ELT Methodology

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
TOPIC 1
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING

KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES
1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to language
acquisition and learning. It provides insights to the nature of language, language
learning process, and characteristics of the effective language learner. It also
makes a distinction between language acquisition and language learning.
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to:
define the nature of language
describe the language learning process in early childhood
list the learner characteristics that affect second language learning
differentiate between language acquisition and language learning
1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

Language
Language
Acquisition
Acquisition
and
andLearning
Learning
Key
KeyConcepts
Concepts
and
andIssues
Issues
Nature of
Nature of
Language
Language
Language
Language
Learner
Learner
Language
Language
Learning
Learning
Process
Process
Acquisition
Acquisition
versus
versus
Learning
Learning
CONTENT
SESSION ONE (3 Hours)
1.2.1 Language Acquisition and Learning Key Concepts and Issues
It is important for you to develop an awareness of the properties of language and
an understanding L1 language development in children. Your understanding of
what language is and how the learner learns will determine to a large extent, your
philosophy of education, and how you teach English: your teaching style, your
approach, methods and classroom technique. In short, this knowledge of the
nature of language and the language learning process would enable you to teach
your learners to learn a second language more effectively.
1.2.1 Nature of Language
Exercise 1:
What is your definition of language?
Write down in twenty-five-words-or-less a definition of language.
Share your definition with another friend or in a small group.
Compare differences and similarities.
What is Language? There are many ways in which we could describe language.
Your definition of language (in the above) probably yield something that sounds
similar to the following composite definition: A language is considered to be a
system of communicating with other people using sounds, symbols and words in
expressing a meaning, idea or thought. This language can be used in many
forms, primarily through oral and written communications as well as using
expressions through body language.
Language is defined as "a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings

by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures or marks having
understood meanings." (Webster New International Dictionary of the English
Language, 654), and "is a tool for communication" (Emmet, 22). In most
common use of language, these signs are the words which we employ in such a
way that they may communicate ideas or feelings.
There are many possible theoretical positions about the nature of language.
Commonly, three different views are explicitly or implicitly reflected in current
approaches to language learning. They are:
The structural view of language

The structural view of language is that language is a system of structurally
related elements for the transmission of meaning. These elements are
usually described as:
phonological units (phonemes)
grammatical units (phrases, clauses, sentences)
grammatical operations (adding, shifting, joining or transforming
elements)
lexical items (function words and structure words)
The target of language learning, in the structural view, is the mastery of
elements of this system.
The communicative view of language

The communicative view of language is the view that language is a vehicle
for the expression of functional meaning. The semantic and
communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the
grammatical characteristics, although these are also included. The target
of language learning is to learn to express communication functions and
categories of meaning.
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The interactional view of language

The interactional view of language sees language primarily as the means
for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for
performing social transactions between individuals. The target of
language learning in the interactional view is learning to initiate and
maintain conversations with other people.
Tutorial Task:
Language can be likened to an ocean. Like the ocean, language is never still. It
has many moods and shapes. It seems to be endless. It carries people and their
goods. Can you suggest another metaphor to describe language?
What is your image of language?
Make a simple sketch or drawing of your image of language.
Then, write down all the ways in which language reflects the image you
see.
Share your image with a friend.
Note features of your images which you have in common.
Note significant differences between your images.
Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.
1.2.2 Language Learning Process

Children go through a number of different stages as language develops, from the
earliest stage of producing cooing sounds through being able to produce
complex, multi-word sentences.
Babbling
first stage of language development
known as the pre-linguistic, babbling or cooing stage
period typically lasts from the age of three to nine months
babies begin to make vowel sounds such as oooooo and aaaaaaa
by five months, infants typically begin to babble and add consonant
sounds to their sounds such as ba-ba-ba, ma-ma-ma or da-da-da.
Single Words
second stage is known as the one-word or holophase stage of language
development
around the age of 10 to 13 months
children will begin to produce their first real words
only capable of producing a few, single words at this point, but important
to realize that they are able to understand considerably more
infants begin to comprehend language about twice as fast as they are able
to produce it
Two Words
third stage begins around the age of 18 months
children begin to use two word sentences
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sentences usually consist of just nouns and verbs

E.g.
Where daddy?
"Puppy big!"
Multi-word Sentences
around the age of two
children begin to produce short, multi-word sentences that have a subject
and predicate
E.g. a child might say "Mommy is nice"
or "Want more candy
As children age, they continue to learn more new words every day. By the time
they enter school around the age of five, children typically have a vocabulary of
10,000 words or more.
Developmental Sequences
Developmental sequences reflect linguistic elements in childrens
cognitive understandings
Examples
Grammatical Morphemes
Negations
Questions
Grammatical Morphemes
Roger Browns longitudinal study (1973)
Present progressive ing
Plurals s
Irregular past forms
possessive s
Copula
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Articles the and a

Regular past ed
Third person singular simple present s
Auxiliary be
Acquisition of Grammatical morphemes

e.g., wug test
i.
Here is a wug. Now there are two of them. There are two ______.
ii. John knows how to bod. Yesterday he did the same thing.
Yesterday, he_______.
Through the tests, children demonstrate that they know the rules for the
formation of plural and simple past in English.
By generalizing these patterns to words they have never heard before,
they show that their language is not just a list of memorized word pairs
such as book/books and nod/nodded.
Acquisition of Negation
Lois Blooms study (1991) four stages

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Stage 1: no e.g., No go. No cookie.

Stage 2: subject + no e.g., Daddy no comb hair.
Stage 3: auxiliary or modal verbs (do/can) + not
(Yet no variations for different persons or tenses)
e.g., I cant do it , He dont want it.
Stage 4: correct form of auxiliary verbs (did/doesnt/is/are) + not
e.g., He didnt go. She doesnt want it.
But sometimes double negatives are used
e.g., I dont have no more candies.
Acquisition of Questions
By the age of 4:
Most children are able to ask questions, give commands, report real
events, and create stories about imaginary ones with correct word order
and grammatical markers most of the time.
They have mastered the basic structures of the language or languages
spoken to them in these early years.
They begin to acquire less frequent and more complex linguistic structures
such as passives and relative clauses.
They begin to develop ability to use language in a widening social
environment.
The six stages of childrens question-making can be illustrated as follows:
Stage 1: using single words or single two- or three-word sentences with
rising intonation
(Mommy book? Wheres Daddy?)
Stage 2: using the word order of the declarative sentence (You like this?
Why you catch it?)
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Stage 3: fronting - putting a verb at the beginning of a sentence

(Is the teddy is tired? Do I can have a cookie?)
Stage 4: subject-auxiliary inversion in yes/no questions but not in whquestions
(Do you like ice cream? Where I can draw?)
Stage 5: subject-auxiliary inversion in wh-questions, but not in negative
wh-questions
(Why can he go out? Why he cant go out?)
Stage 6: overgeneralizing the inverted form in embedded questions
(I dont know why cant he go out.)
Reflect on your own language learning experience
First 3 years
Pre-school years
School years
T
hen,
share
your
thoughts
with a friend.
1.2.3 Language Learner

A lot of research has been carried out into what makes a good language learner.
Here is a brief summary of the latest theories:
The good language learner thinks about how she is learning. She tries to
find out what works for her and what doesn't. If she doesn't understand the
purpose of a particular exercise, she asks the teacher.
The good language learner is willing to experiment and take risks. For
example, she will try out different ways of learning vocabulary until she
finds the way that suits her best. She is also not afraid of making
mistakes, because she knows that these will help her.
The good language learner is realistic. She knows that it will take time
and effort to become proficient in English, and that there will periods
where she does not seem to be making much progress.
The good language learner is independent. She does not expect to learn
English just by sitting in the classroom, and does not rely on the teacher to
totally direct her learning.
The good language learner is organized and active. She uses her time
to learn English sensibly, and is always looking for opportunities to
develop her language both inside and outside of the classroom.
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The good language learner has a balanced concern for communication

and accuracy. Some students are experts at communicating their thoughts
but do not care that they make many mistakes in doing so. The good
language learner, on the other hand, is concerned with both
communicating and doing so as accurately as possible.
Although these are the qualities that have been found in the most efficient
language learners, there are still many other factors that influence how quickly a
child will learn English.
Source: Copyright Paul Shoebottom (1996-2011) The Good Language
Learner. Retrieved 8 December 2011, from http://esl.fis.edu
Factors affecting language learning
There are various factors that affect successful language learning. They could
stem from the learners own mind (internal factors) or from the environment he
lives in (external factors).
Internal factors are those that the individual language learner brings with him or
her to the particular learning situation, for example, age of the learner,
personality, motivation, experiences, cognition abilities and his native language.
External factors are those that characterize the particular language learning
situation,some of which include the curriculum in use, mode of instruction, and
the opportunity to interact with native speakers both within and outside of the
classroom.
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Exercise 2
The following are some factors that are known to affect second language
acquisition and learning. Determine whether each factor is related mainly to the
student, to the family or to the environment of the second culture. Use the
following code:
S = factors primarily in the student
F = factors primarily in the family
E = factors primarily in the environment of the second culture
1.
Age
_______
2.
Socioeconomic status
_______
3.
Classroom culture
_______
4.
Cognitive development in L1
_______
5.
Family support
_______
6.
Whether environment provides adequate L2 input
_______
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7.
Literacy level
_______
9.
Opportunities for language use in school
_______
11.
Motivation
_______
15.
Proficiency in the home language
_______
17.
Role models in the community
_______
19.
Personality
_______
20.
Whether student has enough opportunities to use English
_______
24.
Teachers expectations
_______
25.
Preferred learning styles
_______
Adapted from Maitland, K. (1997). Adding English: Helping ESL Learners Succeed. Good Apple.
ISBN 1-56417-903-6.
Now check your answers below.

Answers:
1S, 2F, 3E, 4S, 5S, 6E, 7F, 8E, 9S, 10S, 11E, 12S, 13E, 14E, 15S
Tutorial Task:
In your experience, as an English learner:

i.
Are there personal characteristics that make you more successful than
another learner?
ii.
Which characteristics seem to you most likely to be associated with

success in L2 acquisition?
Iii,
Share your opinion with your group members. Find three most important
and three least important learner characteristics.
Individual Differences
Research findings reveal that every person has a learning style; therefore, there
is no particular teaching or learning method that can suit the needs of all
learners. Learning styles are also value-neutral; that is, no one style is better
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than others. Learning styles exist on wide continuums, although they are often
described as opposites.
Learners should therefore be encouraged to stretch
their learning styles so that they will be more empowered in a variety of learning
situations.
Age is only one of the characteristics which affects the learners L2 learning. The
opportunities for learning (i.e., context - both inside and outside the classroom),
the motivation to learn, and individual differences in intelligence , aptitude ,
personality , and learning styles have also been found to be important
determining factors in both rate of learning and eventual success in learning.
1.2.4 Acquisition versus Learning

It is sometimes thought that acquisition and learning refer to the same processes.
According to linguists there is an important distinction between language
acquisition and language learning.
Language Acquisition
Acquisition occurs passively and unconsciously through implicit learning.
Experts suggest there is an innate capacity in every human being to acquire
language. Language acquisition in children just seems to happen. Children do
not need explicit instruction to learn their first languages but rather seem to just
pick up language in the same way they learn to roll over, crawl and walk.
Language acquisition, therefore, is the process whereby children acquire their
first language. As you may well have noticed, children acquire their mother
tongue through interaction with their parents and the environment that surrounds
them. Their need to communicate paves the way for language acquisition to take
place. rather seem to just pick up language in the same way they learn to roll
over, crawl and walk.
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Language Learning
As opposed to acquisition, learning occurs actively and consciously through
explicit instruction and education. Language learning is the process whereby
humans past the critical period learn second languages. In other words, older
children and adults need explicit teaching to learn their second languages. It is
the result of direct instruction in the rules of language. In language learning,
students have conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk about that
knowledge. However, studies have shown that knowing grammar rules does not
necessarily result in good speaking or writing.
We should not ignore the differences between language acquisition and
language learning.
While all children before the critical period can innately
acquire their first languages, most older children and adults past the critical
period must learn second languages through explicit education and instruction.
L1 and L2 acquisition are quite complicated processes. To understand these
processes will enable the language teacher to be more sensitive to the factors
involved. While L1 and L2 acquisition reveal some similarities, they also show
differences. Similarities in First and Second Language Acquisition theories are of
great interest to teachers and learners as they can be utilized to improve
language teaching and learning methods.
Nature vs Nurture
Much debate has taken place concerning the importance of nature (what is
innate) and nurture (environmental factors) in the acquisition of language. Is
language acquisition and development innate or taught? The debate about
nature versus nurture in language acquisition has drawn heated testimony from
both sides.
The following chart compares nature and nurture in language acquisition.
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Nature
Nurture
Informal
Formal
Parents & Society

Experiences
Teachers
Syllabus
Environment
Exposure
Acquisition
Classroom
Systematic
Learning
Tutorial Task:
Comparing First and Second Language Acquisition
Activity 1:
There are similarities and differences in first and second language acquisition. It
is clear that a child or adult learning a second language is different from a baby
acquiring a first language in terms of personal characteristics and conditions for
learning. Language teachers must have theoretical knowledge of how
languages are acquired.
How is learning a second language like learning a first?
How is it different?
How will this knowledge help you plan classroom experiences?
Write a paper (4-6 pages) citing at least four research articles to support
text reading.
Activity 2:
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As teachers, it is our duty to make sure that our students acquire rather than
learn the language. Discuss.
TOPIC 2
THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING
2.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 2 provides you with an overview of four influential learning theories that underlie the
instruction of a teachers classroom practice. More specifically, it examines in detail the key
principles of Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Social Constructivism and Humanistic orientations
to language learning.

By the end of this Topic, you will be able to:
define terms relevant to some theories of language learning
explain the main principles of each language learning theory
distinguish the application of behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist and

humanist principles in the classroom
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CONTENT
SESSION ONE (3 Hours)
2.2
Theories of Language Learning

The main goal of any teaching is to bring about learning. Generally, we
have not been able to say with certainty how people learn languages although
a great deal of research has been done into this subject. Various theories have
emerged over the years to study the process of language acquisition. The four
main schools of thought which provide theoretical paradigms in guiding the
course of language acquisition are: behaviourism, cognitivism, social
constructivism and humanism.
2.2.1 Behaviourism
The behaviourist approach in studying learning can be traced to the
philosophic traditions of Aristotle, Descartes and Locke. The founders and
proponents include John B. Watson in the early 20 th century, Ivan Pavlov,
B.F.Skinner, E.L. Thorndike, Bandura and others. They argued that behavior can
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be conditioned by altering the environment. In other words, by manipulating and

giving a certain stimulus, a certain response can be produced. Motivation to
learn was assumed to be driven by drives such as hunger, rewards and punish.
General perception is that there is no difference between the way one
learns a language and the way one learns to do anything else. According to the
psychologist Skinner, language is a conditioned behaviour: the stimulus
response process (Stimulus Response Feedback Reinforcement). The popular
view is that children start out as clean slates and language learning is the
process of getting linguistic habits printed on these slates through positive and
negative reinforcement or punishment. Both positive reinforcement and
negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior
will happen again. On the other hand, punishment decreases the likelihood
that the antecedent behavior will happen again.
Learners are essentially viewed as passive and learn language step by
step, i.e. Imitation - Repetition - Memorization - Controlled drilling Reinforcement. They learn to speak by imitating the utterances heard around
them and strengthen their responses by the repetitions, corrections, and other
reactions that adults provide. Therefore, language is practice based. The
main focus is on inducing the child to behave with the help of mechanical drills
and exercises. Learning is controlled by the conditions under which it takes
place and that, as long as individuals are subjected on the same condition,
they will learn in the same condition. In summary, the behaviourist is not
concerned with how or why knowledge is obtained, but rather if the correct
response is given. Learning is defined as nothing more than the acquisition of
new behaviour.
The following is a list of behaviourist principles quite often applied in
teaching and learning in the classroom:
Use a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviours and learning.

