In any case, NICs are riddled with anomalies, complexity and a lack

of cohesion. They can reward the progate while penalising the thrifty.
They can discourage saving. They can be unfair. They can impose high
marginal rates on low earners. They have been used to disguise tax
increases.

ABOLISH NICs

Coalition proposals for a universal at-rate pension eectively remove

the last justication for our National Insurance system. Whether we
like it or not, the contributory principle underlying National Insurance
Contributrions (NICs) will shortly be superuous.

Abolish NICs
Towards a more honest, fairer and simpler system
DAVID MARTIN

They should be merged into the income tax system once an overall tax
cut is aordable.

Price 10.00

DAVID MARTIN

THE AUTHOR
David Martin was formerly Head of the Tax Department at Herbert
Smith. He is a member of the Tax Law Review Committee of the
Institute of Fiscal Studies, was the Special Adviser to the Tax
Reform Commission and is the author of a number of studies on
tax simplification including Tax Simplification: how and why it
must be done (Centre for Policy Studies, 2005), Is the flat tax the
solution to our problems? (CPS, 2005) and Benefit Simplification:
how and why it must be done (CPS, 2009).
Acknowledgements
Support towards the publication of this study was given
by the Institute for Policy Research.
The aim of the Centre for Policy Studies is to develop and promote policies that
provide freedom and encouragement for individuals to pursue the aspirations
they have for themselves and their families, within the security and obligations
of a stable and law-abiding nation. The views expressed in our publications are,
however, the sole responsibility of the authors. Contributions are chosen for their
value in informing public debate and should not be taken as representing a
corporate view of the CPS or of its Directors. The CPS values its independence
and does not carry on activities with the intention of affecting public support for
any registered political party or for candidates at election, or to influence voters
in a referendum.
ISBN No. 978-1-906996-31-4
Centre for Policy Studies, November 2010
Printed by 4 Print, 138 Molesey Avenue, Surrey

CONTENTS
Summary
Foreword by Jill Kirby
1. Introduction

2. NICs from Beveridge to today

3. Pensions

17

4. NICs and income tax

22

5. Other adverse consequences of NICs

26

6. A way forward

29

7. The cost to the Exchequer

31

8. Conclusion

34

Bibliography
Appendix: Recent reviews of NICs

SUMMARY
In 2009/10, National Insurance Contributions (NICs) raised
about 74 billion for the National Insurance Fund. NICs also
raised another 20 billion for the NHS. In total, NICs
represented 20% of total government receipts.
Of the money raised by NICs, 61 billion was paid in the state
pension. A further 7 billion was paid in Incapacity Benefit.
Recent announcements indicate that the contributory
principle behind the state pension is to be scrapped. In its
place, a state pension of 140 a week, based on residence
criteria, has been proposed by the Coalition Government. In
addition, expenditure on contributory Employment Support
Allowance is likely to be substantially lower than on
Incapacity Benefit, which is being phased out.
These reforms effectively remove the last justification for the
continuation of NICs.
The problems with NICs
NICs are riddled with anomalies, complexity and a lack of
cohesion.

 The anomalies include measures which reward the profligate

while penalising the thrifty.
The complexity of the system is such that few individuals can
understand it; and cannot plan for their retirement or adverse
circumstances efficiently. This acts as a disincentive to saving.
NICs are often unfair. The value of contributory benefits can
be less than the corresponding non-contributory benefits.
The National Insurance Fund is an accounting device largely
ignored by the Treasury which treats payments in and out in the
same way as other government receipts and expenditure.
NICs impose high marginal rates of tax on low earners and
also create a large burden on employers taking on staff.
The system has also been used to disguise ordinary tax
increases and to divert money for other purposes such as
the NHS and green taxes from the National Insurance Fund.
Recommendations
The introduction of a universal state pension will provide the
ideal opportunity to merge NICs and income tax. A simple
payroll tax will also be needed to cover the cost of
abolishing employers NICs.
This should be done once the fiscal situation has improved
as it will require a small overall tax cut so that the most
entrepreneurial classes are not penalised.
While the actual amount paid by individuals in tax will
reduce, greater transparency and simplicity will mean that
the headline rate of income tax will inevitably increase.
Such a reform will therefore require great political skill.

FOREWORD
As the Coalitions welfare reform programme takes shape, a
number of principles are emerging. Foremost is the
Governments commitment to provide a welfare system that
makes work pay. Integral to this objective is a massive
simplification of the system, replacing a wide range of benefits
with a single universal credit (following the recommendations in
Benefit Simplification, David Martins 2009 CPS report).
The Coalitions latest proposal for a universal flat-rate pension is
consistent with this approach, removing the need for complex
means-tested pension credits or top-ups. Such a universal
pension would also remove the penalty that currently falls on
those individuals who save for a modest personal pension only
to find that in so doing they are merely depriving themselves of
state top-ups to which they would otherwise be entitled.
These moves to simplification, and the removal of deterrents to
working and saving, are welcome. However, it is clear that these
reforms further weaken the contributory principle, since it
appears that neither universal credits nor universal pensions will
be determined by the level of the recipients National Insurance
contributions. The contributory principle is, as David Martin

explains in this new report, already threadbare. The connection

between contributions made and benefits later received is at
best tenuous and, in the case of many entitlements, non-existent.
This report shows clearly how National Insurance (NI) has become
income tax by another name. Yet, as the author shows, it is riddled
with inconsistencies, is extremely complex and difficult to compute
or to predict. In fact, if NI were a tax, it would be likely to fail all four
of Adam Smiths principles of taxation: fairness, simplicity, certainty
and efficiency. The solution recommended in this report is to
simplify NI whilst merging it with income tax.
The abandonment of the contributory principle, as originally
conceived, is a cause for regret: individuals should be
encouraged to be independent and to make provision for their
own health and retirement needs. But it is clear that
contributions through the agency of the state are not the
answer, since these contributions are largely subsumed into
government revenues. A better way forward would be to ease
the overall burden of taxation and provide incentives for
taxpayers to take greater responsibility for funding their own
health and social care, whilst supporting those unable to do so.
The Centre for Policy Studies has long argued for lower and
simpler taxation. A merger of tax and NI would lead to a much
higher headline rate of tax. Such a step would provide a simpler,
more transparent and more honest approach to taxation.
Politicians wishing to raise taxes would no longer be able to hide
behind the device of raising NI rates. David Martin recommends
that the proposed merger should be accompanied by an overall
tax cut. Indeed, such a merger would surely intensify pressure to
cut tax rates and to keep taxes low, thereby incentivising work and
generating prosperity for all.
Jill Kirby

