NUS/ECE

EE4101

Antenna Fundamentals
1 Introduction
Antennas are device designed to radiate electromagnetic
energy efficiently in a prescribed manner.
It is the current distributions on the antennas that produce
the radiation. Usually these current distributions are
excited by transmission lines or waveguides.

Transmission line
Hon Tat Hui

Antenna
1

Current distributions
Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Antenna Parameters

2.1 Poynting Vector and Power Density

Instantaneous Poynting vector:
p E x, y , z , t H x, y , z , t
Re E x, y, z e jt Re H x, y, z e jt (W/m 2 )
Note: Time expressions:
E(x,y,z,t)
H(x,y,z,t)
2
Phasor expressions:
E(x,y,z)
H(x,y,z)

Average Poynting vector:

1
*
Pav Re E x, y, z H x, y, z (W/m )
2
Note that Poynting vector is a real vector. Its magnitude gives
the instantaneous or average power density of the
electromagnetic wave. Its direction gives the direction of the
power flow at that particular point.

Hon Tat Hui

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

2.2 Power Intensity

U r Pav
2

Note that U is a function

of direction (,) only and
not distance (r).

W/sr

sr = steradian, unit for measuring the solid angle.

Solid angle is the ratio of that part of a spherical
surface area S subtended at the centre of a sphere to the
square of the radius of the sphere.
S
Spherical
S
2 sr
surface
r

The solid angle subtended

o
by a whole spherical
r
surface is therefore:
4r 2

Hon Tat Hui

r
3

4 (sr)

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

2.3 Radiated Power

1
*
Re[
] ds
Prad
P

ds

H
s av

2 s

(W)

ds r 2 sin dd n
Pav

Antenna

Note that the integration is over a closed surface with the

antenna inside and the surface is sufficiently far from the
antenna (far field conditions).
Hon Tat Hui

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Example 1
Find the total average radiated power of a Hertzian dipole.
Solution
1
1

Pav ReE H Re E H ar
2
2
2

E
1 E E
Re
ar
ar
2
2
2

kId sin 2
2

a
(W/m
)
r
2
2 4
r
Hon Tat Hui

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Prad
Pav ds
s

kId

2 4

2 2

Id

Hon Tat Hui

sin 2
2
a

r
0 0 r 2 r sin d d ar

(W)

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Example 2
Find the total average radiated power of a half-wave dipole.
Solution
For a half-wave dipole:
e jkr cos 2 cos
E
, H
E j 60 I m

sin
r
2

E
Pav
ar
2
15 I

r
Hon Tat Hui

2
m
2

cos[( / 2)cos ]
ar (W/m 2 )
sin
7

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Prad
Pav ds
s

15I

2 2
m
2
0 0

cos[( / 2)cos ]
ar r 2 sin d d ar
sin

2
cos
[( / 2)cos ]
2
30 I m
d
sin
0

(W)

The above remaining integral can be evaluated numerically

to give:
Prad 36.54 I m2
Hon Tat Hui

(W)
Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Hence for a /4 monopole over a ground plane with a

maximum current at its base = Im, the radiated power is
half that of a /2 dipole, i.e.,

Prad 18.27 I m2

(W)

Why?? Think about it!

Hon Tat Hui

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

2.4 Radiation Pattern

A radiation pattern (or field pattern) is a graph that
describes the relative far field value, E or H, with
direction at a fixed distance from the antenna. A field
pattern includes an magnitude pattern |E| or |H| and a
phase pattern E or H.

A power pattern is a graph that describes the relative

(average) radiated power density |Pav| of the far-field
with direction at a fixed distance from the antenna.
By the reciprocity theorem, the radiation patterns of an
antenna in the transmitting mode is same as the those
for the antenna in the receiving mode.
Hon Tat Hui

10

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

A radiation pattern shows only the relative values but

not the absolute values of the field or power quantity.
Hence the values are usually normalized (i.e., divided)
by the maximum value.

