralknowledgelearnedbestinconsciousmemoryaschildrenapply
knowledge
ofproceduresforspellingsinglewordsfromdictation.
Thecontrastinginstructionalimplicationsofthesedifferentkindsofknowledge
willnow
beconsidered.Rulesarearticulateddeclarativeknowledge,appliedatthe
metacognitivelevelinguiding,selfchecking,orrevisingspelling.Teachers
verbalize
theserulesandaskchildrentoverbalizethemtoo.Linguisticawarenessisnot
acquired
byverbalizingrulesbutratherbyconsciousreflectionsandoperationson
phonological,
orthographic,andmorphologicalwordformsandtheirpartsinconscious
memory.For
example,childrenmayengageinwordsortsinwhichtheyhavetoreflectabout
commonanduniquesoundsormorphemepatternsinwrittenwordsasthey
classify
themintocategories.Littleisknownabouthowtoteachchildrentoabstract
statistical
patternsrelatedtosoundsequencingorlettersequencing,however,itmayhelp
todraw
theirattentiontothesepatternsbyplayinggamesinwhichchildrenjudge
whether
scrambledsequencesofsoundsinspokenwordssoundlikewordsintheir
languageor
scrambledsequencesofletterslooklikewrittenwordsintheirlanguage.Using
anagramsinwhichtheyunscrambletheletterstospellarealwordmayalso
benefit

theirspelling.Researchreportedlatershowshowspecificprocedurescanbe
taught
throughmodelingforhelpingchildrengeneratewordspellingsatthelevelsof
phoneme
graphemecorrespondences,onsetrimes,andwholewords.Notallofthe
necessary
spellingknowledgecanbetaughtasdeclarativeknowledgeorrules.
Pastviewsthatspellinggoesthroughsequentialstagesfromphonologicalto
orthographictomorphological(e.g.,Templeton&Bear,1992)arebeing
reconsidered
basedonresearchshowingthatfirstgradershavenotonlyphonologicalbut
also
orthographic(Cassar&Treiman,1993;Pactonetal.,2001;Treiman,1993)and
morphological(Carlisle,&Nomanbhoy,1993;Pactonetal.,2005b;Treiman&
Cassar,
1996)knowledgethattheyapplytospelling.Bothbeginningspellingand
developing
spelling,whenwordsarelongerandmorphologicallymorecomplex(Carlisle
&Fleming,
2003),drawonphonology,orthography,andmorphology(Berninger,Garcia,
&Abbott,
inpress;Silliman,Barr,&Peters,2006;Walker&Hauerwas,2006).
WoodcockJohnson
ThirdEdition(WJIII)SpellSoundsSubtest(Woodcock,McGrew,&Mather,
2001)
assessesphonologicalspellingwithpseudowords.ProcessAssessmentofthe
Learner,
SecondEdition(PALII)WordChoicesubtest(Berninger,2007)usesreal
wordsand
pseudohomophonestoassessorthographicspelling.PALIIFindtheFixes
(Berninger,
2007)usesrealwordswithcommonspellingunitsthataretrueaffixes(e.g.
reread)and
foils(e.g.,ready)thatarespelledlikearealprefixorsuffixbutarenot
morphemesto
assessmorphologicalspelling.
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Spellinginstructionisstillimportantinthecomputerage,evenwithspell
checksforself
monitoringandrevisingspelling.Mostspellinginstructionresearchhas
focusedonword
frequencyandwordschildrenusefrequentlyintheirwritingatspecificgrade
levelsand
theroleofalphabeticprincipletaughtinthephonemetographemedirection.
However,
theroleofspecificwords(Largy,Cousin,Bryant,&Fayol,2007)andrules
(Fayol,
Thvenin,Totereau&Jarousse,1999)inlearningtospellcontinuestobe
debated.
Duringspellinginstructionchildrenhavetocoordinatephonological,
orthographic,and
morphologicalcodesinworkingmemory;throughinstructionandpractice,
children
createamentaldictionarywithspellingsofwrittenwordsinlongterm
memory.
Instructionshouldteachspellingstrategiesandprovidepracticeinapplying
themto
developautomaticspelling,whichisfast,effortlessretrievalofwordspecific
spelling
(Steffler,Varnhaggen,Friesen,&Treiman,1998).
Differentmodesofspellinginstructioncanbedifferentiallybeneficial,for
example,
keyboardingisbetterforwritinglettersandsometimeswordsinsentences;but
penis
betterforcomposingessays(Berninger,Richards,Stock,Abbott,Trivedi,
Altemeieret
al.,2007).Spellingisnottheinverseofreading(Read,1981),butwordreading
and
spellingsharereciprocalrelationships(Ehri,1992,2000;Holmes,&
Carruthers,1998)
andteachingspellingmaytransfertoreading(Treiman,1998).Althoughgood
spellers
tendtobegoodreadersandpoorspellerstendtobepoorreaders,aboutfour
percent