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Provide immediate and frequent feedback for complex and difficult

concepts
Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts
Break down complex task into smaller and manageable subskills
Sequence material from simple to more difficult to enhance

understanding
Model the behaviour students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations

when necessary
Reinforce when students demonstrate the modeled behaviour
State the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and
students
Establish a contract with students on the work to be done and what

rewards will be given
Critics of behavioural methods point to two basic problems that may arise in
the classroom. Some teachers fear that rewarding students for all learning will
cause students to lose interest in learning for its own sake. Using a reward
system or giving one student increased attention may have a detrimental effect
on other students in the classroom. Also, another problem with this view of
learning includes the fact that imitation does not help the learner in real-life
situations. Learners are continually required to form sentences they have
never previously seen. A finite number of pre-practiced sentences are not
enough to carry on a conversation.
Exercise 1
Which of the behaviourist principles listed in the above do you think are widely
practised in the classrooms? Give specific examples.
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2.2.2 Cognitivism
In the 1950s there was a realization that behaviourism did not fully explain
human learning. Although behaviourism emphasized learning that was
observable and measurable, they did not account for what goes on in the minds
of the learner when he or she is learning or thinking. Cognitivists felt that it was
necessary to investigate how learners make sense of what they learn even
though such mental events are difficult to observe and measure objectively.
The term cognitivism refers to a group of psychological theories which
draw heavily on the work in linguistics of Noam Chomsky. It replaced
behaviourism in 1960s as a dominant paradigm. Cognitive theories of learning,
based on empirical evidence, indicate that learning is a multi-faceted, complex
and dynamic process. Cognitivism focus on the mind or black box and attempt
to show how information is received, assimilated, stored and recalled.
According to the cognitivists, people are not programmed animals that
merely respond to environmental stimuli. People are rational beings that require
active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of
thinking. Changes in behaviour are observed, but only as an indication of what is
occurring in the learners head. Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as
computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain
outcomes.
Cognitivists view learning is as a process of relating new information to
previously learned information, In other words, learning is defined as a change in
the learners schemata. Learning is most likely to occur when an individual can
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associate new learning with previous knowledge. Unlike in behaviourism,

learners are not passive receivers of environmental conditions. Rather, they are
actively involved in the learning process and can have control over their own
learning. Errors are also accepted as part of the learning process.
In contrast to behaviourism, the cognitivst perspective focus more on the
learner as an active participant in the teaching-learning process. It believes that
teachers can be more effective if they know what prior knowledge the student
already possesses and how information is processed and structured in the
learners mind. Therefore, it is important that teachers provide effective
instruction to help the learner acquire knowledge more effectively by teaching
students how to learn, remember, think and motivate themselves.
The following is a list of cognitivist principles quite often applied in
Present information in an organized manner

-
Show a logical sequence to concepts
Go from simple to complex when presenting new material
Bring to mind relevant prior learning
Provide for review and repetition of learning
Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information, e.g.

inquiry-oriented projects
Help students process information in meaningful ways so that they can

become independent learners (Staged scaffolding)
Like Behaviourism, Cognitivism is also not without its critiques. It has
been criticized for not accounting enough for individuality and for giving little
emphasis on the affective characteristics of the learners.
The following table sums up very briefly what we have discussed so far:
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Behaviourist vs. Cognitivist

Focus
View about the
Bahaviourist
A blank slate.
Cognitivist
An active organizer.
Basically alike
Varied, with multiple
mind
intelligences and learning
S-T Roles
Teacher plans and sets
styles.
Students participate in
goals for learning.
planning and goal-setting.
One best way of
Teacher teaches with variety.
teaching.
Motivation
Reward is motivation.
Students are taught what.
Learning is a motivator.
Students are taught what
Teacher assess.
and how
Students are involved in peer
Product is important.
and self-assessment.
Curriculum Content
Assessment
Product and process are

important
Source: Diaz-Rico, L.(2008). Strategies for Teaching English Learners, (2nd

edn.) Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Exercise 2
Which of the cognitivist principles listed in the above do you think are being
practiced in the classrooms? Give specific examples.
CONTENT
SESSION TWO (3 Hours)
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2.2.3 Social Constructivism

Just as Cognitive Learning Psychology began replacing the predominant
Behavioural Psychology in the 1970s, Constructivist Learning Psychology has
been challenging the cognitive approach from the 1990s. A reaction to didactic
approaches, constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized
process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Constructivism is a
perspective of learning that has its origins in the works of Bruner, Piaget and
Vygoysky. It is Vygotskys social development which is one of the foundations for
constructivism.
Constructivists emphasize that learning is a social activity. They believe
that often it is social experiences rather than what is taught in schools which
accounts for much of the variation in student learning. Cooperative, collaborative
and group investigation methods allow students to discuss ideas, beliefs and
values with their peers and teachers. They also argued that the responsibility of
learning resides with the learner. Learners interpret what they hear, read and
see based on their previous learning, habits and experiences. Students who do
not have appropriate background knowledge will be unable to to accurately hear
or see what is before them. Unlike previous educational viewpoints where the
responsibility rested with the teacher to teach and where the learner played a
passive role, social constructivism emphasizes the importance of the learner
being actively involved in the learning process with the teacher playing the role
as facilitator. Learning is enhanced when students learn how to learn, engage in
serious discussion, and have shared responsibility for applying what they know to
new situations.
What does this mean for classroom learning? As active learners exploring
and going beyond the information given, thus students should be provided with
authentic and challenging projects that encourage them to work together with
one another. Authentic settings would provide learners with opportunities to see
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a problem from different perspectives as well as negotiate and generate solutions

through sharing and exchange of ideas. In an authentic environment, learners
assume responsibilities for their own learning. The aim is to create a situation
more closely related to collaborative practice in the real world.
The following is a list of constructivist principles quite often applied in
Encourage student autonomy and initiative

-
Students take responsibility for their own learning
Respect students ideas and encourage independent thinking
Promote higher order thinking amongst students

-
Ask questions that will influence student response
Challenge students to analyze, justify and defend their ideas
Engage students in meaningful learning

-
Provide students opportunity to express their ideas
Involve students in real-world situations
The main critique of Social Constructivism is that it is often seen as

being less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction.
Exercise 3
Discuss some problems related to implementing constructivist principles in the
classroom. Describe with specific examples.

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2.2.4 Humanism
Humanism refers to a movement in psychology which emerged in the
1960s and 1970s. Humanism has its roots in counseling psychology and
focuses its attention on how individuals acquire emotions, attitudes, values and
interpersonal skills. Perhaps the most well-known applications of humanism in
ELT are those of Gattegno (1972) and Curran (1976).
Humanistic psychologists believe that how a person feels about learning is
as important as how the person thinks or even behaves. They describe
behaviour not from the viewpoint of the teacher as do behaviourists but rather
from the vantage point of the student who is performing the activity.
Humanists, led by such famous authors as Abraham Maslow and Carl
Rogers, are especially concerned with the idea of self-actualization, the growth of
a person to achieve whatever degree of individual satisfaction they are capable
of achieving. Learning is not an end in itself: it is the means to progress towards
self-development. A student learns because he or she is inwardly driven (selfmotivation), and derives his or her reward from the sense of achievement that
having learned something affords. Hence, much of a humanist teachers effort
would be put into developing a students self-esteem. This form of education,
known as student-centred, is typified by the student taking responsibility and
owning their learning.
The humanist teacher is a facilitator and not a disseminator of knowledge.
He or she creates an educational environment that fosters self-development,
cooperation, positive communications, and personalization of information. In
particular, the humanist teacher needs to have a thorough grasp of both how
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students learn and what motivates them to learn. Participatory and discovery
methods would be favoured instead of traditional didacticism. As well as the
students academic needs the humanist teacher is also concerned with the
students affective or emotional needs. Feeling and thinking are very much
interlinked. Humanists believe that feeling positive about oneself facilitates
learning.
The following are some principles in the classroom based on humanistic
principles:
Establish a warm, democratic, positive and non-threatening environment

for the students to work in.
Provide learning experiences that will lead to the development of habits

and attitudes that teachers want to foster.
Teachers should be role models and set good examples for students to
emulate.
Students are given choices (with limitations) and freedom (with

responsibilities) to plan and carry out activities.
Teacher facilitates the learning process and share ideas with students.
Learning is based on life experiences, discovery, exploring and

experimenting.
Respect students feelings and aspirations.
Provide opportunity for success.
De-emphasize rigorous, performance-oriented, test-dominated

approaches.
Students are allowed to set their own goals and follow their own pace
Experiential learning is encouraged.
Exercise 4
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To what extent do you think schools give attention to the affective (emotions,
feelings) aspects of learning? Discuss by citing specific examples.
Summary.
What conclusions can we draw from this discussion of various theories of
learning? Instructional learning theories are centred on the major schools of
educational psychology. From these so-called schools have evolved modern
thinking and practice about how learning occurs and how your instruction in the
classroom ultimately affects that learning. Each has its own merits and each has
shortcomings that may make them inappropriate in certain learning situations.
Your understanding of the basic principles and assumptions of Behaviourism,
Cognitivism, Constructivism and Humanism is critical to your approach to
classroom teaching. However, looking back over the current practices in our
classrooms, it becomes abundantly clear that they are a composite of the many
different theories we have learnt.
Tutorial Task
Based on what you have read in this unit, compare the four major theoretical
perspectives explaining human learning. Then, in your view as a teacher, state
your personal beliefs about the teaching-learning process.
28
TOPIC 3
SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES (I)

KRASHENS MONITOR MODEL
3.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 3 provides input on a predominant Second Language Learning Theory
called Krashens Monitor Model.
There are five components or hypotheses
which form the basis of the model. These are Input Hypothesis, Affective Filter
Hypothesis, Acquisition Learning Hypothesis, Monitor Hypothesis and Natural
Order Hypothesis. The topic also deals with the implications of this model for
teaching.

By the end of this session, you will be able to:
1. demonstrate an understanding of Krashens Monitor Model
2. explain the five hypothesis of the Monitor Model
3. identify the relationship between the five hypothesis of the Monitor Model
4. explain the implications of this model for teaching.
29
CONTENT
SESSION THREE (6 Hours)
3.3
Krashens Monitor Model

Second language acquisition theory seeks to explain how and by what
processes individuals acquire a second language. A predominant theory of

second language acquisition was developed by Steven Krashen from the
University of Southern California. Krashen is a specialist in language acquisition
and development and his influential theory is widely accepted in the language
learning community.
30
The following are some quotes from Krashen (1982) about language
acquisition.
"Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious
grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill."
"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the
form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and
understanding."
The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input'
in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to
hear. These methods do not force early production in the second
language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready',
recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and
comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production."
"In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who
are willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful."
Krashen explains five fundamental components - which he calls
hypotheses - as the basis for his language teaching model. Each of the
components relates to a different aspect of the language learning process. The
five components are as follows:
1. The Input Hypothesis
2. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
3. The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis
4. The Monitor Hypothesis
5. The Natural Order Hypothesis
31
3.3.1 Input Hypothesis

Krashen believes that the main factor in acquisition is not language use
but language input, in other words what the learner hears and reads. The most
useful form of input has to be understandable and it should be just a little
beyond the learner's present capacity. If it is too far beyond, the learner will not
pay attention to the input, and if it is not far enough, the learner will learn nothing.
The learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she
receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of
linguistic competence. If a learner is at a stage 'i', acquisition takes place when
he/she is exposed to 'comprehensible input' that belongs to level 'i + 1. Here i
refers to the current language level the learners are at.
i + 1 means a level
higher than the level the students are at or the next level along the natural order.
Natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, thus ensuring
that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her
current stage of linguistic competence.
Karshen suggests that teachers should give rough-tuned input and a wide
variety of materials, supported by visual cues and realia which gives it a
context within which the learner may guess at the content. As such,
language teachers must make input comprehensible by contextualizing it.
Evidences for the input hypothesis can be found in the following situations:
Effectiveness of caretaker speech from an adult to a child/ people speak

to children acquiring their first language in special ways.
Adults speaking to children modify their language in order to aid
comprehension.
Adults roughly-tune to childs level of linguistic
competence. These include use of baby-talk and short simple sentences.
Teacher-talk from a teacher to a language student.
32
Teachers simplify their language to make L2 learners understand or go

down to L2 learners comprehension.
Foreigner-talk from a sympathetic conversation partner to a language

learner or acquirer
Some of the ways a foreigner talks to a language learner include slower
pronunciation, omission of features of connected speech, heavier stress
on key words, short responses, use of gestures and demonstrations.
L2 learners often go through an initial Silent Period.

A learner is silent to build up competencies in 2 nd language via listening.
Speaking only emerges after the learner has enough competence in the
language.
Krashen indicates that the comparative success of younger and older
learners reflects provision of comprehensible input. The more comprehensible

input the greater the L2 proficiency. The lack of comprehensible input delays
language acquisition. As such teaching methods work according to the extent
that teachers use comprehensible input. One finds that immersion teaching is
successful because it provides comprehensible input.
As for bilingual
programmes, they succeed to the extent teachers provide comprehensible input

3.3.2 Affective Filter Hypothesis
This hypothesis describes external factors that can act as a filter that
impedes acquisition. These factors include motivation, self-confidence, and
anxiety. If a learner has very low motivation, very low self-confidence, and a high
level of anxiety, the affective filter falls into place and inhibits the learner from
acquiring the new language. On the other hand, learners who are motivated,
confident, and relaxed about learning the target language have more success
acquiring a second language.
33
Barriers to learning can also be found in any negative feelings that a learner has
about the language, the method used, the institution or the teacher. These
feelings become a kind of filter, which keeps the input out. Hence, the teacher's
job is to make language learning free of stress and enjoyable.
3.3.3 Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
Krashen elucidates two systems of language acquisition that are
independent but related namely the acquired system and the learned system.
The acquired system relates to the unconscious aspect of language
acquisition. When people learn their first language by speaking the language
naturally in daily interaction with others the acquired system is at work. Here
speakers are more concerned with the act of communicating meaning than the
structure of their utterances.
On the other hand, the learned system relates to formal instruction where
students engage in formal study to acquire knowledge about the target language.
One example of the learned system is the studying the rules of syntax.
The differences between acquisition and learning are depicted in Figure 1
below:
Acquisition
Learning
implicit, subconscious
explicit, conscious
informal situations
formal situations
uses grammatical 'feel'
uses grammatical rules
depends on attitude
depends on aptitude
stable order of acquisition
simple to complex order of

learning
Fig. 1: Differences between acquisition and learning

34
3.2.4
Monitor Hypothesis
The monitor hypothesis seeks to explain how the learned system affects
the acquired system. According to Krashen, the formal rule system acts as the
Monitor in the acquired system. When second language learners monitor their
speech, they apply their understanding of learned grammar to edit, plan, and
initiate their communication. This action can only occur when speakers have
ample time to think about the form and structure of their sentences.
The Monitor is best used when:
we have to be very careful
when language is necessarily formal
e.g. writing letters of application, speaking to a hierarchical superior in a

formal situation.
There are three conditions required by the Monitor:

Time
The learner must have time to use the monitor. Using the monitor requires
the speaker to slow down and focus on the form of language.
Focus on correctness of form
The learner must be focused or thinking about the form of language. A
learner may find it difficult to focus on meaning and form at the same time.
Knowledge of rules
The learner must know the rules. This means that the speaker must have
had explicit instruction on the language form that he or she is trying to
produce.
35
There three types of monitor users over-users, under-users and optimalusers. Monitor over-users try to always use their monitor, and are so concerned
with correctness that they cannot speak with any real fluency. Monitor underusers have not consciously learned or choose not to use their conscious
knowledge of the language. Error correction by others has little influence on
them, as they can often correct themselves based on a "feel" for correctness.
Teachers should aim to produce optimal monitor users, who use the
monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not interfere with communication.
They do not use their conscious knowledge of grammar in normal conversation,
but will use it in writing and planned speech.
Optimal monitor users can
therefore use their learned competence as a supplement to their acquired

competence
Krashen suggests that we should leave the monitor unemployed most of
the time, and concentrate upon the meaning that we wish to convey, rather than
on the form of our utterances.
3.2.5 Natural Order Hypothesis
According to this hypothesis there is a natural order to the way second
language learners acquire their target language. Krashen states that there is a
natural order in which learners pick up a language and this order is roughly
the same for all learners regardless of their linguistic background.
Research shows that this natural order seems to go beyond age, the
learner's native language, the target language, and the conditions under which
the second language is being learned.
Mistakes made by learners are a necessary part of language learning.
These mistakes are not random, but are very similar to the errors that
36
children make when learning their first language. The mistakes that students
make through time lie in a rough sequence.
In addition, the sequence of errors for acquired language is not the same
as the sequence of learned grammar items. Some grammatical morphemes
which appear simple from the learning point of view are in fact acquired late - the
's' of PTS. Chinese learning English make the same mistakes, and will learn in
more or less the same order as the French. According to Krashen, this indicates
that there is a natural order in which learners pick up a language. In
addition, these mistakes will be made in the same order whether the
learners have been taught the grammar or not, and that teaching grammar
will not help them change the order.
The combined model of acquisition and production is shown in the
diagram below.
Combined model of acquisition and production
3.2.6 Implications for Teaching