Hon Tat Hui

11

Antennas

NUS/ECE

Hon Tat Hui

EE4101

12

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

For example, the radiation pattern of the Hertzian dipole

can be plotted using the following steps.
(1) Far field:

kId e
E j
sin ,

4 r
jkr

0 2
r fixed

(2) Far field magnitude:

kId
E
sin ,
4 r
Hon Tat Hui

13

0 2
r fixed

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

(3) Normalization:
kId
sin
E n 4 r
sin ,
kId
4 r
(4) Plot plane pattern (fix
example = 0)

0 2
r fixed

at a chosen value, for

|E|n with at = 0 & 180

Hon Tat Hui

14

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

(5) Plot plane pattern (fix at a chosen value, for

example = 90)
|E|n with at = 90

See animation Field Behaviour

and Radiation Pattern

Hon Tat Hui

15

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

2.5 Polarization
The polarization of an antenna in a given direction is
defined as the polarization of the plane wave transmitted
by the antenna in that direction. The polarization of a
plane wave is the figure the tip of the instantaneous
electric-field vector E traces out with time at a fixed
observation point. There are three types of typical
antenna polarizations: the linear, circular, and elliptical
polarizations, corresponding to the same three types of
typical plane wave polarizations.

Hon Tat Hui

16

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101
Ey

Ey

Ey

Ex
Eectric-field vector

Linearly polarized

Ex

Ex
Eectric-field vector

Eectric-field vector

Circularly polarized

Elliptically polarized

See animation Polarization of a Plane Wave - 2D View

See animation Polarization of a Plane Wave - 3D View

Hon Tat Hui

17

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

2.5.1 Polarization of Plane Waves

(a) Linear polarization
A plane wave is linearly polarized at a fixed
observation point if the tip of the electric-field
vector at that point moves along the same
straight line at every instant of time.
(b) Circular Polarization

A plane wave is circularly polarized at a a fixed

observation point if the tip of the electric-field
vector at that point traces out a circle as a
function of time.
Hon Tat Hui

18

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Circular polarization can be either right-handed

or left-handed corresponding to the electric-field
vector rotating clockwise (right-handed) or anticlockwise (left-handed).
(c) Elliptical Polarization
A plane wave is elliptically polarized at a a fixed
observation point if the tip of the electric-field
vector at that point traces out an ellipse as a
function of time. Elliptically polarization can be
either right-handed or left-handed corresponding
to the electric-field vector rotating clockwise
(right-handed) or anti-clockwise (left-handed).
Hon Tat Hui

19

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

For example, consider a plane wave:

Ex Ex 0e

E x E x y E y
x E x 0 e

jkz

y jE y 0 e

jkz

Ex0 and Ey0 are

both real numbers

jkz

E y jE y 0 e jkz

Note that the phase difference between Ex and Ey is 90.

The instantaneous expression for E is:

E z , t Re x E x 0 e jt jkz y jE y 0 e jt jkz

x E x 0 cost kz y E y 0 sin t kz

Let:

X Ex =Ex 0 cos t kz , Y E y E y 0 sin t kz

Hon Tat Hui

20

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Case 1: Exo 0 or E yo 0, then

X 0 or Y 0
Both are straight lines. Hence the wave is linearly
polarized.
Case 2: Exo E yo C , then
X 2 Y 2 C 2 cos 2 t kz sin 2 t kz C 2
X and Y describe a circle. Hence the wave is
circularly polarized.
Case 3: Exo E yo , then
2
2
X
Y
2
2
t
kz

cos

sin

t kz 1
2
2
Ex 0 E y 0
X and Y describe an ellipse. Hence the wave is
elliptically polarized.

Hon Tat Hui

21

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

2.5.2 Axial Ratio

The polarization state of an EM wave can also be

indicated by another two parameters: Axial Ratio
(AR) and the tilt angle (). AR is a common measure
for antenna polarization. It definition is:
OA
AR
,
OB

1 AR , or 0 dB AR dB

where OA and OB are the major and minor axes of

the polarization ellipse, respectively. The tilt angle
is the angle subtended by the major axis of the
polarization ellipse and the horizontal axis.
Hon Tat Hui

22

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

= tilt angle
0 180

Hon Tat Hui

23

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

For example:
AR = 1,
circular polarization
1 < AR < , elliptical polarization
AR = ,
linear polarization
AR can be measured experimentally!
Very often, we use the AR bandwidth and the AR
beamwidth to characterize the polarization of an antenna.
The AR bandwidth is the frequency bandwidth in which
the AR of an antenna changes less than 3 dB from its
minimum value. The AR beamwidth is the angle span
over which the AR of an antenna changes less than 3 dB
from its mimumum value.
Hon Tat Hui

24

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

3 dB AR beamwidth

Radiation pattern
with a rotating
linear source

AR at

Test antenna
(receiving)
Hon Tat Hui

25

Fast-rotating dipole
antenna (transmitting)
Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Axial ratio (dB)

3dB

AR bandwidth
Hon Tat Hui

26

Frequency
Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

2.6 Input Impedance

The input impedance ZA of a transmitting antenna is the
ratio of the voltage to current at the terminals of the
antenna.
Z R jX
A

RA = input resistance
XA = input reactance
RA Rr RL

Rr = radiation resistance
RL = loss resistance
If we know the input impedance of a transmitting
antenna, the antenna can be viewed as an equivalent
circuit.
Hon Tat Hui

27

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Excitation source

Vg
Zg

Ig

Ig

a
b

Equivalent

circuit

Vg

Rr

Rg

RL

Xg

XA

Transmitting antenna

where
Z g Rg jX g

Ig = antenna
terminal
current

Zg = internal impedance of the excitation source

Rg = internal resistance of the excitation source
Xg = internal reactance of the excitation source
Hon Tat Hui

28

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

The knowledge of ZA is required when connecting an

antenna to its driving circuit.
*
If Z A Z g , antenna is matched.
If Z A Z g ,

antenna is not matched and a

matching circuit is required.

The radiation resistance Rr can be calculated from the

power radiated Prad as:
1 2
Prad I g Rr
2
Power loss as heat in the antenna:
1 2
Ploss I g RL
2
Hon Tat Hui

29

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Power loss in the internal resistance of the excitation source:

1 2
Pinternal I g Rg
2
Maximum power transfer from the excitation source to the
antenna occurs if the antenna is matched. That is,
Z A Z g*
Rr RL Rg , X A X g
If the antenna is connected to the driving circuit via a
transmission line with a characteristic impedance Z0, then the
antenna should be matched to the characteristic impedance
of transmission line. That is,
Z A Z 0 , Rr RL Z 0 , X A 0
Hon Tat Hui

30

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

The impedance looking into the terminals of a receiving

antenna is called internal impedance Zin. In general, Zin
ZA. However, when the antenna size is small compared to
the wavelength, Zin ZA. For dipole antennas, Zin ZA when
dipole length . The internal impedance is used to model
the equivalent circuit of a receiving antenna as the input
impedance is used to model the equivalent circuit of a
transmitting antenna (see later).
Students who want to know more on this topic can read the
following article:
C. C. Su, On the equivalent generator voltage and generator internal
impedance for receiving antennas, IEEE Transactions on Antennas
and Propagation, vol. 51(2), pp. 279-285, 2003.
Hon Tat Hui

31

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Example 3
Calculate the radiation resistance of a Hertzian dipole.
Solution
From example 1, the radiated power Prad of a Hertzian dipole
is:
2
Id
Prad
3

Therefore,

1 2
Id
Prad I Rr
2
3

Hon Tat Hui

Rr 80

2

32

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Example 4
Calculate the radiation resistance of a half-wave dipole.
Solution
From example 2, the radiated power Prad of a half-wave
dipole is:
Prad 36.54 I m2
Therefore,
1 2
Prad I m Rr 36.54 I m2
2
Rr 73.1

This result is based on the assumption of an infinitely thin

dipole (wire diameter 0). For a finite thickness dipole,
the radiation resistance is generally greater than this value.
Hon Tat Hui

33

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Note that the input reactance XA of an antenna cannot be

found from the radiated power. It can be calculated by other
methods such as Moment Method or the Induced EMF
method. For an infinitely think half-wave dipole,
XA = 42.5
For an infinitely thin quarter-wave monopole over a large
ground plane,
XA = 21.3
Students who want to know more on this can read the
following book:
John D. Kraus, Antennas, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988,
Chapters 9 & 10.
Hon Tat Hui

34

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

2.7 Reflection Coefficient

The reflection coefficient of a transmitting antenna is

defined by:
Z A Z0

Z A Z0

(dimensionless)

can be calculated (as above) or measured. The

magnitude of is from 0 to 1. When the transmitting
antenna is not macth, i.e., ZA Z0, there is a loss due to
reflection (return loss) of the wave at the antenna
terminals. When expressed in dB, is always a
negative number. Sometimes we use S11 to represent .
Hon Tat Hui

35

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

2.8 Return Loss

The return loss of a transmitting antenna is defined by:

return loss 20log

(dB)

Possible values of return loss are from 0 dB to dB.

Return loss is always a positive number.

Hon Tat Hui

36

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

2.9 VSWR
The voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) of a
transmitting antenna is defined by:
1
VSWR
1

(dimensionless)

Same as and the return loss, VSWR is also a common

parameter used to characterize the matching property of
a transmitting antenna. Possible values of VSWR are
from 1 to . VSWR=1 perfectly matched. VSWR =
completely unmatched.
Hon Tat Hui

37

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

2.10 Impedance Bandwidth

|| or |S11| (dB)

-10dB

fL

fC

fU

Impedance bandwidth
Hon Tat Hui

38

Frequency
Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

fU f L
Impedance bandwith
100%
fC

Note that when || = -10 dB,

1 1 0.3162
VSWR
=
1 1 0.3162
=1.93
2

Hence the impedance bandwidth can also be specified

by the frequency range within which VSWR 2.
Hon Tat Hui

39

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

2.11 Directivity
The directivity D of an antenna is the ratio of the
radiation intensity U in a given direction (, ) to the
radiation intensity averaged over all directions U0.
U , U , 4 U ,
D ,

U0
Prad / 4
Prad

Maximum directivity D0 is the directivity in the

maximum radiation direction (0, 0).

U max 4 U max

D0
U0
Prad
Hon Tat Hui

40

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

2.12 Gain
The gain or power gain of an antenna in a certain
direction (, ) is defined as:
4 U ,
radiation intensity
G ,

total input power / 4

Pin

where Pin is the input power to the antenna and is

related to the radiated power Prad as:

Pin Prad
Hon Tat Hui

41

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Here is the efficiency of the antenna. It accounts for

the various losses in the antenna, such as the reflection
loss, dielectric loss, conduction loss, and polarization
mismatch loss.
Taking the efficiency into account, the gain and the
directivity are related by:
G , D ,
Similar to the maximum directivity, a maximum gain
G0 can be defined and which is related to the
maximum directivity D0 by:
4 U max
G0
D0
Pin
Hon Tat Hui

42

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Example 5

Find the maximum gain and directivity of a Hertzian dipole.

Assume that the antenna is lossless with an efficiency equal
to 1.
Solution

kId sin 2
Pav
ar
2
2 4
r

Id
Prad
3

kId
2
U r Pav
sin
2 4
2

Hon Tat Hui

43

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

kId
4
sin 2
4 U ,
3 2

2
4
D ,

sin
2
Prad
2
Id
3
1

3 2
G , D , sin
2

G0 90 D0 90

Hon Tat Hui

44

3
1.5
2

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Example 6

Find the maximum gain and directivity of a half-wave dipole.

Assume that the antenna is lossless with an efficiency equal
to 1.
Solution

15 I m2 cos[( / 2)cos ]
Pav
ar
2
r
sin
Prad 36.54 I m2
U r Pav
2

Hon Tat Hui

15 I

2
m

45

(W)

cos[( / 2)cos ]
sin

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

4 U ,
D ,

Prad

15 I

2
m

cos[( / 2)cos ]
sin
36.54 I m2

cos[( / 2)cos ]
1.64
sin

cos[( / 2)cos ]
G , D , 1.64
sin

G0 90 D0 90 1.64
Hon Tat Hui

46

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

2.13 Effective Area

The effective aperture (area) of a receiving antenna

looking from a certain direction (,) is the ratio of the
average power PL delivered to a matched load to the
magnitude of the average power density Pavi of the
incident electromagnetic wave at the position of the
antenna multiplied by the normalized power pattern
|Pav(,)| of that antenna.
PL
Ae ,
Pavi Pav ,
Hon Tat Hui

47

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

The effective area is related to the directivity as (see

Supplementary Notes):

2
Ae ,
D ,
4
A maximum effective area Aem can be defined when the
antenna is receiving in its maximum-directivity
direction. That is,

2
Aem
D0
4
Hon Tat Hui

48

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

2.14 Open Circuit Voltage

A receiving antenna can be modelled as an equivalent
circuit as follows:
IL

Incident wave

IL
ZL

a
b

Equivalent
circuit

a
Voc

RL

Rin

XL
Xin
b

Receiving antenna
a is positive with
respect to b
Hon Tat Hui

ZL = RL + jXL = load impedance

Zin = Rin + jXin = internal impedance
49

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

The open-circuit voltage Voc is defined as the voltage

which appears at the terminals of a receiving antenna
when the antenna is excited by an incident wave and the
terminals are left open.
In order to produce a

where

1
Voc I Ei d
Im

positive Voc, I and Ei must

be in opposite senses.

I current distribution on the antenna

when the antenna is excited at the terminal

I m current at the terminal
Ei incident electricfield
length of the wire antenna
Hon Tat Hui

50

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Proof of the Open-Circuit Voltage Expression

Reciprocity Theorem
Im

I1

V1

dV2

dI2

Case 2

Case 1

I1 dI 2

V1 dV2
Hon Tat Hui

51

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Putting
V1 I m Z A , dV2 Ei d

we have,

I1 Ei d
I1
dI 2 dV2
V1
ImZ A
1
I2
I1 Ei d

ImZ A

In vector form,
1
I2
I1 Ei d

ImZ A
Hon Tat Hui

52

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Putting I1 equal to I and noting that I2 is the short-circuit

current at the terminal of the antenna, by Thevenins
theorem, the open-circuit voltage Voc at the antenna
terminal can then be expressed as:
1
Voc I 2 Z A I Ei d
Im

(For a more detailed explanation on the reciprocity

theorem, see Chapter 11, ref. [4].)

Hon Tat Hui

53

Antennas

NUS/ECE

EE4101

References:
1. David K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetic, AddisonWesley Pub. Co., New York, 1989.
2. John D. Kraus, Antennas, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988.
3. C. A. Balanis, Antenna Theory, Analysis and Design, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New Jersey, 2005.
4. E. C. Jordan, Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating Systems,
Prentice-Hall, ley, New York, 1998.
5. Fawwaz T. Ulaby, Applied Electromagnetics, Prentice-Hall Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1968.
6. Joseph A. Edminister, Schaums Outline of Theory and Problems
of Electromagnetics, McGraw-Hill, Singapore, 1993.
7. Yung-kuo Lim (Editor), Problems and solutions on
electromagnetism, World Scientific, Singapore, 1993.
Hon Tat Hui

54

Antennas