ofFrenchchildrenhavegoodreadingandpoorspellingandaboutfourpercent
of
Frenchchildrenhavegoodspellingandpoorreading(fluency)(Fayol,Zorman,
&Lt,
2008).
KeyResearchQuestionsandFindings
1)Isexplicitinstructioninmappingspokenwordsontowrittenwordsat
specific
unitsizesorruleseffectiveinteachingspelling?
Inlarge,randomizedcontrolledstudiesdifferentinstructionalapproachesto
teaching
consciousproceduralknowledgeformappingunitsofspokenwordsontounits
ofwritten
wordswerecompared.Bothlexicalmapping(namingeachletterinawritten
wordin
sequentialorderandthenpronouncingit)andonsetrimemapping(namingthe
onset
grapheme[s],makingthecorrespondingsoundsforphoneme[s],namingthe
lettersintherimeunitandfinally,pronouncingtheremainingpartofthe
syllable)wereeffectiveinlearningtospelltaughtandnewonesyllablewords.
However,alphabeticprinciplemapping(namingeachoneortwoletterunit
andthensayingthecorrespondingphoneme)resultedinmoreaccuratespelling
duringcomposing(Berninger,Vaughan,Abbott,Brooks,Abbott,Reedetal.,
1998).Theresultssupportedteachingmappingproceduresforthewholeword,
onsetrime,andalphabetprincipletoatrisksecondgradespellers.
Halfthechildrenreachedgradelevelandmaintainedgainsatbeginningand
endofthirdgrade.Theotherhalfreceivedadditionalspellinginstructionin
thirdgradethatincludedthethreemappingproceduresforspellingtwo
syllablewordswithandwithoutsyllableawarenesstraining;theyalsowrote
sentencesfromdictation.Allreachedaveragerangeforgradeandmaintained
gainsatendofthirdgrade;syllableawarenesstrainingshowedanadvantage
forsilentewords(e.g.,became)(Berninger,Vaughan,Abbott,Brooks,Begay,
Curtinetal.,2000).Spellingmasteryofpracticedwordswasachievedonly
whenspecificwordswerespelledindictatedsentencesineachofthe24
lessonsduringthestudy(seeDreyeretal.,1995,forroleofpracticein
improvinglongtermspellingretention).
Teachingmappingproceduresforalphabeticprincipleimprovedchildrens
spellingoffunctionwords(conjunctions,prepositions,articles,andpronouns

thatgluewordstogetherinsentencesbuthavenomeaningoftheirown)
(Berninger,Vaughan,Abbott,Begay,Byrd,Curtin,etal.,2002).Teaching
orthographicstrategiesforimagingwordsinthemindseyeimprovedspelling
(Berninger,Abbott,Rogan,Reed,Abbott,Brooks,etal.,1998;Berninger,
Winn,Stock,Abbott,Eschen,Linetal.,2007,Study1)andnormalizedbrain
activationduringanfMRIspellingtask(Richards,Aylward,Berninger,
Field,Parsons,Richards,etal.,2006).Explicitinstructioninphonological
(Nunes,Bryant,&Olson,2003)andmorphologicalspellingrulesisalso
effective(Fayol,Thvenin,Jarousse,&Totereau,1995;Nunes&Bryant,1995;
Nunesetal.,2003).Forevidencebasedinstructionaltoolsandstrategiesfor
explicitspellinginstruction,seeBerningerandAbbott(2003,LessonSets4,5,
7,and10);DixonandEngelmann(2001;Fry(1996);Graham,Harris,and
Loynachan(1996);Henry(2003);Masterson,Apel,andWasowicz(2002);
NunesandBryant(2006);andSchalagar(2001).Alsoseereadingsatendfor
teacherstoexpandtheirknowledgeoftheroleofphonology,orthography,
morphology,vocabularyknowledge,phonotacticsandorthotactics,andsyntax
inspelling.Researchhasshownthatteachersknowledgeoflanguage
studentsliteracyskillsincludingspelling.processesisasimportantasthe
instructionaltoolstheyuseinincreasingtheir
2)Arereflectiveactivitiesfordevelopingphonological,orthographic,and
morphologicalawarenesseffectiveinteachingspelling?
Childrenacquiremuchspellingknowledgeinimplicitmemoryoutside
conscious
awareness(e.g.,Nation,Angell,&Castles,2007;Pacton,Perruchet,Fayol,&
Cleeremans,2001;Share,2004).Explicitinstructionthatbringsthose
knowledge
sourcesintoconsciousawarenessalsoimprovesspelling(e.g.,Dreyeretal.,
1995;
Berningeretal.,1998,2000,2002,2007;Graham,Harris,&Chorzempa,
2002).Explicit
instructiondoesnothavetobeknowledgetellingordirectinstruction.Itcan
include
activitiessuchaswordsortsthathelpchildrendiscover,throughinsight,
awarenessof
(a)alternationsinEnglishalphabetprinciple(Venezky,1970,1999)suchthat
different
one(e.g.,candk)andtwoletter(e.g.,ckorch)graphemesspellthesame
phoneme