November 2010

1. INTRODUCTION
On 25 October 2010, plans for a universal state pension of 140
a week were announced in the media. While no official
announcement has yet been made, it appears likely that this
welcome reform will be introduced shortly.
What has not been commented on, however, is how a universal
state pension will remove one of the last remaining justifications
for National Insurance Contributions (NICs).
In 2009/10, the total of NICs collected by government was 97
billion. This was higher than the total VAT collected (84 billion),
and was 67% of the aggregate amount of both income tax and
capital gains tax for that year (144 billion). NICs constituted
over 20% of government receipts of 476 billion for that year.
So NICs are clearly an important source of revenue. Yet what
NICs actually are, who pays, where the money goes, and how
the system works is not well understood.
This paper attempts to throw light on these issues. The
conclusion is that the NIC system badly needs attention. It is

complex, cumbersome, misleading and ramshackle. The system

is riddled with anomalies and inconsistencies.
In particular, with the exception of the state pension, the value
of contributory benefits is not very large. Furthermore, over
recent years, politicians have referred to the contributory
principle when increasing rates of NICs to disguise what were in
truth ordinary tax increases.
But, as this paper demonstrates, the contributory principle has
become threadbare, and those paying NICs might well be
surprised to learn how little they get back in return. The only
logical solution to these problems particularly if the state
pension is to be replaced by a universal pension, available to all
is to end the pretence that there is a real contributory basis to
benefit entitlements; and to merge the income tax and NIC
systems.
The result would be a more honest system whereby the claim
that benefits are substantively linked to contributions is
abandoned; a fairer system in which many of the excessively
high marginal rates would be eliminated; and a simpler system
which could be understood by all.

2. NICS FROM BEVERIDGE TO TODAY

For William Beveridge, social security was only a part of the fight
against the five giant problems of want, disease, ignorance,
squalor and idleness. The social security system should tackle
the problem of want, without undermining the effort to tackle
the other giant problems. The state should not stifle incentive,
opportunity, responsibility; in establishing a national minimum, it
should leave room and encouragement for voluntary action by
each individual to provide more than that minimum for himself
and his family.
The Beveridge Report of 1942 proposed that in return for a flat
rate contribution of four shillings and threepence (22p) per
week by an adult man in employment, and three shillings and
threepence (17p) per week from his employer workers
should be able to claim specified benefits which would also be
paid at a fixed rate. There were to be eight available benefits:
sickness, medical, unemployment, widows, orphan, old age,
maternity and funeral benefits. The system proposed was based
on a real insurance contract, which involved the pooling of the
insured risks through premium payments which reflected the
value of potential benefits.
3

Beveridge was opposed to means-tested benefits. Meanstesting was intended to play a tiny part in the new system,
because in particular it created high marginal tax rates for the
poor, ie. the poverty trap.
The rationale for Beveridge
There are strong arguments for social insurance. Claimants
retain a sense of dignity and self-respect, as they have paid the
insurance premiums for their benefits. Further, because
contribution-based benefits are not means-tested, there are few
disincentives on people to take extra steps, such as saving, to
provide for more than the minimum that is provided from the
state under its social security scheme. It was also intended that
social security would enhance a sense of social solidarity,
because of the pooling together of risks.
What actually happened
It is commonly stated that the Attlee Government implemented
Beveridges recommendations in 1948. But it is important to
understand, however, that many of Beveridges recommendations
were never actually implemented, primarily because of the need
to provide benefits to those who did not have a full contribution
record.
For example, Beveridge had said that a state pension should
not be paid to those with less than a 20 year contribution record
but this stipulation was not practicable given the needs of, for
example, older returning ex-servicemen. Beveridge had also
said that means-tested benefits should be set at a very low
level. But not only were contributory benefits set at levels higher
than Beveridge advised but non-contributory benefits were set
with even higher scales than contributory ones. The meanstested National Assistance thus undermined from the outset
one of Beveridges foundations for his National Insurance
4

Scheme. Contrary to what Beveridge and others had predicted,

there was dramatic growth in the numbers of those claiming
National Assistance. Further, NICs received were insufficient to
pay contributory benefits, and Treasury grants were needed to
top up the National Insurance Fund
Thus the insurance principles expounded by Beveridge had
already been largely superseded by 1948. The desire to pay
higher benefits than were funded by contributions, and the
need to make some provision for those who had not paid their
requisite contributions, undermined these principles. But on top
of that, from its inception, there was no real actuarial link
between payments in for the different insured risks, and
payments out of the National Insurance Fund.
Since then, as will be seen below, the extent to which the
contributory principle has been applied has continued to
diminish, even though many (wrongly) assume that this principle
still applies in some substantial way. We should recognise that
universal welfare is now largely provided by means-tested
benefits rather than through the National Insurance Scheme.
The decline of the contributory principle
Flat rate NICs were abandoned in the 1960s and replaced by
earnings-linked contributions. Unlike in some overseas
jurisdictions, however, (such as Germany and France), benefits
in the UK continued to be paid at a flat rate. Those who paid in
more because of higher earnings were not given higher benefits
or pensions as a result.
A few changes did enhance the contributory principle (such as
the 1978 earnings related pension provisions (SERPS)). However,
the great majority of changes tended to undermine it further.
For example, the value of contributory benefits has continually
5

declined because they have not been index-linked, either in line

with earnings or sometimes not in line with inflation either.
Resources have been channelled into costly means-tested
benefits, such as Housing Benefit, Pension Credit and Tax
Credits. Restrictions have also grown on contributory benefits
such as Incapacity Benefit and contribution-based Jobseekers
Allowance. The latest example of such a restriction is the new
time limit for receiving contribution-based Employment and
Support Allowance which was announced in the spending
review of 20 October 2010.
Current Contribution Rates
NICs payments are now collected in a number of distinct
classes. Class 1 NICs are paid by employees and their
employers, Class 1A NICs are paid by employers only, on the
value of benefits in kind such as company cars. Class 1B NICs
are payable by employers when entering into a PAYE settlement
agreement with HMRC. Class 2 contributions are small fixed
amounts payable by the self-employed. Class 3 NICs are
voluntary contributions paid by people who want to fill a gap in
their contribution record, and Class 4 contributions are further
charges on the self-employed people who earn more than a
minimum level of profits.
Class 1 contributions are paid by employees at the rate of 11%
for earnings above the primary threshold of 110 a week and
below the upper earnings limit of 844 a week. They are paid at
the rate of 1% for earnings above the upper earnings limit.
Contracted-out rebates of 1.6% are available for employees in
salary-related or money purchase pension schemes.
Employees who have earnings exceeding the lower income limit
of 97 a week but below the primary threshold of 110 a week