Krashens Monitor Model has its implications for ESL/EFL teaching. Input
hypothesis focuses on comprehensible input at i + 1 level. To enable learners
37
to advance in language acquisition, teachers need to expose them to large

amounts of authentic language. The language need not be specifically graded in
terms grammatical progression, but adapted to the students interests and
purposes for learning the language. A wide variety of input, supported by
visual cues and realia should be contextualized in a way that the learner can
understand a large amount of spoken or written language.
According to Krashen comprehension precedes production. As such, L2
learners often go through an initial Silent Period. Teachers should provide time
for silent period to allow learners to build up acquired competence in a language
before they begin to produce it.
In line with the Affective Filter Hypothesis, language acquisition should be
done in relaxing and friendly conditions. Affective-humanistic activities such as
dialogues, interviews, personal charts and tables are encouraged.
Tutorial Task
How does the Krashens Monitor Model help a teacher better to understand how
his/her second language students learn?
Design materials and tasks suitable for primary school learners in relation to
Krashens Monitor Model
Relax and move on to the next topic when you are ready.
38
TOPIC 4
SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES (II)
4.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 4 introduces you to Noam Chomskys Universal Grammar(UG), reasons
why it is termed as such and what does it consists of. It also aims to show how
UG relates to first language and second language acquisition. It also discusses
its implications for English language teaching.
By the end of this Session, you will be able to:
define Universal Grammar
explain why it is termed Universal Grammar
explain what Universal Grammar consist of
relate Universal Grammar and first language acquisition
relate Universal Grammar and second language acquisition
identify and discuss implications for teaching
PRINCIPL
PRINCIPL
ES
ES
UNIVERS
UNIVERS
AL
AL
GRAMMA
GRAMMA
R
R
UG
UG AND
AND FIRST
FIRST LANGUAGE
LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
ACQUISITION
PARAMETE
PARAMETE
RS
RS
UG
UG AND
AND SECOND
SECOND LANGUAGE
LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
ACQUISITION
39
IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING
CONTENT
SESSION FOUR (3 Hours)
4.2.1 What is Universal Grammar?
Universal Grammar (UG) is the system of principles, conditions,

and rules that are elements or properties of all human languages.
(Chomsky, 1969)
This means that a native speaker of a language knows a set of principles that
can be applied to all languages and parameters that vary from one language to
another. It also refers to an innate, genetic endowment of language-specific
knowledge consisting of the principles and parameters of language.
4.2.2
Why it is named Universal Grammar?
Chomsky named this innate capacity as Universal Grammar. Universal imply that it is
universal to all human beings and human languages and grammar signify the facts
about grammar (language rules) that humans are born knowing.
Before the 1960s, the Structuralist Model was very dominant. It was simply descriptive of
the different levels of production, namely: phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics.
This model did not provide any model or frame work for understanding how the actual
learning takes place.
Language was usually understood from a behaviourist perspective, suggesting that
language learning, like any other kind of learning, could be explained by a succession of
trials, errors, and rewards for success. In the late 1950s, Skinner constructed his
cognitive learning model: behaviorism which correlates with the notion.
40
Stimulus response reinforcement and habit formation

According to Skinner, the mind is a blank slate at birth. Children learn the language their
mother tongue by simple imitation, listening to and repeating what adults said.
Thus in 1960s Linguist Noam Chomsky puts forward that the human brain contains a
limited set of rules for organizing language. He there is an assumption that all languages
have a common structural basis. This set of rules is known as universal grammar.
There are three main points of critique of Skinner by Chomsky:
1.
Poverty -of-the-stimulus
Speakers proficient in a language know what expressions are acceptable in their

language and what expressions are unacceptable. How speakers should come to know
the restrictions of their language is a mystery, since expressions which violate those
restrictions are not present in the input, indicated as such. This absence of negative
evidencethat is, absence of evidence that an expression is part of a class of the
ungrammatical sentences in one's languageis the core of the poverty of stimulus
argument. For example, in English one cannot relate a question word like 'what' to a
predicate within a relative clause (1):
(1) *What did Dan meet a man who build?
Such expressions are not available to the English language learners, because they are,
by hypothesis, ungrammatical and unacceptable for speakers of that language.
Universal grammar offers a solution to the poverty of the stimulus problem by making
certain restrictions universal characteristics of human languages. Language learners are
consequently never tempted to generalize in an illicit fashion. The logical problem of
language acquisition is that the input is ungrammatical and incomplete and the output
are grammatically acceptable. Children only hear a finite number of sentences but they
are able to learn the abstract rules and principles of the language and produce an infinite
number of sentences.
41
2.
Constraints and principles cannot be learned
Chomsky believes that the reason that children so easily master the complex operations
of language is that they have innate knowledge of certain principles that guide them in
developing the grammar of their language. His theory on language learning is facilitated
by a predisposition that our brains have certain structures of language. Children, without
having had any formal instruction, can consistently produce and interpret sentences that
they have never encountered before even before the age of 5. At age 6, no one has the
cognitive ability to understand the principles of grammar as a system. It is this
extraordinary ability to use language despite having had only very partial exposure to the
allowable syntactic variants that led Chomsky to formulate his poverty of the stimulus
argument, which was the foundation for the Universal Grammar hypothesis that he
proposed in the early 1960s.
3.
Patterns of development are universal
When children develop their language, they learn the various aspects of language in a
very similar order. If children only learned what they are taught, the order of what they
learned would vary in different environments. But Brown (1973) found that there is a very
specific order of MORPHEME acquisition. Morphemes are the smallest syntactic units
that can carry a meaning such as the following examples:
a)
Prefixes un and suffix -ed in the word unlimited
b)
Present progressive ing ( Daddy jumping)
c)
Plural s ( as in books)
d)
Irregular past forms ( I run I ran)
Chomsky further explains that human languages exhibit remarkable similarities or

principles. These patterns are called universals. We can find these similarities on many
linguistic levels:
i.
Phonological universals: Consonants, for example, are distinguished also

according to the location of their production, that is, after the various organs of
42

the vocal tract. With the help of this detailed information we can now refer to
every consonant by its location and manner of articulation; [f], for example, is a
voiceless, labiodentals fricative.
ii.
Syntactic universals: Most of existing languages have verbs, nouns, adjectives

and pronouns.
iii.
Semantic universals: One semantic universal regards our notion of color. There
exist eleven basic color terms: black, white, red, green, blue, yellow, brown,
purple, pink, orange, and grey.
4.2.3
What does Universal Grammar consist of?
Universal Grammar exists in the childs mind as a system of principles and

parameters. The amount of all the principles cover grammar, speech sounds, and
meaning that heredity builds into the human language organ. Principles of Language
are rules of the language or abstract principles that permit or prohibit certain structures
from occurring in all human languages. It is the properties that all languages possess.
For example, the principle of structure dependency asserts that knowledge of language
relies on the structural relationship in a sentence rather than on the sequence of the
words. To illustrate this, we need to establish the concept of phrase structure in the
English Language. Study the following example:
(English)
The artist drew an eagle.
(Bahasa Melayu)
Pelukis itu melukis seekor burung helang.
This sentence breaks up into a noun phrase (NP) the artist and verb phrase(VP) drew
an eagle. These phrases also break up into smaller constituents. The (NP) the artist
consists of a determiner (Det or D) the and a Noun (N) artist, while the NP an eagle
consists of a determiner an and a Noun eagle.
Sentence
Noun Phrase
Determiner
Verb Phrase
Noun
Verb
43
Noun Phrase

The
artist
drew
Determiner
Noun
an
eagle
The above example shows the existence of UG allows a speaker to follow certain rules
of grammar (a sentence has to have a subject) to correctly construct a sentence in that
language.
Whereas Parameters of Language are systematic ways in which human languages
vary which determine the syntactic variability amongst languages. For example, the use
of past tense in English and Arabic which is non-existent in Bahasa Melayu. Look at the
following example:
i.
I went to the market yesterday.
English ( change in verb go to went)
ii.
Semalam saya pergi ke pasar.
B. Melayu ( no change in verb pergi)
Chomsky (1986) reiterates that UG is part of the human genetic endowment and is
coded in the Language Acquisition Faculty(LAF). LAF is an innate component of the
human mind that yields a particular language through interaction with presented
experience, a device that converts experience into a system of knowledge attained:
knowledge of one or another language.
Tutorial Task
Prepare your answer to the following questions for your tutorial
session.
Exercise 4.1
a)
In your own words, define Universal Grammar.
b)
Why did Chomsky named this innate component of the human mind as
Universal Grammar?
c)
Explain briefly with your own examples what is meant by principles in UG.
d)
Explain briefly with your own examples what is meant by parameters in

UG.
44
e)
List and describe briefly the 3 points of critique by Chomsky on Skinners

Behaviourist Model.
Reflection
Do you agree with Chomsky?
Take a break before you move on to the next topic.
SESSION TWO (3 Hours)

4.2.4
Universal Grammar and first language acquisition
The main questions are how UG is used and what other procedures (knowledge,
methods) play a role in the acquisition process.
Before we proceed, answer the following question.
In your own words, what does language acquisition refer to?
Lets check your answer.
Language acquisition usually refers to first language acquisition, which studies infants'
acquisition of their native language. It is the process by which humans acquire the
capacity to perceive and comprehend language, and to produce and use words to
communicate. This is different from second language acquisition, which deals with the
acquisition (in both children and adults) of additional languages.
Can you describe the various stages of language acquisition of a child?
You may check your answers in Session 2 and references listed in the
bibliography about First language acquisition.
The processes in each stage of development show that children are able to learn the
"superficial" grammar of a particular language unconsciously because all intelligible
languages are founded on a "deep structure" of grammatical rules that are universal and
that correspond to an innate capacity of the human brain. Stages in the acquisition of a
45

native language can be measured by the increasing complexity and originality of a
child's utterances. As illustrated by the example, goed (meaning went), children at first
may overgeneralize grammatical rules for a form they are unlikely to have heard,
suggesting that they have intuited or deduced complex grammatical rules (here, how to
conjugate regular verbs) and failed only to learn exceptions that cannot be predicted
from a knowledge of the grammar alone.
Although children usually learn the sounds and vocabulary of their native language
through imitation, grammar is seldom taught to them explicitly whereby they could
acquire the ability to speak grammatically. This supports the theory advanced by Noam
Chomsky and other proponents of transformational grammar.
He claims that children are biologically programmed for language and that language
develops in a child in just the same way that other biological functions
develop(Lightbown and Spada, 1999). As one of humans biological functions, walking,
does not have to be taught. Most children learn to walk at about the same age as long
as adequate nourishment and reasonable freedom of movement are provided. Similarly
language acquisition develops progressively naturally according to age due to the
existence of the principles and parameters of UG. Exposure to language triggers the
parameters to adopt the correct setting.
Besides, language is said to be innate because it has the following characteristics:
i.
Maturationally controlled
This is because language emerge before they are critically needed and cannot
be forced before scheduled. A child follows a sequence of stages before she is
able to speak.
ii.
Do not appear as the result of a conscious decision.

A child does not decide to consciously acquire certain skills such as walking or
learning a language.
iii.
Do not appear due to a trigger from external events.

What would prompt a child to begin speaking?
iv.
Are relatively unaffected by direct teaching and intensive practice.
46

Although we correct childrens errors, it does not help them learn the rules.
v.
Follow a regular sequence of milestones in their development.

In spite of different backgrounds, locations, and upbringings, most children follow
the same milestones in acquiring language.
vi.
Generally observe a critical period for their acquisition.

For first language acquisition, there seems to be a critical period of the first five
years, during which children must be exposed to rich language input. There is
also a period, from about 10 16 years, when acquisition is possible, but not
native-like.
Among Chomskys arguments for his claim that children have this innate capacity,
Universal Grammar, are as follows (Lightbown and Spada, 1999):
1. Virtually all children successfully learn their native language at a time in life when
they would not be expected to learn anything else so complicated. Children who
are profoundly deaf will learn sign language if they are exposed to it in infancy,
and their progress in language acquisition is similar to that of hearing children.
Even children with very limited cognitive ability develop quite complex language
systems if they are brought up in environments in which people talk to them and
engage them in communication.
2.
Children successfully master the basic structure of their native language or

dialect in a variety of conditions: some which would be expected to enhance
language development (for example, caring, attentive parents who focus on the
childs language) , and some which might be expected to inhibit it( for example,
abusive or rejecting parents). Children achieve different levels of vocabulary,
creativity, social grace, and so on, but virtually all achieve mastery of the
structure of the language spoken around them. This supports the hypothesis
that language is separate from other aspects of cognitive development and may
even be located in a different part of the brain. The term modular is sometimes
used to represent the notion that the brain has different modules which serve
different kinds of knowledge and learning.
47

3. The language children are exposed to does not contain examples(or, in any
case, not very many examples) of all the linguistic rules and patterns which they
eventually know.
4. Animals even primates receiving intensive training from humans cannot learn
to manipulate a symbol system as complicated as the natural language of a three
or four-year-old human child.
5. Children seem to accomplish the complex task of language acquisition without
having someone consistently point out to them which of the sentences they hear
and produce are correct and which are ungrammatical.
The above evidences show that direct teaching and correcting of grammar
could not account for childrens utterances because the rules of grammar children were
unconsciously acquiring are already endowed in the brain.
Thus, Universal grammar forms the foundation of all human language. A
universal grammar can be equated with computer languages. There are many kinds of
computer languages, but they all have some fundamental similarities. Children learn
language by applying this unconscious universal grammar to the sounds they hear.
Studies have point out how remarkable it is that human children, by the age of three and
four, without explicit teaching, and without over reinforcement, create new and complex
sentences never spoken and never heard before.
Tutorial Task
Prepare your answer to the following questions for your
tutorial session.
Exercise 4.2
Do you agree with Chomsky?
If you agree / disagree , what are your reasons?
Elaborate your reasons with suitable examples.
Take a break before you move on to the next session.
48
4.2.5
Universal Grammar and second language acquisition
The study of second language learning examines how second languages are learned;
how learners create a new language system with limited exposure to a second
language; why most second language learners do not achieve the same degree of
proficiency in a second language as they do in their native language; and why some
learners appear to achieve native-like proficiency in more than one language. The main
distinction between first and second or foreign language learning is what is learned and
how it is learned. In this context, you are going to look into the following question:
To what extent UG is available in second language acquisition?
There are different positions that have been defended by various linguists ranging from
complete availability of UG to complete unavailability.
Can you recall how second language is acquired?
Learners acquire a second language by making use of existing knowledge of the native
language, general learning strategies, or universal properties of language to internalize
knowledge of the second language. These processes serve as a means by which the
learner constructs an interlanguage (a transitional system reflecting the learners current
L2 knowledge).Communication strategies are employed by the learner to make use of
existing knowledge to cope with communication difficulties.
One of the factors that affect L2 acquisition is individual differences. Individual

differences may include: (1) the rate of development and (2) their ultimate level of
achievement. Learners differ with regard to variables relating to cognitive, affective and
social aspects of a human being.
Besides that, fixed factors such as age and language learning aptitude are beyond
external control. Variable factors such as motivation are influenced by external factors
such as social setting and by the actual course of L2 development.
49

Another factor that affects L2 acquisition is cognitive style. Cognitive style refers to the
way people perceive, conceptualize, organize and recall information. Learners who are
field dependent operate holistically. They like to work with others. Field independent
learners are analytic and prefer to work alone.
Furthermore, there are strategies that learners use to make language learning more
successful, self-directed and enjoyable. These deliberate behaviors or actions that
learners use are called learner strategies. Among the strategies used are cognitive,
metacognitive and social. Cognitive strategies relate new concepts to prior knowledge.
Metacognitive strategies are those which help with organizing a personal timetable to
facilitate an effective study of the L2.Social strategies include looking for opportunities to
converse with native speakers.
Chesterfield & Chesterfield (1985) identified a natural order of strategies in the
development of a second language.
1. repetition (imitating a word or structure);
2. memorization (recalling songs, rhymes or sequences by rote);
3. formulaic expressions (words or phrases that function as units i.e. greetings);
4. verbal attention getters (language that initiates interaction);
5. answering in unison (responding with others);
6. talking to self (engaging in internal monologue);
7. elaboration (information beyond what is necessary);
8. anticipatory answers (completing anothers phrase or statement);
9. monitoring (self-correcting errors);
10. appeal for assistance (asking someone for help);
11. request for clarification (asking the speaker to explain or repeat); and
12. role-playing (interacting with another by taking on roles).
As a set of principles and parameters that constrain all human languages, UG is part of
the human genetic endowment and is encoded in the Language Acquisition
Faculty(LAF). LAF is an innate component of the human mind that yields a particular
language through interaction with presented experience, a device that converts
experience into a system of knowledge attained: knowledge of one or another
50

language.(Chomsky, 1986). An example of a principle of UG is the principle of structure
dependency. And an example of a parameter is the null subject parameter.
According to the principle of structural dependency, grammatical rules do not depend on
the linear ordering of the words in the sentence, but on how these words are structured
within the constituents of specific types. For example, subject-auxiliary inversion in
English:
a)
She will laugh.