(e.g.,/k/)(Berningeretal.,2002),(b)morphologicalawareness(Arnbach&
Elbro,
2000),and(c)interrelationshipsamongphonology,orthography,and
morphology
(Berninger,Nagy,Carlisle,Thomson,Hoffer,Abbott,etal.,2003).
InlanguagessuchasFrenchorEnglishinwhichthesameletterorlettergroup
isnot
alwayspronouncedthesameandsemanticaccessisnotdirect:spelling,
decoding,and
semanticaccess(towordmeaning)aremediatedbymorphology(Pacton,&
Fayol,
2005a).ForFrenchandEnglishspelling,itisnecessarytolearnorthographic
and
morphologicalregularities(Pactonetal:2001,2005b)andsomelexicalitems
(see
Martinet,Valdois,&Fayol,2004).Forexample,inFrenchithelpstofindmost
silent
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lettersplacedatendofwords(bavardhasafinaldbecausewecanproduce
bavarde;
Pacton&Deacon,inpress).ForFrench,morphologyformarkingsingularand
plural
formsmustbetaughtbecausemostofthemarks(sforpluralnounsand
adjectives;nt
forpluralverbs)havenophonologicalcounterparts(Fayol,Largy,&Lemaire,
1994;
Fayol,Hupet,&Largy,1999;Fayol,Thvenin,Jarousse,&Totereau,1995).In
English,
correspondencesbetweensoundsandlettersalonedonotassureaccessto
morphologicalstructure,whichmustbeparsedandcoordinatedwith
phonological
encoding(e.g.,thevowelinnationistransformedwhenthesuffixalisadded
to
transformanounintoanadjective).
3)Doesexplicitinstructioninspellingtransfertoimprovedcomposingskills?
Trainingmappingproceduresatthreeunitsizes(wholeword,onsetrimes,and

phonemegraphemecorrespondences)improvedwordspellingandtransferred
to
longercompositions(Berningeretal.,1998).Composingactivitiesusinggrade
appropriatehighfrequencywords(Graham,Harris,&Loynachan,1993,1994)
improved
spellingandcomposing(Berningeretal.,2000).Grahametal.s(2002)
spelling
instructionalsotransferredtoimprovedcomposition.Therefore,evidenceis
growingfor
thebenefitsofteachingspellingonanotherwritingskill,namely,composition.
RecentResearchResults
Alongitudinalwritingstudy(gradesonetoseven)showedthatspellingatone
grade
levelcontributestospellingandoftenwrittencompositionatthenextgrade
level
(manuscriptinpreparation).Orthographic,phonological,andmorphological
awareness
showedsignificantgrowthfromgradesonetotwotothreewithcontinued
morphological
awarenessgrowththereafter(submittedmanuscript).Atgradestwo,four,and
six,a
secondorderfactorunderlyingthesethreekindsoflinguisticawareness
explained
uniquevarianceinspellingandfitthemodelbetterthanifeachfactor(code)
was
consideredalone(Berninger,Raskind,Richards,Abbott,&Stock,2007).The
instructionalapplicationisthatspellingbenefitsfrominstructionnotonlyin
eachofthe
threecodesbutalsointheirinterrelationships.Anexampleofinstructionthat
teaches
theinterrelationshipsiswordsortinginwhichchildrensortwordsusing
suffixestomark
numberintothesecategories:pluralpronounced/ez/(e.g.,busses),plural
pronounced
/s/(e.g.,cats),pluralpronounced/z/(bees),ornosuffix(e.g.miss).
FutureDirections
Moreresearchisneededonphonotacticandorthotacticknowledgeandtheir
influences