are granted NIC credits to protect their benefit entitlement

without being liable for actual payment.
There is a continuing reduced rate of 4.85% for Class 1 NICs
available for some women employees who married before 1977
and elected to receive reduced benefits. NICs are not due from
employees after they reach the state pension retirement age,
although their employers are still required to contribute.
Class 1 contributions payable by employers are due at 12.8% for
earnings above the secondary threshold of 110 a week, save
that rebates (of 3.7% and 1.4% respectively) are available where
salary related or money purchase pension schemes are also in
effect.
The Class 2 rate for self employed workers is 2.40 a week,
although there is no liability where earnings fall below 5,075 a
year. There are special Class 2 rates for certain workers, such
as fishermen and volunteer development workers.
Class 3 voluntary contributions are due at 12.05 a week.
Class 4 contributions are due at 8% for earnings over 5,715 a
year and below 43,875 a year, and are due at the rate of 1% on
earnings over 43,875 a year.
In the year 2008/09, the National Insurance Fund received the
following payments from the various Classes of NICs.
Class 1, 1A and 1B NICs
Class 2 NICs
Class 3 NICs
Class 4 NICs

72 billion
230 million
126 million
1.7 billion

As explained below further NIC payments were paid directly to

the National Health Service rather than into the National
Insurance Fund.
People who are unable to work or do not work for specified
reasons may be able to claim NIC credits, as if they had actually
paid Class I NICs. This is an area of real complexity.1
Currently, for the full state pension to be payable sufficient
payments must either have actually been paid or have been
credited as being paid in each of 30 years before the
retirement date (this will apparently no longer apply if the noncontributory pension of 140 a week is introduced).
Steve Webb MP, Minister of State for Pensions, has recently
launched a consultation on changes to National Insurance credits,

For example a person can claim credits if he is in receipt of Jobseekers

Allowance (JSA), or would be in receipt of JSA were he not sanctioned for
benefit offence, or he can show that he can satisfy certain specified conditions
for JSA (such as being available for work and actively seeking work), even
though he is not actually receiving JSA. Credits can also be available for persons
who are 16 to 18 years old, or who are older but in full-time education, or who are
claiming maternity benefit, on jury service, aged 60 or over, who are claiming tax
credits, or have been wrongly awarded credits as a result of official error, or who
get child benefit for a child under 12, or who have certain caring responsibilities,
or who receive income support for certain specified reasons, or who have
wrongly served imprisonment etc. The rules are complicated further where a
person is married or is cohabiting.
Such credits count towards one of the two contribution conditions that need to
be satisfied. The first condition is that specified contributions must actually have
been paid in the relevant number of tax years before the claim the exact rules
vary depending on the benefit being claimed. The second condition is that
specified contributions must either actually have been paid or have been
credited as paid in the two tax years preceding the claim.

which will be particularly aimed at grandparents, and anyone who

is providing care for a young relative under the age of 12.
The National Insurance Fund
Most NICs are paid into the National Insurance Fund. The Fund
also receives income from making investments, and, although
this has not happened for some years, the Treasury may also
make grants to the Fund.
The Fund is used to pay contributory benefits, including the
state pension which is easily the largest expense met by the
Fund. The Fund operates on a pay as you go basis, with NICs
received being used to pay benefits in the same year. It is
therefore very different to a private pension or insurance fund
which accumulates reserves to pay future benefits or meet
future claims.
A surplus of over 50 billion has nevertheless accumulated in
the Fund in recent years. This is largely because the state
pension has only been increased in line with inflation in recent
years whereas NICs have increased in line with earnings, which
have generally risen more quickly than inflation. The surplus is
invested in Government gilt-edged stock. This surplus is greater
than recommended by the Government Actuary, who suggests
that the Fund should keep a balance equal to two months
expenditure on benefits. There are, however, no announced
plans to reduce the surplus.
It appears that from the Treasurys point of view NICs are a
convenient form of taxation, where in practice it seems that
rates can be increased with less protest than would be true for
income tax. From this point of view National Insurance benefits,
including the state pension, are simply a part of total public
expenditure, and it does not matter whether the money to pay
9

them comes from NICs or from any other source of taxation. A

good example of this appeared in the government spending
review. No one mentioned that the time restriction on
contribution-based ESA would save the National Insurance Fund
money. It was only stated that the saving would help
government finances.
Fudge One: payments to hospitals
The lack of any hard boundary between the National Insurance
Fund and general government finances can also be illustrated
by the way in which money has been diverted from the Fund by
successive government manoeuvres relating to the NHS and to
environmental taxes.
Since 1948 it has been possible for money in the Fund to be
used for payments to the National Health Service. But under
current legislation, a proportion of NICs can be paid to the NHS
without passing through the Fund at all. Just over 20 billion a
year in NIC payments is currently diverted in this way.
The mechanism has undermined the integrity of the National
Insurance Fund. For example, it was stated in 2002 that the
increase in contribution rates of 1% on earnings (including
earnings above the upper earnings limit) would be paid directly
to the NHS. However, as the Government Actuary pointed out,
these changes had a negative rather than merely a neutral
effect on the Fund, because the NHS contribution was
increased by 1% of all earnings, not just earnings above the
threshold on which contributions were payable.
There is however a fundamental problem which goes deeper
than this. No true hypothecation to the NHS is possible for these
payments. The Government can plan to increase expenditure on
anything it wishes. If it then increases NICs to pay more to
10

hospitals, the residue of expenditure that it needs to fund

hospitals from general taxation is reduced, so that the
Government thereby obtains the funds that it needs to release
for the other planned expenditure.
Fudge Two: payments to green causes
In a similar way, the Fund has also been deliberately and
substantially reduced by the small print in a number of green
taxes including the landfill tax, the climate change levy and
the aggregates levy. These taxes were levied in order to further
green objectives and to burnish the Governments green
credentials. But a concurrent repayment was made to
employers by means of a reduction in their Class 1
contributions. This was for example 0.3% in the case of the
climate levy. The Government could therefore say that the
green taxes were revenue neutral on employers, but they did of
course reduce the NICs paid into the Fund.
Answers given to parliamentary questions from Paul Flynn MP
demonstrate that employers have actually been overcompensated in this way, with reductions in employers
contributions exceeding the amounts of the green taxes paid.2
For example, in the case of the first two years of operating the
landfill tax in 1997/98 and 1998/99, the Fund lost 550 million and
610 million respectively, whereas landfill tax receipts were only
352 million and 323 million respectively. It has been
estimated that in the period up to 2005/06 the Fund has lost
about 13 billion through this process.3

Commons written answers to Parliamentary Questions of 13 June 2005 and

21 June 2005.

Calculations based on the answers to the Parliamentary Questions.