Will she laugh?
b)
The student who is taking good notes will get an A.

Will the student who is taking good notes will get an A.
Whereas a null-subject language is a language whose grammar permits an

independent clause to lack an explicit subject. Such a clause is then said to have a null
subject. Typically, null subject languages express person, number, and/or gender
agreement with the referent on the verb, rendering a subject noun phrase redundant. In
the principles and parameters framework, the null subject is controlled by the pro-drop
parameter, which is either on or off for a particular language.
For example, in Italian the subject "she" can be either explicit or implicit:
Maria non vuole mangiare. lit.[Maria not want [to]-eat], "Maria does not want to
eat".
Non vuole mangiare. lit.Subject not want [to]-eat], "[She] does not want to eat."
The subject "she" of the second sentence is only implied in Italian. English and French,
on the other hand, require an explicit subject in this sentence (Wikipedia ,30 October
2011).
The logical problem of language acquisition is that, the linguistic input available to
children underdetermines the linguistic competence of adults. Thus children acquire
properties of language that are not immediately obvious and that are not explicitly
taught.If the child possesses only some cognitive ability to make generalizations from
input, many features of the adult language cannot be acquired.
If the child comes to the acquisition come to the acquisition solely equipped with abilities
to make generalization from the input data, it would seem impossible to arrive at he
51

correct generalizations without a great many errors. in addition, the child appears to get
little or negative evidence because adults react to meaning ad sociolinguistic
appropriateness not to errors of form .Therefore knowledge about what is and is not
possible in adult language stems in part from an innate universal grammar, containing
principles and parameters which constrain grammar in various ways.
What would constitute evidence for UG in SLA?
A learners knowledge of L2 goes beyond what could be induced from the

input.
A learners knowledge of L2 goes beyond what could be reconstructed from

the L1 (e.g., resetting parameters).
There are no violations of UG in interlanguage ( no wild grammars).
Shachter, J.(1989) tested the availability of UG in adult SLA. The principle of subjacency
is a constraint on movement, for example, the movement of wh- elements is cyclical. It
may not take place over more than one bounding node at a time.
1. What did he say that he was reading?
2. What does he believe that he said that he was reading?
3. What are they claiming that she believes that he said that he was reading?
4. What do you think that they are claiming that she believes that he said that
he was reading?
In the above examples, there are two theories about the derivation of wh- movement.
1. Cyclic: Each successively higher clause(=CP) forms a separate cycle in th e
derivation of the question. Each cycle leaves an intermediate trace.
What did he say [t that he was reading t ?]
2. Noncyclic:Derivation occurs in one fell swoop.
What did he say that he was reading t ?]
Thus, the fact that there are barriers to wh- movement shows that derivation must be
cyclic.
52

i.
Barriers to wh-movement: sentential subject

That Tom got an A on his first exam pleased him.
That Tom got an A on his first exam pleased him.
*What did that he got on his first exam please Tom?
ii. Barriers to wh-movement: noun complement

The fact that you didnt send your resume shows your lack of interest.
The fact that you didnt send your resume shows your lack of interest.
*What does the fact that you didnt send prove your lack of interest.
iii. Barriers to wh-movement: relative clause
Bill found a principle that solves the problem of equilibrium.
Bill found a principle that solves the problem of equilibrium.
*Which problem did Bill find a principle that solves?
iv. Barriers to wh-movement: embedded question
They dont know why Sue tolerates Larry.
They dont know why Sue tolerates Larry.
*Who dont they know why Sue tolerates?
The above examples proved that L2 learners know about subjacency constraints on whmovement in English. This knowledge comes from L1. If there is no movement in L1,
then the knowledge of adult second language learners must be innate, that is, adult
second language learners have access to UG.
But in another test on syntax that Schachter (1989) has carried out on native speakers,
Indonesians, Chinese and Koreans the results are mixed. He concluded that UG is
unavailable or of limited access in SLA. Bley-Vroman, Felix & Ioup (1988) also tested L2
learners knowledge of subjacency violations. They concluded that UG must still be
active. White (1988),in a study of native speakers of French acquiring English a second
language, found that the low-intermediate group had not reset the parameter, while a
high-intermediate group did.
53

Flynn (1996), Shachter (1988), Felix (1985), Clahsen and Muysken 1989) presents four
hypotheses or positions to explain the role of UG in SLA (logical problem):
i.
No Access Hypothesis
UG is totally inaccessible to the adult L2 learner; learning takes place in terms of
non-linguistic learning strategies
ii.
Partial Access Hypothesis

UG is partially available to the learner so adult L2 learner may be able to reset L1
parameters by means of general learning strategies. Only those parametric
values characterising the L1 grammar are available, but the learning principles
are not.
iii.
Full Access Hypothesis/ Complete Access

UG is fully available so L2 learner have full access to UG principles. L1 provides
learner with a quick setting for the L2 parameter if the value is the same,
otherwise the L2 learner proceeds in the way as the L1 learner. The differences
in patterns of acquisition between L1 and L2 learners and the lack of
completeness can be accounted for in other ways.
iv.
Dual access
L2 learners have access to UG but this is partly blocked by the use of general
learning strategies.
Furthermore there are problems with UG as a theory of SLA.
1. There is no learning theory in UG. How does a learner identify particular bits of
language as relevant to the setting of certain parameters?
2. UG only applies to core grammar, but there is much more grammar to be
learned than just the core. And what about the learning of lexicon, phonology,
semantics, sociolinguistic competence, discourse structures, etc?
3. In order to test UG we must find extremely rare grammatical structures.
4. Even if we concede that the solution to the logical problem of language
acquisition requires innate knowledge, need that knowledge be in the specific
form of UG?
54

5. Evidence in UG studies is obtained from grammatical judgments, since these are
supposed to reflect competence. But there are many problems with grammatical
judgments: they are just another kind of performance, learners judgments are
unstable, and individual differences among learners are ignored.
Another approach is to think of UG as the theory of the language faculty and also of the
initial state. Initial state is to be understood as having a set of finite discrete principles
available at any language specific event. This definition leads to two possible models of
LA:
Maturation Model: UG over time becomes the language specific grammar, i.e. UG and
L1 are indissociable from each other UG is only fully available until L1 is fully acquired.
Strong Continuity Hypothesis: UG remains distinct from the language specific
grammar and remains constant over time and is available continuously.
Revisions in linguistic theory, proposing a Minimalist Program, shed a new light on the
role of UG in SLA. It seems though, that this new theory is compatible with the approach
to language acquisition embracing the principle and parameter setting model (into which
also the SCH fits in). Minimalist Theory proposes that languages are based on simple
principles that interact to form often intricate structures. The Language faculty is not
redundant and can still be the basis for grammatical mapping integration of UG
principles in the grammar of the specific TL.
4.2.6
Implications for teaching
The discussion on how Universal Grammar relate to both L1 acquisition and L2 learning
will give language teachers an idea on how to play their roles in the teaching-learning
process in the classroom. Although it is argued that learning and acquisition are quite
distinct processes, a language teacher should consider the possibility that extensive
practice in the classroom can lead to acquisition. However, it should be kept in mind that
not everything taught becomes acquired. So, expectations regarding the quality of
learning should be set realistically.
55

Based on the similarities and differences between L2 and L1 acquisition, the role of
developmental sequences in the cognitive development of learners is very crucial. The
first stage is termed the silent period for learners to process language input whereby it
promotes immature production. This may be the reason why some learners resist or
avoid to produce the language taught. The second stage is the formulaic speech
whereby learners are exposed to sample of useful and frequently phrases for learners to
refer to in communication. And the last stage of developmental sequence is the
application of semantic simplifications to the learners language. This will help teachers
understand the production of imperfect language with errors related to their L1.
Another issue to be considered is the acquisition order of language learning. By knowing
which structures are learned prior to others, teachers may be able to sequence the order
of content in the English Language syllabus to suit the learners. Knowledge of learners
L1 may help teachers put in more time and effort on certain features of the TL that are
not present in L1 when planning lessons. Moreover teachers will have the insight into
why some learners fail to learn or have difficulty in learning certain features of the TL.
Language teachers are the main source of input to learners in the classroom. The
teacher plays an important role in the selection of comprehensible input to suit learners
level. In order to select the appropriate input, teachers have to be equipped with the
knowledge and skills of teaching methodology.
Furthermore, the ZPD or Zone of Proximal Development is another issue related to the
similarities of L1 and L2 acquisition. Teachers have to assist their learners as much as
possible by providing them with language necessary to pass to the next level of
language competence. To provide appropriate activities that promote language learning,
teachers have to consider the level of learners development, the cultural and social
environment. Thus the role of tests should be viewed as vital to gauge learners abilities.
The Critical Period hypothesis is one of the key differences leading to the variations in
L1 and L2 acquisition. By knowing that children are better in pronunciation, whereas
adults are faster and better learning in rules and pragmatics, teachers will give more
practice on pronunciation for adult learners. Besides, affective factors are related to the
critical period. While it does not cause a problem in L1 acquisition, the learners of L2 are
faced with inhibition and attitudes. The affective states of our learners are very important
56

since these are the major factors intervening in language learning. Adult or young adult
language learners need to be relaxed and comfortable to create positive attitudes to the
language and the language learning process. In addition, teachers need to free their
learners from inhibitions so that learners can freely interact and use the language. This
can only be possible if they build up trust and understanding between themselves and
their learners. More positive than negative feedback, more praise than criticism might be
the first step.
Fossilization is another issue only attributable to L2 acquisition. While all L1 learners
reach full competence in the target language, some forms in the target language of the
L2 learners might be fossilized. Teachers can prevent fossilization by correcting
repeated errors of their learners or they can practise problematic language more than
non-problematic language. One should be aware that once fossilization takes place, it is
very difficult to get rid of. Thus, teachers should act with caution and help their learners
to prevent fossilization.
Finally, social issues should be considered by teachers. Second language learners may
choose to learn a language variety other than the standard form depending on the
speech community they are taking as a reference. Therefore, it is the teacher's
responsibility to decide on which variety of the target language to take as the norm. It is
important to make learners aware of the different varieties of the target language, but in
terms of teaching, there should be consistency. In Malaysia, British English is the TL.
Tutorial Task
Prepare your answer to the following questions for your tutorial
session.
Exercise 4.3
1. List the issues to be considered when teaching English language to
Malaysian primary school learners.
2.
What are your roles as English language teachers of L2

learners in relation to Universal Grammar.
Check your answers with your peers and tutor.

57
TOPIC 5
OVERVIEW: APPROACHES, METHODS AND

TECHNIQUES ELT METHODS
5.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 5 will provide the definition of three concepts: approach, method and
technique and their relationship. It will introduce to you seven methods of English
language teaching. Each method will be discussed briefly with regards to basic
principles, key features, techniques, strengths, limitations of each method,
learner-teacher interaction, and their implications for syllabus design. Besides
you will be provided with suggested techniques to plan activities for each
method.
5.1
LEARNING OUTCOMES

define and explain the relationship between the concepts: approach, method,
technique;
state the basic principles of each method;
list and describe the features of each method;
illustrate the techniques employed in each method;
describe the strengths and limitations of each method;
describe learner-teacher interaction;
describe the implications for Syllabus Design; and,
plan activities for each approach/method
58

Overview: Approaches, Methods,
and Techniques ELT Methods
ELT Methods
Grammar-Translation Method
Direct Method
Audio-Lingual Method
Silent Way
Suggestopedia
Community Language Learning
Total Physical Response
59
CONTENT
SESSION FIVE (6 Hours)
2.2 Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques ELT Methods
Harmer, J. (2007) defines the concept of approach to refer to theories about the nature
of language and language learning which are the source of the way things are done in
the classroom and which provide the reasons for doing them. An approach describes
how language is used and how its constituent parts interlock it offers a model of
language competence. It also describes how people acquire their knowledge of the
language and make statements about the conditions which will promote successful
language learning.
Harmer, J.(2007) also defines method as the practical realization of an approach. It
describes the types of activities, roles of teachers and learners and kinds of materials
and various procedures and techniques which will be helpful for language learning.
However if a method takes procedures and techniques from a wide variety of sources, it
is difficult to describe it as a method. A teaching method refers to ways of teaching
(instruction) that are based on systematic principles and procedures, that is, which is an
application of views on how a language is best taught and learned. It varies depending
on what information or skill the teacher is trying to convey through class participation,
demonstration, recitation and memorization. Methods are decided according to students
(background knowledge, environment, and learning goals) which contribute towards the
success of teaching-learning in the classroom.
Technique refers to a particular procedure or activity used to accomplish a particular
objective(Richards and Rodgers (1986).
The use and mis-use of terms such as approach or learning to describe a method can
make discussions of methodology confusing. This maybe due to new insights of how the
method has been developed. However the main question for a teacher is Does each
method achieve what it set out to achieve?
5.2.1
Grammar-Translation Method
60

The Grammar-Translation Method is one of the most traditional methods, dating back
to the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It is originally used to teach 'dead'
languages (and literatures) such as Latin and Greek, and this may account for its heavy
bias towards written work to the virtual exclusion of oral production.
Key Features
1.
Classes are taught in the students' mother tongue as a medium of instruction.

Very little
teaching in Target Language(TL);
2.
Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists;
3.
Elaborate explanations of vocabulary / grammar are always provided;
4.
Reading of difficult texts is begun early in the course of study;
5.
Little or no attention is paid to speaking or listening skills;
6.
Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences;
7.
Literary language is superior to spoken language;
8.
Authority of class is the teacher;
9.
Primary skills to be improved : reading & writing;
10.
Focus on accuracy NOT fluency;
11.
Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
Strengths
1.
TL is quickly explained because translation is the easiest way of explaining

meanings or words and phrases from one language into another.
2.
An effective way for application of grammar and sentence structure.
3.
Few demands on teachers as they do not have to be fluent in the TL.
4.
Least stressful for students as they answer comprehension questions in the

mother tongue.
Limitations
1.
Shows the wrong idea of what language is /unnatural method of lang. learning
starts with teaching of reading
2.
Speech is neglected
3.
Often little contextualization of the grammar
4.
The type of error correction can be harmful to the students learning processes.
61

5.
Less learners motivation
6.
Create frustration for learners
7.
No class time is allocated to allow students to produce their own sentences.
Learner-teacher Interaction
Most of the interaction in the classroom is from teacher to the learners. There is little
learner initiation and little learner-to-learner interaction. Learners listen, copy rules and
write out exercises and correct them from the blackboard. The average learner has to
work hard at what he considers laborious and monotonous chores, without much feeling
of progress in the mastery of the language, and with very little opportunity to express
himself through it. He has a passive role in the classroom. He absorbs and then repeats
what he has absorbed to satisfy his teacher.
Application : Typical Techniques
1.
Translation of a Literary Passage
2.
Reading Comprehension Questions
3.
Deductive Application of Rule
4.
Cognates (words fr. same origin)
5.
Fill-in-the-blanks
6.
Antonyms/Synonyms
7.
Memorization
8.
Composition
9.
Use Words in Sentences
Although there are various limitations of this method, it may appeal to learners who
respond well to rules, structure and correction. This method implies that the teacher
should be a walking dictionary and proficient in both learners language and the target
language.
Before we move on to the next teaching method, try the following quiz.
Quiz 5.1
Put a (T) for statements which are true and put an (F) for false
statements.
62

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
GTM is originally used to teach 'dead' languages (and literatures) such as Latin and
Greek.
GTM is emphasized more on oral work.
Classes are taught in the students' mother tongue.
Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists
Elaborate explanations of vocabulary / grammar are always provided.
Reading of difficult texts is begun early in the course of study.
A lot of attention is paid to the content of texts
The only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences
Pronunciation is given little or no attention
An effective way for application of grammar and sentence structure.
GTM gives the correct idea of what language is.
A lot of error correction may be harmful to students.
As GTM does not allow students to produce their own sentences, they are less motivated
to learn the language.
GTM often provide little contextualization of the grammar.
Fill-in-the-blanks and memorization are techniques that illustrate GTM.
SCORE
To find out how you fare, check your answers.
5.2.2
Direct Method
The Direct Method, which arrived at the end of the nineteenth century, is a reaction to
the grammar-translation approach in an attempt to integrate more use of the target
language in instruction and in authentic situations. The teacher and learners have to
interact with one another by relating the grammatical forms that they were studying to
objects and pictures to establish meaning.
Key Features
1.
Instruction is conducted in the target language; no translation.
2.
Learners should be actively involved in using the language in realistic everyday

situations as the vocabulary and sentences are ordinary, everyday language.
3.
Students are encouraged to think in the target language.
4.
Oral and listening comprehension
are taught. Oral communication skills are
organized with the emphasis on speaking styles and correct pronunciation.