onwordstorageandaccessinthementallexicon.Fastmapping,which
involveswhole
spokenandwrittenwordsthatarelearnedquicklyinoneexposureorafew
exposures,
islikelytobeinfluencedbyphonotacticandorthotacticknowledge.
Withincreasingglobalizationandimmigrationandmorethanonelanguage
spokenat
workandinthehome,multilingualismisincreasingandrequiresgreater
research
attentiontospellingacrosslanguages:(a)transferofspellingfromonesfirst
language
toonessecondlanguage;(b)similaritiesanddifferencesinspellingrelatedto
how
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phonologyandmorphology/syntaxarerepresentedintheorthography;(c)
dialects
withinthesamelanguage(e.g.Kohler,Bahr,Silliman,Apel,&Wilkinson,
2007;
Treiman,&Barry,2000);and(d)wordorigininfluencessuchasEnglishwords
that
derivefromFrench,Latin,orGreekoriginsandconstitutethevastmajorityof
wordsin
Englishtextsusedinschoolsingradesfourandabove(Henry,2002).
Conclusions
Effectivespellinginstruction(a)facilitatesabstractionofphonological,
orthographic,and
morphologicalregularitiesinwords(e.g.,decidingwhichspokenorwritten
pseudoword
resemblesarealFrenchorEnglishword),(b)modelsexplicitstrategiesfor
mapping
differentunitsofspokenandwrittenwords,(c)teachesexplicitspellingrules,
(d)
designsreflectiveactivitiesthatfosterphonological,orthographic,and
morphological
awareness,(e)offersmetacognitiveguidanceinselfcheckingandrevising
spellingif

necessary;(f)providessufficientpracticewithspecificwordstodevelop
automatic
spelling;and(g)couplesspellingwithvocabularyinstructionaimedat
fosteringloveof
andplaywithwords(Stahl&Nagy,2005).
DatePostedOnline:2008012214:57:52
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AdditionalReading
Tolearnmoreaboutphonologicalcodesinspelling,seeBerninger,Cartwright,
Yates,
Swanson,andAbbott(1994),Treiman,Berch,Tincoff,andWeatherston
(1993),
Varnhagen,Varnhagen,andDas(1992),andVarnhagen,Boechler,andSteffler
(1999).
Tolearnmoreaboutorthographiccodinginspelling,seeBerninger,Yates,
Cartwright,
Rutberg,Remy,andAbbott(1992),Caravolas,Kessler,Hulme,andSnowling
(2005),HolmesandDavis(2002),JaffreandFayol(2006),Johnson(1986),
Olson,
Forsberg,andWise(1994),Seymour(1997),Pacton,Fayol,andPerruchet
(2005b),andVarnhagenetal.,(1992,1999).
Tolearnmoreaboutmorphologicalcodinginspelling,seeBourassa,Treiman,
and
Kessler(2006),Carlisle(1994),Derwing,Smith,andWiebe(1995),Green,
McCutchen,Schwiebert,Quinlan,EvaWood,andJuelis(2003),Jaffrand
Fayol
(2006),Leong,(2000);Nagy,Berninger,andAbbott(2006),Nagy,Berninger,
Abbott,Vaughan,andVermeulen(2003),Nunes,Bryant,andBindman(1997),
Pactonetal.(2005b),TreimanandCassar(1996).
Tolearnmoreabouttheroleofvocabularyknowledgeinspelling,see
Berningeretal.
(1992,1994)andespeciallyStahlandNagy(2005).
Tolearnmoreabouttheroleofphonotacticsinspelling,seeApel,Wolter,and
Masterson(2006),BernsteinandTreiman(2001),KesslerandTreiman(1997),
andTreiman,Kessler,Knewasser,Tincoff,andBowman(2000),

Tolearnmoreabouttheroleoforthotacticsinspelling,seeApeletal.(2006)
and
Pactonetal.(2005).
Tolearnmoreabouttheroleofsyntaxinspelling,seeBryant,Nunes,and
Bindman
(1997,2000),Fayol,Totereau,andBarrouillet(2006),andMuterandSnowling
(1997).
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