11

What do people really get for paying NICs?

Today, the only remaining contribution-based benefits are
Bereavement
Allowance,
contribution-based
JSA
and
contribution-based ESA, Incapacity Benefit (which is being
superseded by ESA), Statutory Maternity Pay and the state
pension. (Maternity Allowance is also based on the employment
record, although not strictly on NICs paid). The state pension is
by far the most important of these in terms of total cost to the
National Insurance Fund.
These contrast with a much wider range of non-contributory
benefits including Attendance Allowance, Carers Allowance,
Child Benefit, Council Tax Benefit, Disability Living Allowance,
Income Support, Income-based JSA, Income-based ESA,
Incapacity Benefit for young people, Guardians Allowance,
Housing Benefit, Industrial Injuries Benefit, Pension Credit,
Statutory Adoption Pay, Statutory Maternity Pay, Statutory
Paternity Pay, Statutory Sick Pay, and War Pensions/Armed
Forces Compensation Scheme. Many further subsidiary
benefits, such as free school meals, free prescriptions, dental
treatment, spectacles and so on may also be available. Many of
these benefits are means tested but some, notably Disabled
Living Allowance and Child Benefit (pending the changes in
three years time which have recently been announced) are not.
How claimants who have paid NICs may be no better off
Not only are non-contributory benefits more widespread and
comprehensive than contributory benefits, a particular meanstested benefit may be more generous than the corresponding
contributory benefit. An example of this is Jobseekers
Allowance (JSA).
Income-based JSA and contribution-based JSA are both paid at
the same basic rate of 65.45 a week for a single adult over 25.
12

Entitlement to income-based JSA is restricted where the

claimant has capital in excess of 6,000 or income in excess of
a small disregard. However income-based JSA is more
generous for the claimant compared to contribution-based JSA.
This is because income-based JSA is an automatic passport to
health benefits, such as free prescriptions, and education
benefits, such as free school meals. It may also help a claim for
social fund payments. If in receipt of income-based JSA a
person is automatically entitled to maximum housing benefit
and council tax benefit. Contribution-based JSA carries no such
automatic entitlement to any of these benefits. Further it is
taken into account in calculating income for the purposes of
housing and council tax benefits so that these benefits may be
reduced below the amounts paid to someone on income-based
JSA, who receives the maximum. Also contribution-based JSA is
limited to a 183 day period, although complicated rules may
permit an extension for a further 183 days no such time limit
applies to income-based JSA.
Similar rules apply for the Employment and Support Allowance
(ESA) both are paid at the rate of 65.45 a week for a single
adult in the assessment phase, although extra components are
payable in the main phase. There are similar advantages to
having income-based ESA rather than contribution-based ESA
as apply for JSA, a strict time limit for which contribution-based
ESA can be paid having been announced recently in the
comprehensive spending review.
The system also contains hidden and unexplained crosssubsidies and anomalies. Some immediate anomalies spring
from the system of classifying NICs. For example, only Class 1, 2
and 3 NICs are credited to an individuals NIC account. Class 1A,

13

1B and 4 NICs do not count towards benefit entitlements,

although of course they must still be paid.
Class 1 NICs are paid as a higher proportion to benefits
received by the employed than Class 2 and 4 NICs paid as a
proportion of benefits received by the self-employed. it is
estimated that this gives rise to a hidden subsidy of 1.95 billion
a year to the self-employed.4 In fact Class 2 NICs are of such a
small amount that, as confirmed by notes to the National
Insurance Fund Account, no action is in practice taken to
enforce payment if they are not paid. It is stated that the cost to
the authorities of doing this would not be justified.
In practice, it is often uncertain whether workers are employed
or self-employed. The issue has given rise to numerous
disputes, some of which have only been resolved through
further legislation. This may, for example, deem specified
classes of workers to be employed for NIC purposes even if this
is not actually the case.
It can be hard to say what value is truly received for voluntary
Class 3 contributions. These will generally be paid to enhance
the state pension. But the calculation of whether this is worth
doing will often be so difficult, having regard to the availability of
pension credit and other uncertainties and complexities that
one can hardly expect most people to manage to evaluate this
issue.
Another anomaly is that the proportion of NICs paid to the NHS
represents a transfer of value from those whom pay NICs to

14

HM Treasury, Tax Ready Reckoner and Tax Reliefs, Table 7, November 2008.

those who do not pay NICs, because all get National Health,
whether or not they pay NICs.
As mentioned above, it is clear that there is no formal actuarial
relationship between the amounts of NICs paid and any benefits
receivable as a result. Although the Government Actuary is
asked to confirm that the aggregate amounts paid into the
National Insurance Fund will suffice on an annual basis to meet
payments due to be made from the Fund, there is no attribution
or hypothecation of payments to specific risks or rewards, or
calculations of how NICs are matched to specific benefits. In
other words, the type of actuarial calculations which real
insurance companies need to carry out are simply not done.
It could be argued that, viewed as an insurance contract, the
better-off get a bad deal for NICs paid, because NICs are
earnings-related and they therefore pay more for their benefits,
in particular the state pension. One could also say that the
poorer section of society also get a bad deal, because they are
better off on means-tested benefits and so contributory benefits
have little real value for them.
The low value of contributory benefits
With the exception of the state pension, contributory benefits
are of minor importance in overall welfare provision.
The income of the National Insurance Fund for the year ended
31 March 2009 was 78 billion, of which 74 billion was NICs
received with the balance coming from investment income and
other receipts. Benefits paid from the National Insurance Fund
totalled 70 billion. Of this, 61 billion or 87% was for the
state pension and 7 billion (10%) for Incapacity Benefit. Other
benefits were for smaller amounts for example, contributionbased JSA was just 700 million.
15