5.
Grammar is taught implicitly. New items are taught through modeling and
practice.
6.
Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures

whereas abstract vocabulary is taught through association of ideas.
Strengths
63

1.
An effective way in creating learners to be competent in using the target

language
communicatively because it makes the learning of English interesting and lively
by establishing direct bond between a word and its meaning.
2.
It is an activity/method facilitating alertness and participation of the pupils.
3.
Psychologically it is a sound method as it proceeds from the concrete to the

abstract.
4.
Can be usefully employed in both the best and weakest class.
5.
It is the quickest way of getting started in learning a language because in a few

months over 500 of the commonest English words can be learnt and used in
sentences. This serves as a strong foundation for further learning.
6.
Learners are able to understand what they learn, think about it and then express
their own ideas in correct English about what they have read and learnt.
7.
Fluency of speech, good pronunciation and power of expression are properly

developed.
Limitations
1.
Not all teachers were proficient enough in the foreign language.
2.
It is designed with the assumption that L2 should be learned in way in which L1

was acquired - by total immersion technique.
3.
It rejects the use of the printed word - but this objection is illogical since L2
learner has already mastered his reading skills.
4.
Need a lot of time and effort to prepare teaching materials (selection, grading or
controlled presentation of vocabulary and structures) to suit learners.
5.
Since in this method, grammar is closely bound up with the reader, difficulty is
experienced in providing readers of such kind.
6.
In larger classes, this method could not be properly applied and teaching in this
method does not suit or satisfy the needs of individual students.
Guidelines of Direct Method for teaching oral language
Demonstrate
Act/modelling
Practice
Ask questions
64
Correct errors
Use sentences
Make students speak much
Use lesson plan
Follow plan
Keep the pace of the students
Speak normally
Speak naturally
Use of pictures
Use of objects/ realia
Learner-teacher interaction
The initiation of the interaction goes both ways, from teacher to learners from learners to
teacher, although the latter is often teacher-directed. Learners converse with one
another as well. Learners read texts aloud together. The classroom is continually filled
with the sound of the foreign language, and all activity is closely linked with its use in
speech and writing. The teacher and the learners are thought of as partners in the
teaching and learning process.
Application: Typical Techniques
1.
Question and Answer Exercise
2.
Reading Aloud
3.
Student Self-Correction
4.
Conversation Practice
5.
Fill-in-the-blank Exercise
6.
Dictation
7.
Paragraph Writing
8.
Map Drawing
Quiz 5.2
statements.
65
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
An attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction as a

reaction to GTM.
Only use the target language in class.
The learner should be actively involved in using the language in realistic
everyday situations.
Students are encouraged to think in the target language.
Reading is taught first and then speaking only and writing.
An effective way in creating learners to be competent in using the target
communicatively
A lot of time and effort is needed to prepare teaching materials (selection,
grading or controlled presentation of vocabulary and structures) to suit
learners.
DM does not require teachers to be proficient in the foreign language.
DM encourages students to speak normally and naturally.
Reading Aloud is a technique that illustrates DM.
SCORE
5.2.3 Audio-Lingual Method

The Audio-Lingual Method or Army Method was founded during World War II for military
purposes in the USA. It was popular in the 1960s but died out in the 70s.This method is
based on the principles of behavioral psychology and structural linguistics. From
behavioral psychology it borrows the theory that constant repetition of behavior leads
to habit formation. From structural linguistics it borrows the theory that language can be
separated into different segments(e.g. tense, pronouns) and studied in small chunks.
It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the Direct Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills of the Reading Approach. It focuses on students
pronunciation, and train their ability of listening by dialogues and drills.
Key Features
1.
Dependence on mimicry and memorization of set phrases.
2.
Teaching structural patterns by means of repetitive drills.
3.
Little or no explicit grammatical explanation because learners are supposed to infer

grammatical rules.
4.
Skills are sequenced in the following order: listening, speaking, reading, writing.
5.
Learning of vocabulary in context but limited.
6.
Use of tapes, language labs and visual aids
66

7.
Focus on native-like pronunciation - habit-forming
8.
Some use of mother tongue by teachers is permitted, but learners are not allowed
to use it at all.
9.
Immediate reinforcement (praise/reward) of correct responses
10.
Cultural background of target language is stressed
Strengths
1.
Controlled drills may encourage shy students to speak.
2.
Because ALM lessons and drills tend to go very quickly, they may help create a
sense of fluency for some students.
Limitations
1.
Learners who need the written word to reinforce their speaking and listening may
find ALM very confusing.
2.
ALM frequently uses non-authentic language.
3.
Some learners may be unable to make the transition from controlled drills to
more open-ended and creative language use.
4.
Basic method of teaching is repetition, speech is standardised and learners turn

into parrots who can reproduce many things but never create anything new or
spontaneous. Learners became better and better at pattern practice but were
unable to use the patterns fluently in natural speech situations.
5.
Mechanical drills of early Audio-Visual approach criticised as being not only

boring and mindless but also counter-productive, if used beyond initial
introduction to new structure.
6.
Audio-Visual materials were open to same sort of misuse. Tendency to regard

audio-visual materials as a teaching method in themselves, not as a teaching aid.
7.
Series of classroom studies threw doubt on claims made for language laboratory.
Showed that this costly equipment did not improve performance of 11+
beginners, when compared with same materials used on single tape-recorder in
classroom.
8.
Soon became clear to teachers that audio-visual approach could only assist in
presentation of new materials. More subtle classroom skills were needed for
pupils to assimilate material and use it creatively. This final vital phase was often
omitted by teachers. New technology caught publishers and text-book writers
67

unprepared - very few commercial materials were available in the early stages.
Those that did exist stressed oral skills and didn't develop reading and writing
skills.
9.
New materials necessitated extensive use of equipment with all associated

problems of black-out, extension leads, carrying tape-recorders from classroom
to classroom. Some schools set up Specialist- Language rooms, but teachers still
had to set up projectors and find places on tape. Equipment could break down,
projector lamps explode, tapes tangle - not sophisticated equipment of today.
Hardware involved extra time, worry and problems, and, for these reasons alone,
its use gradually faded away.
There is learner-to-learner interaction in chain drills and when learners take different
roles in dialogues, but this interaction is teacher-directed. Most interaction is between
teacher and learners and is initiated by the teacher. The teacher is like an orchestra
leader, directing and controlling the language behaviour of her learners. She is
responsible for providing her learners with a good model for imitation. Learners are
imitators of the teacher's model or the tapes she supplies of model speakers. They
follow the teacher's directions and respond as accurately and as rapidly as possible.
Application:Typical Techniques
1.
Dialogue Memorization
Learners memorize an opening dialog using mimicry and applied role-playing.
2.
Backward Build-up (Expansion Drill)

Teacher breaks a line into several parts, learners repeat each part starting at the
end of the sentence and "expanding" backwards through the sentence, adding
each part in sequence.
3.
Repetition Drill
Learners repeat teacher's model as quickly and accurately as possible.
4.
Chain Drill
Learners ask and answer each other one-by-one in a circular chain around the
classroom.
5.
Single Slot Substitution Drill

Teacher states a line from the dialog, then uses a word or a phrase as a "cue"
that students, when repeating the line, must substitute into the sentence in the
correct place.
68
6.
Multiple-slot Substitution Drill

Same as the Single Slot drill, except that there are multiple cues to be substituted
into the line.
7.
Transformation Drill
Teacher provides a sentence that must be turned into something else, for
example a question to be turned into a statement, an active sentence to be
turned into a negative statement, etc.
8.
Question-and-answer Drill
Learners should answer or ask questions very quickly.
9.
Grammar Games
Various games designed to practise a grammar point in context, using lots of
repetition.
10.
Use of Minimal Pairs

Using contrastive analysis, teacher selects a pair of words that sound identical
except for a single sound that typically poses difficulty for the learners to
pronounce and differentiate the two words.
11.
Complete the Dialogue

Selected words are erased from a line in the dialogue - learners must find and
insert.
12.
Dictation
Quiz 5.3
Put a (T) for statements which are true and put an (F) for false statements.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Founded during World War II for military purposes in USA.

Based on the principles of behavior psychology.
Focus on learners pronunciation, and train their ability of listening by dialogues and
drills.
Dependence on mimicry and memorization of set phrases.
There is little or no explicit grammatical explanation.
Vocabulary is taught in context.
Focus on native-like pronunciation.
Learners are not allowed to use mother tongue at all.
Correct responses are not given immediate reinforcement (praise / reward).
69
10
11
12
Cultural background of target language is stressed.

Flashcards are used widely.
Use of repetitive drills to teach structural patterns.
SCORE
5.2.4 Silent Way

The Silent Way is one of new methods developed in the 70s to highlight the cognitive
domain in language learning. Caleb Gattegno, the founder of the Silent Way, of Egypt,
although he repeatedly insisted that "the Silent Way is not a method at all", devoted his
thinking to the importance of problem solving approach in education. He contends that
the method is constructivist and leads the learners to develop their own conceptual
models of all the aspects of the language. The best way of achieving this is to help
students to be experimental learners.
The use of the word "silent" is also significant, as Silent Way is based on the premise
that the teacher should be as silent as possible in the classroom in order to
encourage the learner to produce as much language as possible. As far as the
presentation of language is concerned, Silent Way adopts a highly structural
approach, with language taught through sentences in a sequence based on
grammatical complexity, described by some as a "building-block" approach(Bowen,
T. (2011).
Key Features
The Silent Way (SW)is characterized by its focus on discovery, creativity, problem
solving and the use of accompanying materials. Richards and Rodgers
(1986:99) summarized the method into three major features.
1.
Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates. The SW belongs to

the tradition of teaching that favors hypothetical mode of teaching (as opposed to
expository mode of teaching) in which the teacher and the learner work
cooperatively to reach the educational desired goals(Bruner, 1966). The learner
is not a bench bound listener but an active contributor to the learning process.
2.
Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects. The

SW uses colorful charts and rods (cuisinere rods) which are of varying length.
70

They are used to introduce vocabulary ( colors, numbers, adjectives, verbs) and
syntax (tense, comparatives, plurals, word order )
3.
Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be

learned. This can be summarized by Benjamin Franklins words:
Tell me and I forget
Teach me and I remember
Involve me and I learn
A good SW learner is a good problem solver. The teachers role resides only in giving
minimum repetitions and correction, remaining silent most of the times, leaving the
learner struggling to solve problems about the language and get a grasp of its
mechanism.
Strengths
1.
Learning through problem solving looks attractive especially because it fosters

creativity, discovery, increase in intelligent potency and long term memory.
2.
The indirect role of the teacher highlights the importance and the centrality of the
learner who is responsible in figuring out and testing the hypotheses about how
language works. In other words teaching is subordinated to learning because
good learning demands that any language learner carefully observe his or her
own speech.
Limitations
1.
The SW is often criticised of being a harsh method. The learner works in isolation
and communication is lacking badly in a Silent Way classroom because it does
not provide learners the language for everyday situations.
2.
Neither the learners work with authentic, culturally based materials nor they hear
authentic speech in the instruction.
3.
Minimum help on the part of the teacher because she offers neither praise nor
criticism and does not allow questions makes learning inefficient.
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4.
The material (the rods and the charts (called Fidels), which are difficult to get,
used in this method will certainly fail to introduce all aspects of language. Other
materials will have to be introduced.
Learner-teacher interaction
For much of the learner-teacher interaction, the teacher is silent. He is still very active,
however, setting up situations to "force awareness", listening attentively to students'
speech, and silently working with them on their production. When the teacher does
speak, it is to give clues, not to model the language. Learner-learner verbal interaction
is desirable and is therefore encouraged. The teachers' silence is to allow for this. The
teacher constantly observes the learners and helps them overcome negative feelings
which might interfere with learning.
Application:Technique ( Leela Mohd. Ali, 1989)
Learners learn the language through its sounds. The color-coded Fidel Charts are used
to help learners learn spellings that correspond to sounds and progress to
reading and pronouncing words correctly. The teacher sets up situations that
focus learner attention
on structures, and provides a vehicle for learners to perceive meaning. The teacher uses
the learners'
errors to ascertain the language the learners are unclear about, and
determines what to work on based on this. Learners receive a great deal of

practice with a structure without repetition for its own sake. They gain autonomy
in the language by exploring it and making choices. Learners take responsibility
for their own learning. (For
lessons using Silent Way search on youtube.com).
Quiz 4.4
statements.
1
2
3
The Silent Way emphasizes the importance of problem solving approach in

education.
The teacher constantly observes and interferes by correcting errors all the
time.
SW is based on the premise that the teacher should be as silent as possible
72

in the classroom in order to encourage the learner to produce as much
language as possible.
4
In SW, learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates, accompanied
by(mediating) physical objects or by problem solving involving the material to
be learned.
5
The strength of SW is that the learner is given more importance and the
centrality because he is responsible in figuring out and testing the hypotheses
about how language works.
6
Learners work with authentic, culturally based materials and hear authentic
speech in the instruction.
7
In SW, communication is lacking badly as it does not provide learners the
language for everyday situations.
8
In the SW when the teacher does speak, it is to give clues, not to model the
language.
9
The teacher role is to set up situations that focus learner attention on
structures, and provides a vehicle for learners to perceive meaning.
10 The teacher uses the learners' errors to ascertain the language the learners
are unclear about, and determines what to work on based on this.
5.2.5 Suggestopedia
Suggestopedia is a teaching method which is based on a modern understanding of how
the human brain works and how we learn most effectively. It was developed by the
Bulgarian doctor and psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov who believes that Learning is a
matter of attitude, not aptitude.The term 'Suggestopedia', derived from suggestion and
pedagogy, is often used loosely to refer to similar accelerated learning approaches.
However, Lozanov reserves the title strictly for his own method, and he has his own
training and certification facilities. Suggestopedia was originally applied mainly in foreign
language teaching, and it is often claimed that it can teach languages approximately
three times as quickly as conventional methods (Lozanov, G.,1978).
This method includes elements such as the use of relaxing music, art and the additional
importance that is given to the learning environment as well as the authoritative
behaviour of the teacher (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). The most distinguishing feature of
Suggestopedia, however, is the aim to help the students achieve [...] childlike openness,
plasticity and creativity by putting them into a state called infantalization (Stevick,
1976, p. 156). This act of lowering a learner's "affective filter" - in other words by
removing distractions or negative feelings which may inhibit language learning.
73

Application: Technique
The key elements of Suggestopedia include a rich sensory learning environment
(pictures, colour, music, etc.), a positive expectation of success and the use of a varied
range of methods: dramatised texts, music, active participation in songs and games, etc.
Suggestopedia adopts a carefully structured approach, using four main stages as
follows:
Presentation
A preparatory stage in which learners are helped to relax and move into a positive
frame of mind, with the feeling that the learning is going to be easy and fun.
First Concert - "Active Concert"

This involves the active presentation of the material to be learnt. For example, in a
foreign language course there might be the dramatic reading of a piece of text,
accompanied by classical music.
Second Concert - "Passive Review"

The learners are now invited to relax and listen to some Baroque music, with the
text being read very quietly in the background. The music is specially selected to
bring the learners into the optimum mental state for the effortless acquisition of the
material.
Practice
The use of a range of games, puzzles, etc. to review and consolidate the learning.
There are two phases incorporated in this approach:

Learners learn new information very quickly and efficiently in a state of light relaxation
accompanied by Baroque or classical music. This new material which has been acquired
3 to 5 times faster than with traditional learning techniques, is now stored passively in
the brain. It is then activated by means of creative, interactive and communicative
learning techniques, i.e. grammar games, role play, etc. which contribute not only to
recall and retention but also to the communication skills and personality development of
the students.
Strengths
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It deals with the learners own often quite harmful and often quite negative feelings about
their own abilities. It sets up a non-evaluative classroom atmosphere; thus it also avoids
both criticizing and praising. The processes of desuggestion and resuggestion requires
the teacher to make deliberate and skillful use of the general learning atmosphere.
Teachers need to be lively, cheerful, and efficient (Leela M. A., 1989).
Limitations
Teacher needs to be well-trained and have the right personality; otherwise, this method
will not be completely effective. It is unclear how successful this method would be with
younger children(ibid, 1989).
The teacher initiates interactions with the whole group of learners and with individuals
right from the beginning of a language course. Initially, the learners only respond
nonverbally or with a few target language words they have practised. Later the learners
have more control of the target language and respond more appropriately and may
initiate interaction themselves. Learners interact with each other from the beginning in
various activities directed by the teacher. The teacher is the authority in the classroom.
The learners must trust and respect her in order for the method to succeed.
Quiz 4.5
1
2
3
Suggestopedia is a teaching method which is based on a modern

understanding of how the human brain works and how we learn most
effectively.
The use of games in this method is for fun only.
Learners do not interact with each other from the beginning in various
activities directed by the teacher.
4
Infantalization refers to the act of lowering a learner's "affective filter" by
removing distractions or negative feelings which may inhibit language
learning.
5
The are four main stages of Suggestopedia : Presentation; First Concert -
75
6
7
8
9
10
"Active Concert";Second Concert - "Passive Review" and Practice.

