Nervous System: Nervous Tissue

(Chapter 12)

Neural Tissue
-3% of body mass
-cellular, ~20% extracellular space
-two categories of cells:
1. Neurons: conduct nervous impulses
2. Neuroglia / glial cells: nerve glue,
supporting cells

Lecture Materials
for
Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.
Suffolk County Community College

Organization of Nervous System

Eastern Campus
Primary Sources for figures and content:
Marieb, E. N. Human Anatomy & Physiology 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Benjamin
Cummings, 2004.
Martini, F. H. Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson
Benjamin Cummings, 2004.

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

-spinal cord, brain
-function: integrate, process, coordinate
sensory input and motor output
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
-all neural tissue outside CNS
-function: carry info to/from CNS via nerves
Nerve = bundle of axons (nerve fibers) with
blood vessels and CT
-cranial nerves " brain
-spinal nerves " spinal cord

2. Motor/Efferent Division
-CNS ! effectors
A. Somatic Nervous System
-voluntary nervous system
-to skeletal muscles
B. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
-involuntary nervous system
-to smooth & cardiac muscle, glands
1. Sympathetic Division
- fight or flight
2. Parasympathetic Division
- rest and digest
(tend to be antagonistic to each other)
Histology of Nervous System
Neuron / Nerve cell
-function:conduct nervous impulses (message)
-characteristics:
1. Extreme longevity
2. Amitotic (exceptions: hippocampus,
olfactory receptors)
3. High metabolic rate: need O2 and glucose

Divisions of PNS:
1. Sensory/Afferent Division
-sensory receptors ! CNS
A. Somatic afferent division
-from skin, skeletal muscles, joints
B. Visceral afferent division
-from internal organs

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.

SCCC BIO130 Chapter 12 Lecture Notes

Structure:

1. Dendrites:
-receive info
-carry a graded potential toward soma
-contain same organelles as soma
-short, branched
-end in dendritic spines

-large soma / perikaryon

-large nucleus, large nucleolus (rRNA)
-many mitochondria, ribosomes, RER, Golgi:
(#ATP, #protein synthesis to produce
neurotransmitters)
-Nissl bodies: visible RER & ribosomes, gray
-neurofilaments = neurofibrils, neurotubules
(internal structure)
-no centrioles
-2 types of
processes:
(cell extensions)

2. Axon:
-single, long
-carry an action potential away from soma
-release neurotransmitters at end to signal
next cell
-long ones = nerve fibers

-contains:
-neurofibrils & neurotubules (abundant)
-vesicles of neurotransmitter
-lysosomes, mitochondria, enzymes
-no Nissl bodies, no Golgi (no protein
synthesis in axon)
-connects to soma at axon hillock
-covered in axolemma (membrane)
-may branch: axon collaterals
-end in synaptic terminals or knobs
-may have myelin sheath: protein+lipid
-protection
-insulation
-increase speed of impulse
CNS: myelin from oligodendrocytes
PNS: myelin from Schwann cells

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.

Axoplasmic transport
-move materials between soma and terminal
-along neurotubules on kinesins
-Anterograde transport = soma ! terminal
(neurotransmitters from soma)
-Retrograde transport = terminal ! soma
(recycle breakdown products from used
neurotransmitters)
Some viruses use retrograde transport to
gain access to CNS (Polio, Herpes,
Rabies)

SCCC BIO130 Chapter 12 Lecture Notes

Synapse
-site where neuron
communicates with
another cell:
neuron or effector

Structural classification of neurons:

1. Anaxonic neurons:
-dendrites and axon look same
-brain and special sense organs
2. Bipolar neurons:
-1 dendrite, 1 axon
-soma in middle
-rare: special sense organs,
relay from receptor to neuron

-presynaptic cell sends message along axon to

axon terminal
-postsynaptic cell receives message as
neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter = chemical, transmits signal
from pre- to post- synaptic cell across
synaptic cleft
Synaptic knob = small, round, when
postsynaptic cell is neuron, synapse on
dendrite or soma
Synaptic terminal = complex structure, at
neuromuscular or neuroglandular junction

3. Unipolar neurons:
-1 long axon, dendrites at one
end, soma off side (T shape)
-most sensory neurons
4. Multipolar neurons:
-2 or more dendrites
-1 long axon
-99% all neurons
-most CNS

Functional Classification of Neurons:

1. Sensory/Afferent neurons
-transmit info from sensory receptors to CNS
-most unipolar
-soma in peripheral sensory ganglia
Ganglia = collection of cell bodies in PNS
A. Somatic sensory neurons
-receptors monitor outside conditions
B. Visceral sensory neurons
-receptors monitor internal conditions
2. Motor/Efferent neurons
-transmit commands from CNS to effectors
-most multipolar
A. Somatic motor neurons
-innervate skeletal muscle
-conscious control or reflexes
B. Visceral/Autonomic motor neurons
-innervate effectors on smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, glands, adipose

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.

3. Interneurons / Association neurons

-distribute sensory info and coordinate motor
activity
-between sensory and motor neurons
-in brain, spinal cord, autonomic ganglia
-most are multipolar

Neuroglia =supporting cells

Neuroglia in CNS
-outnumber neurons 10:1
-half mass of brain

SCCC BIO130 Chapter 12 Lecture Notes

1. Ependymal cells
-line central canal of spinal
cord and ventricles of brain
-secrete cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF)
-have cilia to circulate CSF
-CSF: cushion brain, nutrient & gas exchange

3. Oligodendrocytes
-wide flat processes wrap
local axons = myelin
sheath
-1 cell contributes myelin to many
neighboring axons
-lipid in membrane insulates axon for faster
action potential conductance
-gaps on axon between processes/myelin =
Nodes of Ranvier, necessary to conduct
impulse
-white, myelinated axons = white matter

2. Astrocytes
-most abundant CNS
neuroglia
-varying functions:
a. blood brain barrier:
processes wrap capillaries, control
chemical exchange between blood and
interstitial fluid of brain
b. framework of CNS
c. repair damaged neural tissue
d. guide neuron development in embryo
e. control interstitial environment: regulate
conc. ions, gasses, nutrients, neurotransmitters

4. Microglia
-phagocytic
-wander CNS
-engulf debris, pathogens
-important CNS defense
(no immune cells or antibodies)

Neuroglia in PNS
1. Satellite cells
-surround somas in ganglia
-isolate PNS cells
-regulate interstitial environment of ganglia

Cells in the CNS

2. Schwann cells
-myelinate axons in PNS
-whole cells wraps axon,
many layers
-Neurilemma: bulge of schwann cell,
contains organelles
-Nodes of Ranvier between cells
Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.

SCCC BIO130 Chapter 12 Lecture Notes

-some hold bundles of unmyelinated axons

Neurophysiology
Neurons: conduct electrical impulse
-requires transmembrane potential = electrical
difference across cell membrane
-cells: positive charge outside (pump cations
out) and negative charge inside (proteins)
+ + + +
+ +
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+ + + + + +

- - - - - - --- -- - - - -

-vital to repair of peripheral never fibers after

injury: guide growth to original synapse

Voltage = measure of potential energy

generated by separation of opposite charges
Current = flow of electrical charges (ions)
Cell can produce current (nervous impulse)
when ions move to eliminate the potential
difference (volts) across the membrane
Resistance = restricts ion movement (current)
(high resistance = low current); membrane
has resistance, restricts ion flow/current

Ohms Law: current = voltage resistance

Current highest when voltage high and
resistance low
Cell voltage set at -70mV but membrane
resistance can be altered to create current
Membrane resistance depends on permeability
to ions: open or close ion channels
Cell must always have some resistance or ions
would equalize, voltage = zero,
no current generated = no nervous impulse
Membrane ion channels:
-allow ion movement (alter resistance)
-each channel specific to one ion type
1. Passive channels (leak channels)
-always open, free flow
-sets resting membrane potential at -70mV

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.

2. Active channels
-open/close in response to signal
A. Chemically regulated/ Ligand-gated
-open in response to chemical binding
-located on any cell membrane
(dendrites, soma)

B. Voltage regulated channels

-open/close in response to shift in
transmembrane potential
-excitable membrane only: conduct
action potentials (axolemma,
sarcolemma)

SCCC BIO130 Chapter 12 Lecture Notes

C. Mechanically regulated channels

-open in response to membrane
distortion
-on dendrites of sensory neurons for
touch, pressure, vibration

Sodium-Potassium Pump:
-uses ATP to move 3 Na+ out 2 K+ in
(70% of neuron ATP for this)

-runs anytime cell not conducting impulse

-creates high [K+] inside and high [Na+]outside
When Na+ channel opens:
- Na+ flows into cell:
1. Favored by diffusion gradient
2. Favored by electrical gradient
open channel = $resistance = #ion flow/current
When K+ channel opens:
- K+ flows out of cell:
1. Favored by diffusion gradient only
2. Electrical gradient repels K+ exit
- Thus less current than Na+

When channel opens, ions flow along

electrochemical gradient:
-diffusion (high conc. to low)
-electrical attraction/repulsion

Channels open = resistance low = ions move

until equilibrium potential: depends on
-diffusion gradient
-electrical gradient
Equilibrium Potential
For K+ = -90mV

Na+ channel opens = Na+ flows in,

depolarization (cell less negative)
+
K channel opens = K+ flows out,
hyperpolarization (cell more negative)
Graded potentials:
-occur on any membrane: dendrites and somas
-can be depolarizing or hyperpolarizing
-amount of depolarization or hyperpolarization
depends on intensity of stimulus:
# channels open = # voltage change
-passive spread from site of stimulation over
short distance
-effect on membrane potential decreases with
distance from stimulation site
-repolarization occurs as soon as stimulus is
removed: leak channels & Na+/K+ pump
reset resting potential

For Na+ = +66mV

Open channel ! current ! graded potential

Graded potential = localized shift in
transmembrane potential due to
movement of charges in to /out of cell
Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.

Graded potential = localized change in

transmembrane potential, not nervous
impulse (message)
6

SCCC BIO130 Chapter 12 Lecture Notes

The Generation of
an Action Potential

If big enough depolarization = action potential

= nervous impulse = transmission to
next cell
Action potentials:
-occur on excitable membranes only
(axolemma, sarcolemma)
-always depolarizing
-must depolarize to threshold (-55mV) before
action potential begins
(voltage gated channels on excitable
membrane open at threshold to
propagate action potential)
- all-or-none : all stimuli that exceed
threshold will produce identical action
potentials
-action potential at one site depolarizes
adjacent sites to threshold
-propagated across entire membrane surface
without decrease in strength

-55 mV

(Handout)
1. Depolarization to threshold:
- a graded potential depolarizes local
membrane and flows toward the axon
- if threshold is met (-55mV) at the hillock, an
action potential will be triggered
2. Activation of sodium channels and rapid
depolarization:
- at threshold (-55mV), voltage-regulated
sodium channels on the excitable
membrane open
- Na+ flows into the cell depolarizing it
- the transmembrane potential rapidly changes
from -55mV to +30mV
3. Inactivation of sodium channels and
activation of potassium channels:
- at +30mV Na+ channels close and K+
channels open
- K+ flows out of the cell repolarizing it
4. Return to normal permeability:
- at -70mV K+ channels begin to close
- the cell hyperpolarizes to -90mV until all
channels finish closing
- leak channels restore the resting membrane
potential to -70mV

Restimulation only when Na+ channels closed:

influx of Na+ necessary for action potential

Cell has ions for thousands of action potentials

Eventually must run Sodium-Potassium pump
(burn ATP) to reset high [K+] inside and
high [Na+] outside
(Death = no ATP, but stored ions can
generate action potentials for awhile)
Propagation of Action Potentials
-once generated must be transmitted length of
axon: hillock to terminal
-speed depends on:
1. Degree of myelination
2. Axon diameter
1. Myelination
A. Continuous Propagation:
-unmyelinated axons
-whole membrane depolarizes and
repolarizes sequentially hillock to
terminal
-only forward movement; membrane
behind always in absolute refractory
period

Absolute Refractory Period = -55mV

(threshold) to +30mV, Na+ channels open,
membrane cannot respond to additional
stimulus
Relative Refractory Period = +30mV to
-70mV (return to resting potential), Na+
channels closed, membrane capable of
second action potential but requires
larger/longer stimulus (threshold elevated)
Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.

SCCC BIO130 Chapter 12 Lecture Notes

Saltatory Propagation

Continuous Propagation

B. Saltatory propagation
-myelinated axons
-depolarization only on exposed
membrane at nodes
-myelin insulates covered membrane
from ion flow
-action potential jumps from node to
node: faster and requires less
energy to reset

Myelination:
-requires space, metabolically expensive
-only important fibers large and myelinated
-occurs in early childhood
-results in improved coordination
Multiple Sclerosis = genetic disorder, myelin
on neurons in PNS destroyed !
numbness, paralysis

2. Axon diameter
-larger axon ! less resistance ! easier ion
flow ! faster action potential
A. Type A Fibers
- 4-20m diameter
- myelinated (saltatory propagation)
- action potentials 140m/sec
- carry somatic motor and somatic
sensory info
B. Type B Fibers
- 2-4m diameter
- myelinated (saltatory propagation)
- action potentials 18m/sec
- carry autonomic motor and visceral
sensory info
C. Type C Fibers
- < 2m diameter
- unmyelinated (continuous propagation)
- action potentials 1m/sec
- carry autonomic motor and visceral
sensory info
Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.

Synapse = junction between transmitting

neuron (presynaptic cell) and receiving
cell (postsynaptic cell), where nerve
impulse moves from one cell to next
Two types:
1. Electrical Synapse
-direct contact via gap junctions
-ions flow directly from pre to post cell
-less common synapse
-in brain (conscious perception)
2. Chemical synapse
-most common
8

SCCC BIO130 Chapter 12 Lecture Notes

Events at a Synapse:
e.g.Cholinergic Synapse
(Acetylcholine as neurotransmitter)
(Handout)

-pre and post cells separated by synaptic cleft

-presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitter
to trigger effect on post synaptic cell
-dynamic: facilitate or inhibit transmission,
depends on neurotransmitter:
1. Excititory Neurotransmitters =
-depolarization
-propagate action potential
2. Inhibitory Neurotransmitters =
-hyperpolarization
-suppress action potential
Propagation across chemical synapse always
slow but allows variability

Neurotransmitter Mechanism of Action

Post synaptic potential = graded potential

caused by a neurotransmitter due to
opening or closing of ion channels on
post synaptic cell membrane
Two types:
1. Excititory Post Synaptic Potential (EPSP)
-causes depolarization
2. Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential (IPSP)
-causes hyperpolarization
-inhibits postsynaptic cell (need larger
stimulus to reach threshold)
Multiple EPSPs needed to trigger action
potential in post cell axon
EPSP summation:
1. Temporal summation
-single synapse fires repeatedly: string of
EPSPs in one spot
-each EPSP depolarizes more until
threshold reached at hillock

1. Direct effect on membrane potential

(Handout)

2. Indirect effect on membrane potential

(Handout)

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.

SCCC BIO130 Chapter 12 Lecture Notes

Most nervous system activity results from

interplay of EPSPs and IPSPs to
promote differing degrees of facilitation
or inhibition to allow constant fine
tuning of response
Neuromodulators = chemicals that influence
synthesis, release, or degradation of
neurotransmitters thus altering normal
response of the synapse
Common Neurotransmitters:
1. Acetycholine- cholinergic synapses
-excititory
-direct effect
-skeletal neuromuscular junctions, many
CNS synapses, all neuron to neuron
PNS, all parasympathetic ANS
2. Norepinephrine- adrenergic synapses
-excititory
-second messengers
-many brain synapses, all sympathetic ANS
effector junctions

2. Spatial summation
-multiple synapses fire simultaneously
-collective depolarization reaches threshold

Facilitated = depolarized; brought closer to

threshold by some sort of stimulus, less
stimulus now required to reach threshold
(e.g. caffeine)
Post Synaptic Potentiation:
-repeat stimulation of same synapse
conditions synapse, pre cell more easily
stimulates post cell to threshold (repetition)

3. Dopamine
-excititory or inhibitory
-second messengers
-many brain synapses
-cocaine: inhibits removal = high
-Parkinsons disease: damage neurons =
ticks, jitters
4. Serotonin
-inhibitory
-direct or second messenger
-brain stem for emotion
-anti-depression/ anti-anxiety drugs
block uptake
5. Gamma aminobytyric acid (GABA)
-inhibitory
-direct effect
-brain: anxiety control, motor coordination
-alcohol: augments effects = loss of
coordination

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.

Factors that disrupt neural function:

1. pH: normal = 7.4
@ pH 7.8 ! spontaneous action potentials
= convulsions
@ pH 7.0 ! no action potentials
= unresponsive
2. Ion concentrations
high extracellular [K+] ! depolarize
membranes = death, cardiac arrest
3. Temperature: normal = 37C
-higher: neurons more excitable
(fever = hallucinations)
-lower: neurons non-responsive
(hypothermia = lethargy, confusion)
4. Nutrients
-neurons: no reserves, use a lot of ATP
-require constant and abundant glucose
-glucose only
5. Oxygen
-aerobic respiration only for ATP
-no ATP = neuron damage/death
10

SCCC BIO130 Chapter 12 Lecture Notes