The contributory principle behind the state pension is

apparently being scrapped. But the second largest contributory
benefit Incapacity Benefit is also currently being replaced
by ESA. To the extent that Incapacity Benefit is in practice
substituted by income-based ESA, and to the extent that
contribution-based ESA is reduced by having become time
limited, the amounts of non-pension payments from the Fund
will become even smaller.
It seems quite clear that if the state pension is to be funded
through general taxation, or in some other fashion outside the
NIC system, there would be no justification for retaining the NIC
system, with all its cost, complexity and difficulties.
Only 42.5% of benefit expenditure is now for contributory
benefits. The fraction has been declining steadily over the years
it was 63% in the late 1970s. Further, these percentages
overstate the extent to which benefits are paid in return for
actual contributions received, because of the system for
crediting NICs for many people. If the state pension is excluded,
less than 10% of benefits paid are contributory benefits, and this
percentage can be expected to fall further to around 6% in the
near future as the cost of providing contribution-based ESA falls
in comparison to that previously spent on Incapacity Benefit.
The moves towards a new universal working age benefit, and
the proposed universal state pension, are both much to be
welcomed they should promote great simplification. The
universal benefit should enable great progress to be made on
creating proper work incentives and the universal pension
should similarly encourage people to save for their future. But it
should also be recognised, that however attractive the idea of
contributory benefits in principle these reforms should also
herald the effective end of NICs.
16

3. PENSIONS
It has recently been stated that Britain now has one of the most
complex systems for pension provision in the world.5 The NIC
and state pension system have substantially contributed to this
complexity. Over the years reforms have tended to add layers of
complication and short-term political considerations have
collided with the need for long term and comprehensive
planning.
The state pension is 97.65 a week for a single person and
156.15 a week for a couple (based on full contributions paid).
However the pension credit minimum guarantee is 132.60 a
week for a single person and 202.40 for a couple, irrespective
of contributions paid. A complicated system for allowing NIC
credits clouds the picture further, while the combination of the
state pension rules and the pension credit rules produce a
number of apparent anomalies.

Pensions Commission, Pensions challenges and choices: the first report of

the Pensions Commission, 2004.
17

Punishing the thrifty, rewarding the prodigal

Suppose for example that a single person (Mr A) has worked on
a self-employed basis for 45 years and paid his NICs
accordingly, which have aggregated to many thousands of
pounds. He has also managed to save, say, 30,000 in the bank.
He is just retired, aged 65, and is entitled to the state pension of
97.65 a week. His actual interest income earned on his bank
savings is about 2%, or 12 a week.
However he has deemed income on his bank balance for the
purpose of calculating any pension credits is 1 a week for
every 500 that his savings exceed 10,000, which works out at
40 a week. His pension plus his deemed income totals 137.65
a week and he is not therefore entitled to any guaranteed
pension credit because this exceeds the minimum income
guarantee of 132.60.
Mr A then has to calculate whether he has any pension savings
credit. He first deducts the pension savings threshold of 98.40
from his total income for PC purposes of 137.65 to get 39.25.
He then calculates 60% of this, which is 23.55. Because this
exceeds the maximum of 20.52 he is restricted to this
maximum for savings credit. The calculation is not finished
however. He calculates 40% of the amount by which his total
income exceeds the minimum income guarantee, which is 40%
of (137.65 minus 132.60), or 2.02. This is deducted from the
amount of 20.52 previously calculated to yield an entitlement
to savings credit of 18.50 a week.
Fortunately Mr As circumstances and finances are simple
otherwise the calculation of his pension credit would be even
more complicated than this.

18

So his actual income will be his pension of 97.65 plus his

actual interest income of 12, plus savings credit of 18.50 a
week, a total of 128.15 a week.
Now compare his position with that of Mr B. Mr B inherited some
money in his youth which he invested to receive investment
income. He has never needed to work and he has never been
liable to pay NICs. However by the age of 65 his inheritance is
exhausted and he is therefore able to claim pension credit.
Fortunately his calculation is very straightforward. Even more
fortunately (for him), the calculation yields an entitlement to
receive the minimum guarantee of 132.60 a week. He is
therefore receiving 4.45 a week more than Mr A.
Pension rights based on residence
There has been a special provision for many years which allows
increased pensions (under category D) to persons over 80
based on their period of residence in the UK if they would not
be entitled to a full pension under the normal contribution rules.
The Turner report proposed extending this mechanism to
pensioners over 75. There would be substantial advantages to
extending this residence rule further so that it apples to all
pensioners. As the Turner report confirms, (in line with many
other commentators), the current system unfairly disadvantages
sections of society, in particular women, who have interrupted
working lives and caring responsibilities. Currently only about
30% of women are estimated to have rights to a full pension on
their own account, compared with 85% of men, although the
reduction to 30 qualifying years for a full pension will clearly
alleviate the position.
It would be better to have all pension rights based on UK
residence, and to have it funded from general taxation.
Obviously income tax would then have to increase accordingly.
19

Mr B in the example given above would of course be entitled to

a full state pension because of his residence in the UK. It is
worth noting however, that if there were a merger of the NIC and
income tax systems the same rates of tax would apply to all
income. This would lower the tax burden on earned income and
increase it on investment income, and create a more
streamlined and effective system. So Mr B would pay more tax
on his investment income, and Mr A would correspondingly pay
less tax than the tax and NICs which are due under the current
system on his earned income.
This proposed reform, based on Turners analysis, would
substantially simplify matters and help people to understand
their own position. Importantly, it would also encourage many
people to save who at present have little incentive to do so.
People would be entitled to the state pension, which would be
due to many people now receiving pension credit, whatever
their other income or assets. This is in line with the objectives
set by Turner, that we should have a less means-tested and
more universal state pension. At present, for those anticipating
receiving pension credit in retirement, it may not be worthwhile
to save, notwithstanding the savings credit. In particular
investment in a private pension could offer real value to all
savers under such a new system, which is not true for many at
the moment.
The second state pension would cease under this proposal, and
the right to reduced payments by people who were contracted
out would no longer apply.
Current entitlements based on NICs paid would be converted
into a credit for a number of years UK residence on a formula
basis to avoid a very lengthy transitional process. The formula,
which should be kept as simple as possible, should also contain
20

an adjustment so that those who have benefitted from reduced

NICs by contracting out of the second state pension, should
have their universal state pension reduced somewhat. They
would be compensated for this through their other pension
arrangements, and fairness across all NIC contributors would be
achieved in this way.
It would also seem desirable that as far as possible, and subject
to fulfilling obligations to EU citizens, permanent immigrants to
the UK over a certain age should be required to secure their
financial position on retirement as a condition of entry. This
would mean that their future needs could be met even though
they would not be able to satisfy the residence condition for a
full UK pension.
To summarise however, in a year that a person is resident in the
UK he has corresponding obligations as a resident to pay UK
tax. Paying due tax would give rise to the pension entitlement
under the above proposal.