Second Concert - "Passive Review" is the second stage where the learners
are now invited to relax and listen to some Baroque music, with the text being
read very quietly in the background.
By avoiding both criticizing and praising, Suggestopedia provides a nonevaluative classroom atmosphere.
Teacher need not be well-trained and have the right personality completely
effective.
The teacher initiates interactions with the whole group of learners and with
individuals right from the beginning of a language course.
The teacher is the authority in the classroom.
SCORE

5.2.6
Community Language Learning
Community Language Learning(CLL) takes its principles from the Counseling Learning
Approach developed by Charles A. Curran. It was created especially for adult learners
who might fear to appear foolish ; so the teacher becomes a Language Counselor , who
understands them and leads them to overcome their fears. It follows Krashens Monitor
Theory (Affective Filter Hypothesis) and the Cognitive Theory where the human mind is
active (Stevick, 1980).
Key Features (Open University Malaysia, 2002)
1.
Learning is more important than teaching. Learning develops itself, and the
learners only need occasional help.
2.
CLL provides learners with opportunities to guide their own learning to decide
what they want to learn, and to learn at their own pace. The teacher is not in
control of the class.
3.
Cooperation is important. Small group activities encourage interaction among

learners. Learning is achieved through cooperation, not competition.
4.
Focus is on fluency rather than proficiency. The purpose of using language is to

convey messages and develop creative thinking. Grammatical correctness is less
important.
5.
The teacher does not correct errors immediately. When a learner produces an
incorrect utterance, the teacher provides a model by producing he correct
utterance.
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Leela (1989) summarizes this method using the formula SAARRD: S-Security, AAssertion, A-Attention, R-Reflection, R-Retention, and D-Discrimination. Learners are
viewed as whole persons; thus, the relationships and understanding among learners as
a "knower-counselor" and the learner as a learner are responsible for bringing their own
unique resources to the learning experience.
Strengths
1.
Learners appreciate the autonomy CLL offers them and thrive on analysing their
own conversations.
2.
CLL works especially well with lower levels who are struggling to produce spoken
English.
3.
The class often becomes a real community, not just when using CLL but all of the
time. Learners become much more aware of their peers, their strengths and
weaknesses and want to work as a team (Bertrand, J.,2004).
4.
By having the learners work with the content of their own choosing and creation,
they are intimately involved with the material. Meanwhile, the teacher attends
more closely to the structuring of the class and to the highlighting of the
materials. By listening to the learners in structured feedback sessions, the
teacher establishes an atmosphere of security which helps minimize behaviour
problems( Leela, 1989).
Limitations
1.
In the beginning some learners find it difficult to speak on tape while others might
find that the conversation lacks spontaneity.
2.
We as teachers can find it strange to give our learners so much freedom and
tend to intervene too much.
3.
In your efforts to let your learners become independent learners you can neglect
their need for guidance.
77

4.
If the teacher lacks emotional or intellectual sensitivity or lacks skill at teaching,

this method will be rendered ineffective. The teacher needs to be very good at
both languages.
It is neither learner-centered not teacher-centered but rather teacher-learner centered
with both making decisions in the class. Building a relationship with and among learners
is very important. In a trusting relationship, the threat that learners feel is reduced, and
non-defensive learning is promoted. Learners learn from their interaction with the
teacher. A spirit of cooperation, not competition must prevail. At times the teacher
facilitates the learners' ability to express themselves, and at times the teacher is incharge and providing direction. Thus the nature of learner-teacher interaction changes
within the lesson and over time.
Application : Techniques
At the beginning learners speak in the native language and the teacher helps them
express what they want to say by supplying them with the target language translations in
chunks. The chunks which the learners produce are recorded, and when replayed sound
like a conversation. Later a transcription is made and it becomes the "text" with which
learners work. Various activities are then conducted (e.g. examination of a grammar
point, working on the pronunciation of a particular phrase, or creating new sentences
with words from the transcript) that allow the students to further explore the language
they generated. During the course of the lesson, learners are invited to say how they
feel.
Quiz 4.6
1
2
CLL takes its principles from the Counseling Learning Approach : a teacher
is the counselor who understands learners and leads them to overcome their
fears.
CLL provides learners with opportunities to guide their own learning to
decide what they want to learn, and to learn at their own pace.
78

3
4
5
CLL encourages competition rather than cooperation.

Focus is on fluency rather than proficiency
The teacher does not correct errors immediately but provides a model by
producing he correct utterance when a learner produces an incorrect
utterance.
6
CLL works especially well with lower levels who are struggling to produce
spoken English.
7
The nature of learner-teacher interaction changes within the lesson and over
time.
8
The teacher have to be emotionally or intellectually sensitive for learning to
be effective.
9
The teacher translates chunks of language from learners native language to
the target language.
10 Creates a trusting relationship between teacher and learner because the
threat that learners feel is reduced, and non-defensive learning is promoted.
SCORE
5.2.7
Total Physical Response
Total Physical Response (TPR), developed by Dr. James Asher in 1977 is based upon
principles of child language acquisition, in which the child gives physical responses
when listening to language. TPRs ultimate instructional goal is to teach oral proficiency
and conversational fluency. The emphasis is not on text or other media, but initially on
voice, action and gestures. Instruction is given in target language only. TPR recognizes
the value of language being associated with physical responses.
Follows a grammar-based view of language that focuses on meaning, not form.
Based upon principles of child language acquisition, which proposes that the
human brain has a set pattern for learning language.
Assessment types compatible with the method include evaluation of learner

actions and gestures when given non-written prompt, eventually moving towards
learner composition.
Key Features
According to Asher, the language learning theories are similar to those of other
behavioral psychologists. The principals that help elaborate his idea are:
1.
Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and should reflect
the same naturalistic processes.
79

2.
Listening should develop before speaking.
3.
Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech develops naturally

and effortlessly out of it.
4.
Adult learners should use right-brain motor activities, while the left hemisphere
watches and learns.
Strengths
1.
Allows learners to get up and move while learning and encourages a more
relaxed learning environment that can easily incorporate humour.
2.
Helps retention by associating movement with words.
3.
It is fun and easy. Learners will enjoy getting up out of their chairs and moving
around.
4.
Simple TPR activities do not require a great deal of preparation on the part of the
teacher. However, some other more complex applications might.
5.
"TPR is aptitude-free". It is inclusive working well with a mixed ability class.
6.
It is good for kinesthetic learners who need to be active in the class.
7.
It is a good tool for building vocabulary.
8.
It is memorable. Actions help strengthen the connections in the brain.
9.
Class size need not be a problem.
Limitations
1.
Not as effective in higher levels of language learning.
2.
Does not promote independent language use outside of oral work modeled by
teacher in classroom.
3.
Learner needs for unrehearsed language not always met.
4.
While it can be used at higher levels TPR is most useful for beginners. It is also
at the higher levels where preparation becomes an issue for the teacher.
5.
Learners are not generally given the opportunity to express their own thoughts in
a creative way.
6.
It is easy to overuse TPR. "Any novelty, if carried on too long, will trigger
adaptation." "No matter how exciting and productive the innovation, people will
tire of it."
7.
The teacher may find that it is limited in terms of language scope. Certain target
languages may not be suited to this method.
8.
It can be a challenge for shy learners.
80
Learner-Teacher Interaction
The teacher interacts with the whole group of learners and with individual learners.
Initially, the interaction is characterized by the teacher speaking and the learners
responding nonverbally. Later on, the learners become more verbal and the teacher
responds nonverbally. Learners perform actions together or individually. Learners learn
from each other. As learners begin to speak, they issue commands to, their peers as well
as to the teacher.
Application: Techniques
In the first phase of the lesson, the instructor issues commands to learners, then
performs the actions with them. In the second phase, learners demonstrate that they
understand the commands by performing them on their own. The teacher then combines
elements from different commands to allow learners to develop flexibility in
understanding unfamiliar utterances. After learning to respond to oral commands, the
learners learn to read and write them. When learners are ready to speak they issue the
commands. Learners speak only when they are ready to do so; this avoids anxiety.
Quiz 4.7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
The emphasis in TPR is initially on voice, action and gestures.

TPR follows a grammar-based view of language that focuses on meaning, not
form.
Speaking should develop before listening.
It works well with a mixed ability class especially for kinesthetic learners.
Helps retention by associating movement with words because actions help
strengthen the connections in the brain.
Does not promote independent language use outside of oral work modeled by
teacher in classroom.
Learners are given the opportunity to express their own thoughts in a creative
way.
Interaction occurs between the teacher and learners and learners with other
81

learners.
9
From the beginning the instructor issues commands to learners and they
perform the actions without any modeling.
10 Learners speak only when they are ready to do so to avoid anxiety.
To find out how you fare, check your answers with your peers or tutor.
Tutorial Task 4. 8
I.
Create a GO to compare and contrast the 7 teaching methods with regards to :

- Background
- Principles
- Key features
- Roles of student and teacher
- Techniques
- Strengths
- Limitations
II.
Choose one teaching method. Discuss your rationale for choosing the method
with regards to its strengths and how would you overcome t its weaknesses?
III.
For each method, list the implications for English language teaching.
TOPIC 6
ELT METHODS: COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
6.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 6 introduces you to key concepts of Communicative Approach or presently
known as Communicative Language Teaching.
It provides insights into the
principles and techniques, strengths and limitations of the approach. You will
also look into the role of the teacher, learners and resources in this approach.
82

5. explain the principles of the Communicative Approach
6. identify the techniques used in the Communicative Approach
7. list the strengths and limitations of the approach
8. explain the role of the teacher, learners and resources in the
Communicative Approach
CONTENT
SESSION SIX (3 Hours)
6.2.1 Concept of Communicative Approach
The Communicative Approach which emerged in the early 1970s can be

traced to the work of Chomsky in the 1960s.
83
Chomsky reacted against the
prevalent audio-lingual method and its views. He proposed the two notions of
'competence' and 'performance' which were related to language learning. These
two concepts were later developed by Hymes, into the term 'communicative
competence'. According to Hedge (2000) communicative competence refers to
the psychological, cultural and social rules which discipline the use of speech. It
concerns not only the knowledge of language but also ability to put that
knowledge into use in communication, in other words, knowing when and how to
say what to whom. Dimensions of communicative competence include linguistic
or grammatical competence, sociolinguistic or pragmatic competence, discourse
competence and strategic competence (Richards & Rogers, 1986; Hedge, 2000)
and fluency (Hedge, 2000).
According to Bygate (2001), the communicative approach provides learners
with an opportunity to use language for communication purposes without
focusing on accuracy. The aims of the communicative approach are:
to make communicative competence the goal of language teaching

develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that
acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication
(Richards and Rodgers, 1986)
The communicative approach is a learner-centred approach to language
learning.
Since the main aim of the approach is to prepare learners for
meaningful communication, errors made by learners are tolerated.

6.2.2 Principles of Communicative Approach
Below are some of the principles of the Communicative Approach.
Authentic language/language used in real context is introduced.
Communicative approach seeks to use authentic resources as they are
more interesting and motivating. In the language classroom, authentic
texts serve as partial substitute for a community of native speakers.
Newspapers and magazine articles, poems, manuals, recipes, telephone
directories, videos, news bulletins, discussion programmes can be
exploited in variety of ways.
84
Part of being communicatively competent is figuring out speakers or

writers intention.
The target language is a vehicle for classroom communications not just

the object of study.
The target language is used as the medium for
classroom management and instruction.
Classroom activities maximise opportunities for learners to use target

language in a communicative way through meaningful activities. Emphasis
is on meaning (messages they are creating or task they are completing)
rather than form (correctness of language and language structure).
A variety of language forms are presented together with the emphasis on

the process of communication.
Students work with language at the discourse/suprasentential level

learn about coherence and cohesion.
Games are important because they have certain features in common with
real communicative eventsthere is a purpose for the exchange. The
speaker receives immediate feedback from the listener on whether or not
he or she has successfully communicated
Teaching is more learner-centered. Students are more involved,

rather than only listening to the teacher. Students are given opportunities
to express their ideas and opinions and to contribute as much as
possible.
Errors are tolerated and seen as a natural outcome of the development of

communication skills.
Learners doing their best to use the language

85
creatively and spontaneously are certain to make errors. As such constant

correction is deemed unnecessary and sometimes even counterproductive. Hence, activities focus on fluency where the teacher does not
correct the student, but simply notes the error, which he will return to at a
later point. Thus, the form of language becomes secondary.
One of the teachers major responsibilities is to establish situations likely

to promote communication.
Teachers should provide opportunities for
rehearsal of real-life situations and provide opportunity for real

communication. Emphasis should be on creative role-plays/ simulations/
surveys/ projects/ playlets which produce spontaneity and improvisation
and not mere repetition and drills
Communicative interaction encourages cooperative relationships among

students. It gives students an opportunity to work on negotiating meaning.
The use of pair-work and group-work activities is common as well as
individual and also teacher-led activities. Varied types of interaction
are encouraged. Learners hear more types of language from different
sources, interact with more people and use language in context which
further helps to build confidence in the students.
The social context of the communicative event is essential in giving

meaning to the utterances. Language is viewed and learned within its
social and cultural context whereby learners need to develop knowledge
of t h e l a n g u a g e in order to develop appropriate language use,
for example talking to friends, facilitating a meeting, or writing letters.
The teacher acts as a facilitator in setting up communicative activities

and as an advisor during the activities.
86
In communicating, a speaker has a choice not only about what to say, but
also how to say it.
Both fluency and accuracy are important as learning to use language

forms appropriately is an important part of communicative competence.
Grammar is necessary for communication to occur, but not sufficient by
itself. The grammar and vocabulary that the students learn follow from
the function, situational context, and the roles of the interlocutors.
Students need grammatical explanations, drills and exercises, when and
only when they are appropriate.
Students should be given opportunities to listen to language as it is used

in authentic communication. They may be coached on strategies for how
to improve their comprehension.
The use of visual stimuli or resources is important to provoke practical

communicative languages as they help to motivate and focus pupils'
attention.
Both spoken and written languages are important. Reading, writing,

speaking and listening are all necessary parts of communicative
competence.
Tutorial Task:
What are the implications of the principles above in your teaching context?
Do you have other principles that support your teaching?
6.2.3 Techniques of Communicative Approach
87
Communicative Approach uses almost any activity or technique that

allows students to be engaged in authentic communication. Littewood has
distinguished two major activity types:
functional communication activities: these activities are aimed at

developing certain language skills and functions, but which involve
communication, such as language games , scrambled sentences , picture
strip story, puzzles
social interaction activities include activities such as conversation and

discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays, simulation, information-gap
activity
6.2.4 Strengths and Limitations of Communicative Approach

Communicative Approach like the other language teaching methods has
its strengths and limitations. Below are some of the strengths of Communicative
Approach:
There is greater focus on the role of learners with a shift from teachercentered instruction to learner-centred instruction.
There is greater attention on the process of learning rather than the
products that the learners produce.
There is greater attention on the social nature of learning rather than
looking at learners as separate, decontexualized learners.
There is greater focus on the diversity of learners and looking at the
differences not as obstacles but as resources.
Helps to promote holistic learning.
88
Emphasis on the importance of meaning rather than drills and other forms
of rote learning.
Views learning as a life-long process rather than being exam-oriented.
Below are some of the limitations of Communicative Approach:
The communicative approach focuses on the use of language in everyday
situations, or the functional aspects of language, and less on the formal
structures. However, critics believe that there needs to be some sort of
"bridge" between the two in order for effective language learning.
The approach relies extensively on the functional-notational syllabus
which places heavy demands on the learners.
The various categories of language functions are overlapping and not
systematically graded like the structures of the language.
A major premise underlying this approach is its emphasis on learners'
needs and interests. This implies that every teacher should modify the
syllabus to correspond with the needs of the learners.
The approach gives priority to meanings and rules of use rather than to
grammar and rules of structure. The latter are taught by means of
functions and notions. Such concentration on language behavior may
result in negative consequences in the sense that important structures
and rules may be left out.
The requirements are difficult: availability of a classroom that can allow for
group work activities and for teaching aids and materials.
6.2.5 Role of teacher, learners and resources

6.2.5.1Role of teacher
The teacher facilitates communication in the classroom. In this role, one
of his major responsibilities is to establish situations likely to promote
communication. During the activities he acts as an adviser, answering students
questions and monitoring their performance. He might make note of their errors
to be worked on at a later time during more accuracy-based activities. At other
89
times he might be a co-communicator engaging in the communicative activity

along with students (Littlewood, 1981).
6.2.5.2 Role of learners
Students are communicators. They are actively engaged in negotiating
meaningin trying to make them understood and in understanding others.
Since the teachers role is less dominant than in a teacher-centered method,
students are seen as more responsible managers of their own learning
6.2.5.3 Role of resources
One of the principles of Communicative Approach is the use of authentic
resources. Communicative approach seeks to use authentic resources as they
are more interesting and motivating. Authentic resources are used to:
Provide cultural information about the target language

Provide exposure to real language
Relate more closely to learners needs
Allow for a more creative approach to teaching
Tutorial Task:
How useful are authentic resources in your classroom?
What difficulties do you encounter when you use authentic resources?
How do you prepare your students to achieve communicative competence?
90
TOPIC 7
ELT METHODS
7.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 7 provides input on three different ELT methods namely the Lexical
Approach, Eclectic Approach and Task-Based Learning.