21

4. NICS AND INCOME TAX

A further range of anomalies and complications occur through
the inter-relationship of NICs with income tax.
The level of earnings at which NICs become payable has been
set in the past to match the personal allowance at which
income tax becomes payable. However the two amounts are
separating again with the increase in the personal allowance for
tax purposes, which will rise to 7,475 in 2011/12. The last Labour
Government increased the upper earnings limit for NICs to
match the point at which income tax became payable at 40%.
This addressed a curious discrepancy where marginal
aggregated rates of tax and NICs fell from 31% to 21% between
salary levels between the earlier upper earnings NIC limit of
33,000 a year and the higher rate threshold for income tax of
40,000, and then increased back up to 41%. However, as the
two systems for NICs and income tax are separate, it is
inevitable that anomalous marginal tax and NIC rates will occur,
whether in specific individual circumstances, or for taxpayers
generally.
There are other peculiar features, generally caused by history
rather than any present justification, arising in a comparison of
22

the income tax and NIC rules. For example, an employee is

liable to income tax but is not liable to NICs on many benefits in
kind. NICs are calculated on a weekly or a monthly basis,
whereas tax is calculated on an annual basis. NICs are
calculated per employment, whereas tax is calculated on the
aggregate for all employments.
The differences can lead to more anomalies and complexities.
For example if an employer pays salary to an employee he has
to deduct income tax and NICs under the PAYE system. If the
employee then uses some of the money to make a pension
contribution he can obtain a tax refund but not a NIC refund. If,
however, the employer pays into the pension fund direct for the
employees benefit the employee will have neither a tax nor an
NIC liability. Other discrepancies arise, for example, on the
treatment of share awards to employees. These anomalies are
of sufficient importance that often taxpayers are almost obliged
to seek out expensive tax advice before they can decide what
to do for the best.
For most of the twentieth century, investment income was taxed
more heavily than earned income. The most recent mechanism
for achieving this was the investment income surcharge, which
stood at 15% at the time it was abolished in 1985. Now, however,
because of NICs, we have what is in effect an earned income
surcharge. It is not surprising that this encourages taxpayers to
try and arrange their affairs to avoid the charge. The best known
example of this is where individuals set up personal service
companies to supply their services to third parties. The service
company charges a fee, and then pays a dividend to the
individual concerned. In this way it is intended to avoid payment
of the NICs which would be due if the individual were employed
directly and paid a salary by the third party.
23

This has provided a good illustration of an arms race between

HMRC and taxpayers. It commenced with HMRC introducing the
notorious tax rules known as IR35 (after the Press Release in
which this law was first proposed). The rules involve an eight
stage calculation, broadly taking the income received by the
personal service company, deducting an arbitrary 5% allowance,
deducting other actual expenses and allowances, deducting
pension and salary actually paid to the individual, and then
calculating tax and NICs on the balance as if it had been paid
out in salary by the company. This combined amount is then
payable by the company. Further calculations are then required
to give credit for tax already paid if the personal service
company subsequently pays dividends to the individual.
The question of identifying which companies are caught by this
law is a very grey area, but it matters to many thousands of
small businesses because the risk of a charge is a cause of
concern for them.
In an effort to avoid the charge a large number of managed
service companies came into being. They were intended to get
around the IR35 rules since these companies were not
controlled by any of the individuals whose services were being
supplied. To tackle this problem HMRC introduced a further
tranche of complicated legislation, which itself needed further
amendments in order that it should apply as intended.
All this might perhaps be justified if IR35 was an effective taxraising measure. When IR35 was introduced it was estimated
that it would raise 900 million a year; this figure was confirmed
by the Paymaster General, Dawn Primarolo MP, speaking in
Parliament on 3 May 2000. However, in May 2009, following a
Freedom of Information request, it was revealed that IR35 had

24

raised only 9.2 million in the five years from 2002/03 that is,
less than 2 million a year.
It is likely that the rules have had some deterrent effect, so that
a percentage of people pay more than the individual personal
allowance tax as salary in the hope of avoiding an IR35 enquiry.
However, the majority of those potentially affected pay little by
way of salary, and instead seek to escape IR35 by restructuring
their working arrangements.
So IR35, for the reasons discussed above, is a cumbersome and
largely ineffective piece of anti-avoidance legislation. It has
failed to prevent the growth of packaged service companies,
which was a key objective of the legislation when introduced in
1999. Between 2002 and 2006 the number of people using
packaged companies more than tripled from 65,000 to
240,000.
It is not surprising that one of the first tasks given to the new
Office for Tax Simplification is to advise how to simplify the IR35
rules. This would help not only the small businesses who are
charged, but also the many thousands of other small
businesses who recognise that they could be affected and try
to arrange their affairs to minimise the risks that they may be
caught. But the root cause of all the problems, it will be noted, is
the NIC system itself.

25

5. OTHER ADVERSE CONSEQUENCES OF NICS

Politics
In the past, NICs have been increased as a less high profile way to
increase government revenue compared with raising the rate of
income tax. For example it was widely reported ahead of the
election in June 2001 that, while the Chancellor had promised not
to increase income tax rates, he was planning to raise NIC rates.
Indeed, in the April 2002 budget it was confirmed that NICs would
go up by 1p in the pound from April 2003. This increase would also
apply to earnings above the upper earnings limit (which had
previously been an absolute cap). The extra money was stated to
be for the NHS, but as explained above, the rise in NICs had a
similar economic effect for the Government as a rise in income tax.
A tax on employment
Employers NICs are due at the rate of 12.8%, as mentioned
above. This high levy inevitably reduces the amount that
employers can afford to pay for its payroll, meaning that wages
are reduced and/or the number of employees are reduced. The
nature of this tax has therefore been widely criticised, by the IFS
and others, who say that other forms of taxation would have a
less damaging effect on the economy.
26

The Conservatives accepted this point by promising in their

2010 election manifesto to give new small businesses an
exemption from employer NICs.
Costs of running NICs
The costs charged to the National Insurance Fund by HMRC for
collecting NICs totalled 300 million for the year 2008/09. The
costs charged by DWP for distributing benefits totalled 1
billion. Clearly the former cost could be substantially reduced or
eliminated if the tax and NIC systems were merged.
It is not easy to evaluate what are the extra compliance costs
for taxpayers of a separate NIC system. It is however clear that
payroll compliance is a heavy burden on business, and that this
burden falls disproportionately hard on small business. The
HMRC Measurement Project (KPMG 2006) estimated that the
administrative burden of tax regulation in the UK was 5.1 billion
a year of which 70% is borne by companies with fewer than 10
employees. Anything which can be done to reduce their
compliance costs is clearly to be welcomed.
A Treasury paper of October 2007 on income tax and NIC
alignment indicated that the cost savings of aligning specific
rules for NICs and income tax may be disappointing. However
this paper made it clear at the outset that it took the current
policy framework as a given, namely that each system has a
different purpose, with NICs providing entitlements to
contributory benefits. Therefore it has not looked at merging
income tax and NICs into one charge.
It would seem a merger of NICs and income tax should in fact
confer significant administrative benefits on business, which would
no longer have to concern itself with the separate rules that apply
for NIC purposes. In a 2006 survey of business conducted for the
27

Tax Reform Commission, (which was set up by George Osborne

MP when he was Shadow Chancellor), 65% of respondents agreed
or strongly agreed that a system that combined income tax and
NICs, leaving the total tax burden unchanged, would be beneficial
to them. Only 8% disagreed or strongly disagreed.
A regressive system
For over 40 years NICs have been paid as a percentage of income
rather than at flat rates. This means that the current system is less
regressive than it might be. However, the rates of NICs are now so
high that the system retains some strongly regressive features.
Take the example of a check-out lady at a supermarket who earns
16,000 a year. She has to pay NICs of 11% on the excess of her
salary over the primary threshold of 5,750, which is a direct
charge on her of 1,120. On top of this the employer has to pay
NICs of 12.8% on the same excess amount, which is 1,310.
Economists have said that the economic consequence of
employers NICs is to reduce wage rates by a corresponding
amount. As a result of NICs the ladys wages are therefore
arguably reduced by an aggregate of up to 2,440 (simplifying the
calculation by ignoring the issue of the grossing up effect of
employer NICs).
This is in addition to basic rate income tax which is paid at the rate
of 20% on the excess over the personal allowance. This amounts to
a lower figure of 1,905, but this will be reduced to 1,705 when the
personal allowance is increased next year.
In this case, the NIC burden therefore exceeds the income tax
burden, and she is suffering aggregate marginal rates of tax
and NICs of up to 43.8%, taking employer NICs into account.
These high marginal rates for low earners constitute a
regressive feature of the current system.

28

6. A WAY FORWARD
The most straightforward way of resolving the above problems
would be to merge the income tax and NIC systems. Indeed this
proposal has already been made on several occasions.6 A simple
payroll tax (based on a set percentage of salary and the value of
any employee benefits) could then be charged to employers.
This would be calculated at a level required to pay those benefits
that are only enjoyed by employees, such as maternity pay, sick
pay and contribution-based JSA etc, and this level would be
lower than that currently charged as employer NICs.
The National Insurance Fund should be wound up.
Pensions would be based on years of residence in the UK.
Pensioners could be compensated for increased tax rates
(because they are not at present liable for NICs) through a
further increase to their personal allowances.
This would not mean that the contributory principle had been
sacrificed entirely. People would become entitled to their

See Appendix A for a list of recent proposals.

29

benefits by paying their due taxes. To see this more clearly

simply imagine that NICs were called income tax, and the
current charges left unchanged. This would not affect the
substance of current arrangements. If tax rates were then
adjusted to work more equitably the principle would not have
been further undermined. But most of the problems described
above would have been eliminated.
Indeed, reform along these lines could enhance the contributory
principle. Once people understand how the contributory principle
has been debased, then the incentive to take out private insurance
will increase.7 Legal & General is, for example, investigating
possibilities for private insurance in situations where cover
provided by the state is considered inadequate.
The current policy imperative is to ensure that there remains an
incentive for people to work; and to save to improve their
situation. Given the proposal for a pension for all satisfying the
residence condition it would be much easier than at present to
work out the level of any means-tested benefits for pensioners
that would not undermine such incentives.

As a technical point, the UK is party to arrangements which apply throughout the

European Economic Area. The UK also has a network of reciprocal agreements
with other countries, relating to pensions and to social security contributions.
These rules generally exempt citizens of one state from such contributions in
another state if they are only there for a limited time. If NICs were abolished as a
separate levy these arrangements would need to be revised or reinterpreted.
Different countries have different systems for social security, for example
whether or not hospital treatment is covered. Some countries such as Australia
have no separate system at all all benefits there are paid out of general
taxation. It would be a task for specialists in this area to evaluate the impact of a
merged tax for these cross-border purposes. It may be that a specified part of
the merged income tax should be expressly stated to be for social benefits, and
that amount could be used for the purposes of our international arrangements.

30

7. THE COST TO THE EXCHEQUER

Merging income tax and NICs will inevitably lead to a higher
rate of income tax. This could appear to be very bad news, even
if net pay packets were unaffected. Some reduction in the
aggregate rate would be made possible by charging the
combined tax on a broader tax base of income. It may still
appear, however, that a further reduction in the rate would be
appropriate. This would make a change much easier to sell
politically, as employees could be advised that their net pay
packets would actually increase. Although there would be
administration cost savings in a merger, these would not be
large in relation to the overall amounts paid.
The effect of the above proposals is therefore likely to be a
reduction in Government net revenues. It is relevant to mention
in passing that other sensible reforms needed for the tax
system are likely to have a similar effect.
However this potential loss of tax should be evaluated in the
light of a number of further factors:
Because of the dynamic effect of lower and simpler taxes,
increased levels of economic activity would result in higher
31

taxes actually being received in the future. The point has

often been made that a dynamic model for tax costs should
be used by the Treasury to reflect the knock-on
consequences of lower taxes.
Once growth in the economy is resumed, it would be
possible to reduce the tax burden as a percentage of GDP
without actually reducing the amount of tax collected,
without needing to take dynamic effects into account.
If there is to be any real success in creating more
subsidiarity and localism in politics, it will be necessary for
local authorities to raise more in local taxation than at
present. There are powerful arguments for moving in this
direction, whilst taking into account the need to continue to
help local authorities in poorer areas.
The details of how the Government proposes to fund its new
universal pension will remain unclear until the publication of their
Green Paper on the subject later this year. Estimates of its cost
vary widely, partly because different authors may make different
assumptions in order to make the comparison. The facts that
pension credit would be abolished and that contracted out
rebates would cease to apply clearly reduce the cost. Also, more
people would qualify for a full pension under the existing rules
because of the 30 year rule. Further, all pension costs will be
reduced (whether under the current system or any replacement
system) by increasing the pension age.
These factors reduce the incremental cost of a universal
pension. On the other hand, under the current system many
people do not claim pension credit, even though they are
entitled to it.

32

Timing of implementation
The merging of NICs and income tax will require an overall cut
in the amount of tax received by the Treasury (not least so that
the current advantages enjoyed by the self-employed are
shared by other employees).8
As a result, these reforms would best be implemented as the
economy moves out of recession, when such a tax cut would be
economically feasible.

At present, the self-employed pay 8% of earnings in NICs. The full rate for
employees is 11%, but the contracted-out rebate is 1.6%, bringing it down to
9.4% (this is the correct comparison because the self-employed do not
qualify for the second state pension, and so theirs is a contracted-out
rate).
33

8. CONCLUSION
The problems discussed in this paper are important because of
their direct financial impact.
But they are also important to anyone who believes that an
individual has a democratic right to a broad understanding of
how fundamental matters such as tax and benefits work without
having to take a specialist course of study in the subject. It is
only fair that every citizen should be able to have a reasonable
grasp of his financial obligations and rights to and from
government. The current system makes this very difficult for too
many people.
It would be wrong to say that this is because the problems are
insoluble. But solving them will require a more radical approach
than has to date been adopted.
The most significant financial effect of any reforms is perhaps
the likely impact on state pensions. If it were to be accepted,
however, that citizens should be entitled to a pension simply
based on years of UK residence funded by general taxation, or
if it were decided to pay for the state pension in some other

34

way, it would be appropriate to administer the last rites to the

existing NIC system.
The radical changes proposed in this paper will take time to
introduce. There would be formidable technical and political
challenges. Merging NICs and income tax would inevitably lead
to a higher headline rate of income tax (although the amount
taken by government would remain about the same). Opposition
parties may be tempted to claim that this is equivalent to a tax
increase. It may also make our tax system appear at first sight
to be uncompetitive in comparison to that in other countries
but it would be attractively simple and actual rates would not of
course be any higher than they are today. But these points
should be considered primarily as presentational.
Yes, the changes will require a combination of political will and
extremely effective communication skills. For a reforming
Government that believes in tax simplification and honesty, the
potential gains from such reforms are great.

35

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Stuart Adam and Glen Loutzenhizer, Integrating Income Tax and
National Insurance: an interim report, IFS, December 2007.
Nicholas Boys Smith, Reforming welfare, Reform, 2006.
Mike Brewer et al, Pensioner poverty over the next decade
what role for tax and benefit reform, IFS, July 2007.
DSS Deregulation review, Report of the Tax/NICs working group,
1993.
Andrew Dilnot et al, The Reform of Social Security, Oxford
University Press, 1984.
Derek Fraser, The evolution of the British Welfare State,
Humanity Press, 1983.
John Hills, Inclusion or Insurance? National Insurance and the
future of the contributory principle, Centre for Analysis of Social
Exclusion, May 2003.
HMSO, HM Treasury, Income Tax and National Insurance
Alignment: An Evidence-Based Assessment, 2007.
36

Michael Johnson, Dont let this crisis go to waste, Centre for

Policy Studies, September 2009.
Hugh Pemberton, Politics and pensions in post-war Britain,
History & Policy, March 2006.
Cedric Sandford (ed.), Integrating Tax and Social Security,
Redwood Books, 1995.
Antony Seeley, National Insurance Contributions:
introduction, House of Commons Library, May 2010.

an

Tolley, National Insurance Contributions 2009/2010.

Pensions Policy Instititute, What will pensions cost in future?,
November 2005.

37

APPENDIX:
RECENT REVIEWS OF NICS
In 1986 a Green Paper was published by the Treasury under Nigel
Lawson. Apart from addressing issues such as independent
taxation, it also looked at the possibility of merging NICs and
income tax. It concluded that there would be cost savings from
doing this, but the penalty of losing the contributory principle
would be too great. The paper pointed out that if the two systems
were merged people who were not in employment would find
themselves funding benefits to employees as mentioned above
this problem would be solved by funding such benefits through a
simple payroll tax. The Green Paper also pointed to the problem of
distributional effects of a merger in particular the kink which
then existed for incomes above the upper earnings limit and below
the higher rate income tax threshold would be affected (which Mr
Lawson referred to as the elephant trap). As mentioned above,
however, the kink has already been removed, and this problem
no longer exists.
However a working group set up by the last Conservative
Governments deregulation initiative recommended full

38

integration (see DSS Deregulation review, Report of the

Tax/NICs working group, 1993).
Further, most authors on the subject have come to the
conclusion that a merger is the right answer.
The 2007 IFS interim report on integrating income tax and NICs
stated that The literature specifically addressing income tax-NI
integration... is almost universally supportive As long ago as
1978, the British Tax Review published an article entitled
National Insurance Contributions A Second Income Tax,
which concluded:
In places the disparities between income tax and
national insurance contributions are distinctions without
differences, and.. .in other places the disparities may be
unnecessary and unfair... In practice even more than in
theory the contribution system is merely an adapted form
of the income tax system, and its separate status is to
some extent a mere illusion.
The IFS report continues by confirming that this set the tone for
much of the literature that followed. Dilnot et al (1984) proposed
the integration of income tax and NICs as part of a broader
integration of the tax and social security system. Webb (1992) in
a thorough analysis of integration, concluded:
A comprehensive integration of the systems of income tax
and National Insurance contributions would produce a major
improvement to the structure of the personal direct tax
system in the UK. The tax system would be more coherent,
the scope for removing structural anomalies would be
greater, and the scope for tax avoidance would be

39

reduced... now is the time to begin moving towards that

objective.
Dilnot (1995) argued that integration would be desirable and that
the main continuing barrier to income and social security tax
integration is politics and public perceptions.
Reports by business groups (British Chambers of Commerce,
2004) and professional groups (Chartered Institute of Taxation,
1998) suggested that full integration is likely to be the ideal
long-term goal, but then both elected to focus on incremental
technical steps towards alignment in the shorter term.
The Taylor report published in 1998 also looked at NICs. But it
largely confined its attention to issues such as distortions
created by the rates of NICs, which have to some extent already
been corrected, rather than the wider issues addressed in this
paper.

40

In any case, NICs are riddled with anomalies, complexity and a lack
of cohesion. They can reward the progate while penalising the thrifty.
They can discourage saving. They can be unfair. They can impose high
marginal rates on low earners. They have been used to disguise tax
increases.

ABOLISH NICs

Coalition proposals for a universal at-rate pension eectively remove

the last justication for our National Insurance system. Whether we
like it or not, the contributory principle underlying National Insurance
Contributrions (NICs) will shortly be superuous.

Abolish NICs
Towards a more honest, fairer and simpler system
DAVID MARTIN

They should be merged into the income tax system once an overall tax
cut is aordable.

Price 10.00

DAVID MARTIN