9. explain what is Lexical Approach
10. explain what is Eclectic Approach
11. explain what is Task-Based Learning
91
CONTENT
SESSION SEVEN (3 Hours)
7.2.1 Lexical Approach
The Lexical Approach develops many of the principles advanced by the
Communicative Approach. It was proposed by Dave Willis in 1990 and
popularised by Michael Lewis in 1993.The most important difference is the
increased understanding of the nature of lexis in naturally occurring language,
and its potential contribution to language pedagogy. The lexical approach to
second language teaching is seen as an alternative to grammar based
approaches.
The lexical approach focuses on developing learners proficiency through
lexis, or words and word combinations. According to Lewis (1993) an important
part of language acquisition is the ability to comprehend and produce lexical
phrases as unanalyzed wholes, or chunks, and that these chunks become the
raw data by which learners perceive patterns of language traditionally thought of
as grammar. Lexis is deemed as central in creating meaning. As such, language
instruction focuses on relatively fixed expressions that occur frequently in spoken
92
language, such as, Im sorry, I didnt mean to make you jump, or That will
never happen to me, rather than on originally created sentences .
Lewis (1993), who termed the phrase lexical approach, has suggested the
following:
Lexis is the basis of language.
Lexis is misunderstood in language teaching because it is assumed that
grammar is the basis of language and as such mastery of the
grammatical system is a requirement for effective communication.
The key notion of a lexical approach is that language consists of
grammaticalised lexis not lexicalised grammar.
One of the central organizing principles of any meaning centered
syllabus should be lexis.
Lewis (1997) has also suggested the following taxonomy of lexical items:
words (e.g., book, pen)
polywords (e.g., by the way, upside down)
collocations, or word partnerships (e.g., community service, absolutely
convinced)
institutionalized utterances (e.g., Ill get it; Well see; Thatll do; If I were
you . . .; Would you like a cup of coffee?)
sentence frames and heads (e.g., That is not as . . . as you think; The
fact/suggestion/problem/danger was . . . ) and even text frames (e.g., In
this paper we explore . . .; Firstly . . .; Secondly . . .; Finally . . .)
Below are the key principles of the Lexical Approach:
Language consists of grammaticalised lexis, not lexicalised grammar.
The grammar/vocabulary dichotomy is invalid; much of language

consists of multi-words 'chunks'.
A vital element of language teaching is raising students' awareness of,

and developing their ability to 'chunk' language successfully.
Although structural patterns are known as useful, lexical and

metaphorical patterning are accorded appropriate status.
Collocation is integrated as an organising principle within syllabuses.
93
The central metaphor of language is holistic.
It is the co-textual rather than the situational element of context which is

of primary importance for language teaching.
Grammar as a receptive skill, involving the perception of similarity and

difference, is prioritised.
Receptive skills, particularly listening, are given enhanced status.
The Present-Practice-Produce paradigm is rejected, in favour of a

paradigm based on the Observe-Hypothesize-Experiment cycle.
Activities used to develop learners knowledge of lexical chains

include the following:
Intensive and extensive listening and reading in the target

language.
First and se co n d language comparisons and translation are

carried out chunk-for-chunk rather than word-for-word and this
is aimed at raising language awareness.
Repetition and recycling of activities, such as summarizing a text
orally one day and again a few days later a r e d o n e to keep
w ords and expressions that have been learned active.
Guessing the meaning of vocabulary items from context.
Noticing and recording language patterns and collocations.
Working with dictionaries and other reference tools.
The language activities carried out with a lexical approach must
b e directed toward language occurring naturally. What is important is

rais ing learners awareness of the l e x i c a l n a t u r e of language.
The
logical implication of this premise is that we should spend more time

helping learners develop their repertoire of phrases, and less time on
grammatical structures.
Tutorial Task:
94
Do you think the Lexical Approach can be implemented in your classroom?

What possible challenges to do foresee in the implementation of the approach?
7.2.2 Eclectic approach

The eclectic approach is the label given to a teacher's use of techniques
and activities from a range of language teaching approaches and methodologies.
The teacher decides what methodology or approach to use depending on the
aims of the lesson and the learners in the group. Most course books have a
mixture of approaches and methodologies.
A typical lesson might combine elements from a variety sources such as
Total Physical Response (TPR), Task-Based Learning (TBL), the communicative
approach , e.g. in opinion gap activities; the lexical approach, e.g. focusing on
lexical chunks in a reading text; and the structural-situational approach, e.g.
establishing a context for the presentation of new structures.
The following is an example of a lesson using the eclectic approach.
The class begins with an inductive activity with the students asked to identify the
different uses of synonyms of movement based on a reading text. They then
practise these using Total Physical Response (TPR). In the next lesson the input
is recycled through a task-based lesson, with the students instructed to produce
the instructions for an exercise manual.
7.2.3 Task-Based Learning (TBL)
Originally developed by N Prabhu in Bangalore, Southern India, it is based
on the belief that students may learn more effectively when their minds are
focused on the task, rather than on the language they are using.
A task-based approach aims to provide learners a natural context for language
use with the primary focus of classroom activity being the task and language is
the instrument which the students use to complete it. The task is an activity in
95
which students use language to achieve a specific outcome. The activity reflects
real life and learners focus on meaning; they are free to use any language they
want. Relevant and authentic tasks include playing a game, solving a problem or
sharing information or experiences. More recently, tasks have included projects
for producing posters, brochures, pamphlets, oral presentations, radio plays,
videos, websites and dramatic performances. The characteristic of all these tasks
is that rather than concentrating on one particular structure, function or
vocabulary group, these tasks exploit a wider range of language. In many cases,
students may also be using a range of different communicative language skills.
In TBL an activity in which students are given a list of words to use is not
considered as a genuine task. A role play which does not contain a problemsolving element or where students are not given a goal to reach is also not
considered an authentic task.. In many role plays students simply act out their
restricted role. For instance, a role play where students have to act out roles as
sales person. However, if the role play has a goal to it for example the students
must come to an agreement or find the right solution within the given time limit
then the role play can be considered a genuine task in TBL.
In task-based lessons, the tasks will generate their own language and
create an opportunity for language acquisition. The belief is that if the focus is
taken away from form and structures, teachers can develop the students ability
to do things in English. This does not mean there will be no attention paid to
accuracy, work on language is included in each task and feedback and language
focus have their places in the lesson plans. Teachers have a responsibility to
enrich their students language when they see it is necessary but students should
be given the opportunity to use English in the classroom as they use their own
languages in everyday life.
Many task-based lessons follow the task structure proposed by Jane Willis
(1996), in her book A Framework for Task-Based Learning, which outlines a
model for organizing lessons.
96
Figure 1: The Willis TBL Framework (1996)

Figure 1 shows that each task will be organized in the following way:
Pre-task activity an introduction to topic and task
Task cycle: Task > Planning > Report
Language Focus and Feedback
Task-based learning (TBL) is typically based on the three stages of Williss

Model. The first of these is the pre-task stage, where the teacher introduces and
defines the topic and the learners engage in activities that either helps them to
recall words and phrases that will be useful for the main task or to learn new
words and phrases that are essential to the task. This stage is followed by the
"task cycle". Here the learners perform the task, which can be a reading or
listening exercise or a problem-solving exercise, in pairs or small groups. They
then prepare a report for the whole class on how they did the task and what
conclusions they have reached. Finally, they present their findings to the class in
spoken or written form. The final stage is the language focus stage, during which
specific language features from the task are highlighted and worked on.
Feedback on the learners performance at the reporting stage may also be
appropriate at this point. A balance should be kept between fluency, which is
what the task provides, and accuracy, which is provided by task feedback.
97
The main advantages of TBL are that language is used for a genuine
purpose meaning that real communication should take place and that at the
stage where the learners are preparing their report for the whole class, they are
forced to consider language form in general rather than concentrating on a single
form unlike the PPP model. The aim of TBL is to integrate all four skills and to
move from fluency to accuracy plus fluency. The range of tasks available such as
reading texts, listening texts, problem-solving, role-plays, questionnaires, etc.
offers a great deal of flexibility in this model and should lead to more motivating
activities for the learners.
Learners who are used to a more traditional approach based on a
grammatical syllabus may find it difficult, but if TBL is integrated with a systematic
approach to grammar and lexis, the outcome can be a comprehensive approach
that can be adapted to meet the needs of all learners. Task-based learning can
be very effective at intermediate levels and beyond, but many teachers question
its usefulness at lower levels. In general, the methodology requires a change in
the traditional teacher's role.
Tutorial task:
Which of the approaches above can you adapt to your own teaching context?
What are the possible problems you may encounter in using the above
approaches?
98
TOPIC 8
SYLLABUS DESIGN MALAYSIAN PRIMARY

SCHOOL ENGLISH CURRICULUM
8.0 SYNOPSIS
As you already know about the Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah(KBSR)
2001, Topic 8 introduces you to the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR)
2011. As education plays a very important role in achieving national unity, the
KBSR was developed to attain national identity and unity. The national education
policy is based on the Razak Report 91956) and the Rahman Talib Report(1960).
These reports formed the bases of the Education Ordinance 1957 and the
Education Act 1961 respectively.
In introducing KSSR, this unit will also help you to recap your knowledge of the
aims and objectives and features of KBSR. The discussion include the curriculum
content: learning outcomes, language content and educational emphases of the
KBSR. Pedagogical approaches which are employed in the teaching of English
will also be taken into account.
You will be exposed to the principles of KSSR, its aims and objectives and
curriculum documents. Furthermore the modular approach will be explained.
1.
state the aims and objectives in the KBSR English language Syllabus;
2.
identify and categorise the language components and skills by listing their
reference numbers;
3.
state the goals and principles of the KSSR;
4.
list and briefly describe the curriculum transformation;
5.
explain the modular approach in teaching English in the primary school.

99

KURIKULUM BERSEPADU
SEKOLAH RENDAH 2001
(KBSR)
CURRICULUM
SPECIFICATION
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
LANGUAGE
CONTENT
EDUCATIONAL
EMPHASES
KURIKULUM STANDARD
SEKOLAH RENDAH 2011
(KSSR)
CONTENT
SESSION EIGHT (3 Hours)
8.3 Syllabus Design - Malaysian Primary School English Curriculum
-
Principles
Techniques
Strengths/Limitations
Role of Teacher, Learners, and Resources

Lets recap what you know about KBSR.
You have to read the extract of the KBSR English language
Syllabus and answer all the questions that follow.
100
TASK 8.1
State whether each statement is TRUE or FALSE in the spaces provided.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
English Language is taught as second language in all

government-assisted schools.
The key feature in KBSR is the integration of skills and topics in
the teaching-learning process.
The aims of the English language syllabus for the primary
school is to equip pupils with basic skills and knowledge of the
English language to enable them to communicate, both orally
and in writing, in and out of schools.
Moral values should be inculcated in the teaching-learning
process.
By the end of Year 6, primary school pupils will be able to listen
and understand simple spoken English in given contexts.
By the end of Year 6, pupils will be able to speak and respond
clearly and appropriately using simple language.
By the end of Year 6, primary school pupils will be able to read
and understand different kinds of texts for enjoyment and
information
Teachers are encouraged to use a variety of texts, both verbal
and non-verbal in their lessons.
Proper pronunciation and the use of appropriate register are
also emphasised in the development of oral skills.
Through the reading component, study skills will be developed
to enable pupils to locate and extract information from various
sources.
Check your answers with your tutor.
TASK 8.2
Complete the grid below with reference to your KBSR English
language syllabus.
Language
Skills
Numbering
No.of skills to
be taught
Listening
101
TASK 8.3
Fill in blanks in the grid below.
Ref
no.
1.2
Skills
Language
Component
Developing auditory
memory.
Ask for and give
instructions.
Listening
Scope
Repeating sounds, numbers and
sentences.
3.3
To identify, to refute, to describe,
to explain.
4.7
Use the dictionary
activities, processes
2.8
4.10
Perform a variety of
functions in a social
context.
to get the appropriate meaning in
context
TASK 8.4
State whether each statement is TRUE or FALSE.
No Statement
1
The KBSR syllabus emphasized that language skills
be taught in an integrated manner.
2
The listening skill allows the development of

inferencing skills.
Pronunciation is taught through listening as well as

the speaking component of the syllabus.
There is provision for teaching pre-writing skills.
Teachers are encouraged to use authentic texts in the

classroom.
102
T/F
There is a scope for acquiring word attack skills in

both the listening and reading skills components.
Pupils are taught to use correct conventions of writing

for different purposes.
Problem-solving skills are developed through the

reading component of KBSR syllabus.
Pupils are exposed to the skills of filling in forms in the

writing component.
10
Besides the language skills, the sound system,

grammar and word lists have to be acquired by pupils
by the end of Year 6.

8.4
The 2011 PRIMARY ENGLISH LANGUAGE CURRICULUM or better

known as the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR)
8.4.1
103
8.4.2
104
8.4.3
105
8.4.4
PRINCIPLES
Back to basics
building a strong foundation of competencies in basic literacy skills;
reading through phonics, penmanship, basic listening and speaking
Learning is fun, meaningful, purposeful
activities are contextualized, meaningful and purposeful; fun-filled
activities
Integration of skills
Teaching is learner-centred
learners needs and salient learner factors (environment, family,
language use contexts, entry behaviour)
Integration of salient new technologies
use of ICT to facilitate and encourage meaningful language practice
creative and innovative use of the new technologies by pupils to
enhance language learning in the classroom
Character-building infused
106
inculcating moral values

8.4.5
CURRICULUM TRANSFORMATION
Modular approach
Curriculum Standards
Content Standards
Learning standards
Assessment school-based, authentic
Teaching and learning focus

Language Skills
Language Arts
Phonics
Grammar
8.4.6
GENERAL AIMS
Primary ( exit after Year 6)
The English Language Curriculum for Primary Schools aims to
equip pupils with basic language skills to enable them to
communicate effectively in a variety of contexts thats appropriate to
the pupils level of development
Secondary (exit after Form 5)
Pupils will be able to communicate effectively, read and respond to
texts independently, produce well-structured written texts, enjoy and
respond to literary works and make confident presentations.
8.4.7
OBJECTIVES
107
By the end of Year 6, pupils should be able to:
communicate with peers and adults confidently and appropriately

in formal and informal situations;
read and comprehend a range of English texts for information and

enjoyment;
write a range of texts using appropriate language, style and form

through a variety of media;
appreciate and demonstrate understanding of English language

literary or creative works for enjoyment; and
use correct and appropriate rules of grammar in speech and

writing.
8.4.8
CONTENT AND LEARNING STANDARDS

LISTENING & SPEAKING
1.1 Pupils will be able to pronounce words and speak confidently with the
correct stress, rhythm and intonation.
1.1.1 Able to listen and respond to stimulus given with guidance:
(a) environmental sounds
(b) instrumental sounds
(c) body percussion
(d) rhythm and thyme
(e) alliteration
(f) voice sounds
(g) oral blending and segmenting
1.1.2 Able to listen to and enjoy simple stories.
1.1.3 Able to listen to, say aloud and recite rhymes or sing songs with
guidance.
1.1.4 Able to talk about a stimulus with guidance.
1.3
Pupils will be able to understand and respond to oral texts in a

variety of contexts.
1.3.1 Able to listen to and demonstrate understanding of oral texts by:
108

(a) giving Yes/No replies
(b) answering simple Wh-Questions
READING
2.1
2.2
Pupils will be able to apply knowledge of sounds of letters to

recognise words in linear and non-linear texts.
2.1.1 Able to identify and distinguish the shapes of the letters in the
alphabet.
2.1.2 Able to recognise and articulate initial, medial and the final sounds
in single syllable words within given context:
(a) s
a
t
p
(b) i
n
m
d
(c) g
o
c
k
(d) ck e
u
r
(e) h
b
f,ff l,ll ss
(f ) j
v
w
x
(g) y
z,zz qu
2.1.3 Able to blend two to four phonemes into recognisable words and
read them aloud.
2.1.4 Able to segment words into phonemes to spell.
Pupils will be able to demonstrate understanding of a variety of
linear and non-linear texts in the form of print and non-print
materials using a range of strategies to construct meaning.
2.2.1 Able to read and apply word recognition and word attack skills
by matching words with :
(a) graphics
(b) spoken words
2.2.2
Able to read and understand phrases in linear and non-linear
2.2.3
Able to read and understand sentences (3-5 words) with
2.2.4
2.2.5
Able to read a paragraph of 3 5 simple sentences.

Able to apply basic dictionary skills using picture dictionaries.
texts.
guidance.
2.3
Pupils will be able to read independently for information and

enjoyment.
2.3.1 Able to read simple texts with guidance:
(a) fiction
(b) non-fiction
WRITING
3.1 Pupils will be able to form letters and words in neat legible print
including cursive writing.
3.1.1 Able to demonstrate fine motor control of hands and fingers by:
109

(a) handling objects and manipulating them.
(b) moving hands and fingers using writing apparatus
(c) using correct posture and pen hold grip
(d) scribbling in clockwise movement
(e) scribbling in anti-clockwise movement
(f) drawing simple strokes up and down
(g) drawing lines from left to right
(h) drawing patterns
3.1.2 Able to copy and write in neat legible print:
(a) small (lowercase) letters
(b) capital (uppercase) letters
( c) numerals
(d) words
(e) phrases
(f) simple sentences
3.2 Pupils will be able to write using appropriate language, form and style
for a range of purposes.
3. 2.1 Able to complete with guidance:
(a) forms with personal details
(b) lists
3.2.2 Able to write 3-5 word sentences with guidance.
3.2.3 Able to punctuate correctly:
(a) capital letters
(b) full stop
(c ) question mark
III.3 Pupils will be able to write and present ideas through a variety of
media.
3.3.1 Able to create simple non-linear texts using a variety of media with
guidance:
(a) greeting cards
(b) lists
8.5
LANGUAGE ARTS
4.1
Pupils will be able to enjoy and appreciate rhymes, poems and

Songs through performance.
4.1.1
4.1.2
Able to listen to and enjoy nursery rhymes, jazz chants and action
song through non-verbal response.
Able to listen to and recite nursery rhymes, jazz chants and sing
110

action songs with correct pronunciation and rhythm.
4.2
Pupils will be able to demonstrate understanding of and express

personal response to literary texts.
4.2.1 Able to listen to and talk about stories with guidance:
(a) book covers
(b) pictures in books
4.3
Pupils will be able to plan, organize and produce creative works for
enjoyment.
4.3.1 Able to produce simple creative works with guidance based on:
(a) nursery rhymes
(b) action songs
(c) jazz chants
(d) stories
4.3.2 Able to take part with guidance in a performance based on:
(a) nursery rhymes
(b) action songs
(c) jazz chants
(d) stories
8.6
GRAMMAR
5.1
Pupils will be able to use different word classes correctly and

appropriately.
5.1.1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Able to use nouns correctly and appropriately:

common nouns
proper nouns
singular nouns
plural nouns
5.2 Pupils will be able to construct various sentence types correctly.

5.1.2 Able to construct declarative sentences correctly.
111

8.7
8.8
8.9
Scheme of Work Weekly, Semester
112
8.9.1
( Source : Curriculum Development Division, 2011)

Tutorial Task
113
TASK 8.5
1. Draw up suitable graphic organizers to compare and contrast between
KBSR and KSSR.
2. Explain briefly the educational emphases included in the KBSR.
3. Briefly describe the importance of pronunciation in KSSR.
4. Explain with your own examples what you understand by Language
Arts.
5. What is the teaching approach employed by KSSR?
6. Is there any difference between the lesson structure proposed by
KBSR and KSSR? Elaborate with concrete examples.
Check your answers with your peers and tutor.
TOPIC 9
SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN THE

CLASSROOM
9.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 9 introduces you to some issues of second language learning pertaining to
audiolingualism. It also introduces the PPP procedure in language learning.
114

1. identify some issues of second language learning pertaining to
audiolingualism
2. explain the different stages in the PPP procedure
3. devise a teaching plan using the PPP procedure
CONTENT
SESSION NINE (3 Hours)
9.2.1 Issues of Second Language Learning
115
The issues that will be discussed here are related to audiolingualism as it

were these issues that resulted in the introduction and use of the PPP Approach
or procedure in the Communicative Language Teaching Method.
Exercise 1:
1.
What is the language learning theory that audiolingualism is
2.
3.
4.
based on?
State the principles of audiolingualism.
Name three techniques used in audiolingualism.
What are some of the shortcomings of audiolingulism?
You would have gone through in detail about audiolingualism or the audiolingual method in Topic 4.
What we will discuss here briefly are the issues
related to audiolingualism which resulted in the use of PPP Approach.

Audiolingualism which is based on Behaviourist Learning Theory relied
heavily on drills to form habits in language learning. Emphasis on accuracy of
the language through repetition of correct utterances was supported by positive
reinforcement. However much of the audio-lingual method of language learning
remained at sentence level. There was limited placing of language in real-life
context. Hence, there grew a need to place language in clear situational context.
This lead to introduction of the PPP Approach.
9.2.2 The PPP Approach
The "Three Ps" procedure is a variation of the audiolingual method. PPP
stands for presentation, practice and production.
It is based on structural-
situational teaching where the focus is to place language in clear situational

contexts. It is very important to understand what "Presentation", "Practice"
and "Production" really are, and to see how they work in together to create
effective communicative language learning.
Presentation is the beginning or introduction to learning language, with
production being the end product of the learning process, whereby a learner
becomes a "user" of the language in contrast to a "student" of the language.
116
Practice is the process that helps a learner to progress from the initial stage
through to the final one.
This is how it works. At the beginning of a lesson, the teacher introduces

a situation which contextualizes the new language to be taught. Then the
language or linguistic "model" is presented.
With this "model" in mind, the
students practise the new language through a variety of "controlled" activities

such as coral repetition, individual repetition and cue-response drills. After
sufficient practice, the students move into "productive" activity, where a situation
calls for the language to be used naturally without correction or control. For
example the students can construct their own sentences.
In general, for
communicative language learning to be most effective, the three stages need to

occur and flow smoothly from one stage to the next.
PRESENTATION
This is the first and the most crucial stage of the language learning
process. Presentation involves the building of a situation requiring natural and
logical use of the new language. When the students recognize and understand
the "situation", they will then start building a conceptual understanding of the
meaning behind the new language, and why it will be relevant and useful to
them. When the situation surrounding the new language and the conceptual
meaning of it has been achieved, the new language is introduced through a
linguistic "model". It is this linguistic model or language presented that the
students will go on to practise and achieve naturally during a productive activity
without help.
It is important for the teacher to build on whatever English the students
have already learned or have some access to when introducing a situation and
getting the students to build the concept underlying the new language.
At
primary levels, using pictures and body language are common ways of
117
presenting new language. Dialogues and text can also be used when the
students have progressed.
There are a various ways in which new language items or linguistic
models can be presented. What is important is that these presentations should
have at least some of the following features: meaningful, memorable and realistic
examples; have logical connection; contextualized; clear models; sufficient
meaningful repetition; are brief and can be recycled
PRACTICE:
The practice stage is the important middle stage to communicative
language teaching. Sometimes this stage is over-done" or used ineffectively.
This may be due to a poor or no presentation stage. In some cases it is not used
as a natural progression or step towards production.
The type of practice activities should be appropriate to the language being
learned as well as the level and competence of the students. Practice is done to
ensure that the students get the accurate language as well as to get the students
to be familiar with the language. Hence an effective practice stage is one where
repetition leads to competence and accuracy.
Practice activities need to be clear and understandable and should
promote a degree of confidence in the students. A well planned practice activity
will generate the students' motivation. Practice activities should be challenging,
but within the reach of the students.
Practice activities usually involve moving the students from the individual
drills to pair work such as chain pair-work, closed pair-work and open pair-work.
It is this communicative practice that leads to final stage of production.
PRODUCTION:
118
The production stage is the most important stage of communicative

language teaching. A good indicator of a successful production is when students
move from being "students" or learners of the language to "users" of the
language.
The production stage involves creating a situation which requires the
students to use the language that was introduced in the presentation stage
independently.
The situation should allow the students produce more
personalized language. A successful production stage depends on an effective

practice stage. This is because if the practice stage is not able to build the
students confidence in the language then they will naturally be hesitant to
independently "use" it in the production stage.
One of the most important things you have to remember is that production
activities should not "tell" the students what to say. In the practice stage, the
students have most or all of the information required, but in the production stage
they do not have the information and therefore must think. As such it would be
good if real life" situations are given in the production stage.
Getting students
engaged in productive classroom activities can require a certain level of cognitive

ability. Hence, as teachers you should prepare well thought out and planned
activities.
Some good examples of effective production activities include situational
role-plays, debates, discussions, problem-solving, narratives, descriptions,
quizzes and games.
The following demonstrates the use of the PPP procedure:
PRESENTATION:
The teacher shows the students the following picture and elicits some facts about
it.
The teacher points to the man carrying the Malaysian flag to elicit the sentence
He is carrying the Malaysian flag by asking Whats the man doing?
119
The teacher then models the sentence The man is carrying the Malaysian flag.
This is repeated with the other people in the picture.
PRACTICE:
The teacher gets the students to repeat the sentences in chorus.
The teacher picks individual students to repeat the sentences.
The teacher gives a cue (woman in yellow) and gets the students to respond.
PRODUCTION:
The teacher asks students to construct their own sentences e.g. think about what
their family members are doing at the moment.
Tutorial Task
Devise a teaching plan to show your understanding of the PPP procedure.
120
TOPIC 10
SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN THE

CLASSROOM
10.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 10 provides you with input on alternatives to Presentation, Practice, and
Production. It also deals with the teaching implications of these alternatives in
the primary ELT classroom.
121

1. name the alternatives to Presentation, Practice, and Production
2. explain the alternatives to Presentation, Practice, and Production
3. explain the teaching implications of the alternatives in the primary ELT
classroom
CONTENT
SESSION TEN (3 Hours)
10.2.1 Alternatives to Presentation, Practice and Production
The PPP Approach or procedure in the Communicative Language
Teaching Method which was introduced in the mid 1960s came under criticism in
the 1990s.
122
Exercise 1:
1.
Do you use the PPP procedure in your classroom? Why?
2.
What are the strengths of the PPP procedure?
3.
What are the shortcomings of the PPP procedure?
One of the main criticisms of the PPP procedure is that it is teachercentred. This is in contrast with the humanistic and learner-centred approach that
was prevalent in the 1990s.
The fact is that the PPP procedure assumes
learners learn in straight lines, that is, starting from no knowledge, through very
structured sentence-based patterns straight to instantaneous production was not
favourable to many. According to Woodward (1993) language cannot be broken
down into small bits and pieces to learn as it is full of interlocking variables and
systems. Lewis (1993) was not in favour of the PPP approach as he felt that it
did not reflect neither the nature of language nor the nature of learning. It could
also be a waste of time and demotivating especially if you might be teaching
what the students already know.
One of the first people to suggest an alternative to the PPP procedure was
Keith Johnson in 1982. His suggestion called the deep-end strategy was a
variation of the PPP procedure.
He encouraged students into immediate
production, in other words throwing them in the deep end. The teacher can see if
and where the students have difficulties in the language in the production stage.
The teacher goes back to either the presentation or practice stage after the
production stage if deemed necessary.
Byrne (1986) had similar views as Johnson. However, he joined the three
stages of presentation, practice and production into a circle. Here teachers and
students can decide at which stage to begin the procedure. Figure 1 below
shows Byrnes alternative approach.
.
123
Figure 1: Byrnes Alternative Approach

Harmer (2007) suggested ESA: Engage, Study and Activate as an
alternative to the PPP procedure. E is for engage.
Getting the students
emotionally engaged with what is going on is important to ensure effective

learning.
S stands for study.
Here the focus of the teaching and learning
process is on how something is constructed. The study may focus on forms of

the language such as relative clauses, specific intonation patterns, developing a
paragraph etc. The teacher can draw the attention of students to the form of the
language during a communicative task or the students themselves may notice
the form of the language.
A stands for activate. At this stage students are
encouraged to use all or any of the language they know. Teachers can plan
communicative activities to activate students knowledge. Reading for pleasure
or interest also helps students activate their language knowledge.
There are three basic lesson procedures in ESA. The first is the Straight
Arrows lesson procedure. This procedure is sequential in nature. The teacher
engages the students via the presentation of situations, pictures or other means.
The study stage involves the explanation of meanings and forms of the language
by the teacher. The teacher models the forms of the language and the students
repeat and practise them. Activation of the new language is done when students
use the language to form their own sentences.
The second basic lesson procedure is called the Boomerang procedure.
The order here is EAS. First the teacher gets the students emotionally engaged
with the lesson. Then the teacher gets the students to do a task for example a
written task, a simulation activity or a communicative game. After the activity, the
students study some aspects of the language that were incorrectly used by them
or what they lack.
The final procedure is known as the Patchwork lesson procedure. Here
the teacher may follow various sequences. The teacher may get the students
engaged first, followed by activating their knowledge before studying some
language forms before moving on to other activation activities. These may be
124
followed by re-engaging the students and ending with more study on language
forms.
Figures 1 to 3 depicts the different lesson procedures of ESA.
Exercise 2:
1.
List the alternatives to PPP procedure.
2.
Explain the ESA procedure.
3.
Discuss the similarities and differences between the three
lesson procedures of ESA.
10.2.2 Teaching Implications of the Alternatives in the Primary School
Classroom
The various frameworks suggested as alternatives for the PPP procedure
such as Johnsons deep-end strategy, Byrnes alternative approach and
Harmers ESA
imply that teachers should shift from a sequential, teacher125
centred approach to a more humanistic and leaner-centred approach. Teachers

should bear in mind that getting students emotionally engaged is vital for
effective learning.
As such, teachers should minimize their criticism and
encourage their young learners to be engaged in what is going on in the

classroom. Students should have positive feelings about what and how they are
learning.
The teacher should be well-versed in the forms of the language. There
would be teachable moments where the teacher needs to focus on the forms of
the language. This is something that the teacher must be prepared for. In other
words preparing for eventualities for the study phase.
The teacher should be creative to design communicative tasks that will
activate students language knowledge. Activities prepared should encourage
students to use of much knowledge of the language that they have.
These
activities should develop a desire for the students to communicate.
Tutorial Task
Devise a teaching plan using any of the alternative frameworks discussed above.
What are the possible challenges you might face in carrying out the teaching
plan?
126

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TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

define the nature of language

describe the language learning process in early childhood

list the learner characteristics that affect second language learning

differentiate between language acquisition and language learning

1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

What is your definition of language?

Write down in twenty-five-words-or-less a definition of language.

Share your definition with another friend or in a small group.

Compare differences and similarities.

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

Language is defined as "a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings

The structural view of language

The communicative view of language

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

The interactional view of language

Make a simple sketch or drawing of your image of language.

Share your image with a friend.

Note features of your images which you have in common.

Note significant differences between your images.

Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

1.2.2 Language Learning Process

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

sentences usually consist of just nouns and verbs

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

Articles the and a

Acquisition of Grammatical morphemes

Lois Blooms study (1991) four stages

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

Stage 1: no e.g., No go. No cookie.

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

Stage 3: fronting - putting a verb at the beginning of a sentence

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

Reflect on your own language learning experience

Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.

1.2.3 Language Learner

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

The good language learner has a balanced concern for communication

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

Whether environment provides adequate L2 input

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

Opportunities for language use in school

Proficiency in the home language

Role models in the community

Whether student has enough opportunities to use English

Preferred learning styles

Now check your answers below.

In your experience, as an English learner:

Which characteristics seem to you most likely to be associated with

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

Learners should therefore be encouraged to stretch

1.2.4 Acquisition versus Learning

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

While all children before the critical period can innately

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

Parents & Society

How is learning a second language like learning a first?

How will this knowledge help you plan classroom experiences?

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY