LONDON

Romans invaded Britain in AD 43, and several years later the town known as Londinium was
established on the river Thames. It is thought that the original city was small - about the size of Hyde
Park!
The Romans built roads which led to the port and as a result Londinium flourished
In AD 60 Queen Boudica of the Iceni tribe rose up against the Romans, who fled. The city was burned to
the ground. However, the Romans eventually regained control and rebuilt London, this time adding a
Forum (market) and Basilica (a business centre), and slowly building a wall around the city to protect it
from further invasion.
The area inside the defensive wall is now known as The Square Mile, or The City, and is the financial
centre of the UK.
The city continued to expand , but it was almost totally destroyed in the Great Fire in 1666.
However, it recovered ,and following The Industrial revolution the population esploded to 6.6 million in
1901.
Large sections of the city were destroyed again

by bombing during World War II.

Today London covers 1,572 square kilometres and is home to 12 million people, making it the largest
city in Europe.

Buckingham Palace
Buckingham Palace has served as the official London residence of Britain's sovereigns since 1837 and
today is the administrative headquarters of the Monarch.
Originally Buckingham Palace was a town house that was owned from the beginning of the eighteenth
century by the dukes of Buckingham. Although in use for the many official events and receptions held by
The Queen, the State Rooms at Buckingham Palace are open to visitors every year. during the Annual
Summer Opening in August and September.
Buckingham Palace has 775 rooms. These include 19 State rooms, 52 Royal and guest bedrooms, 188
staff bedrooms, 92 offices and 78 bathrooms. In measurements, the building is 108 metres long across
the front, 120 metres deep (including the central quadrangle) and 24 metres high.
The rooms are furnished with some of the greatest treasures from the Royal Collection: paintings by
Rembrand,Rubens, Vermeer, Canaletto; Sculptures by Canova and Chantrey; and some of the finest
English and French furniture in the world.

Queen Victoria Memorial: Right in front of the building is the Queen Victoria Memorial, designed by Sir
Aston Webb and built in 1911 in honor of Queen Victoria, who reigned for almost sixty-four years.

Changing of the Guard

Changing of the Guard:The changing of the guard takes place daily at eleven o'clock in front of
Buckingham Palace.A colorfully dressed detachment(reggimento),known as the New Guard, parades
along the Mall towards Buckingham Palace and during a ceremony replaces the existing, Old Guard.
The ceremony, which is accompanied by music played by a military band, always attracts throngs of
onlookers. (folle di spettatori)

Big Ben
The Clock Tower of the Palace of Westminster - officially named Saint Stephen's Tower - is commonly
known as the Big Ben. The tower is one of London's most famous landmarks.
The clock inside the tower was the world's largest when it was installed in the middle of the nineteenth
century. The name Big Ben actually refers to the clock's hour bell, the largest of the clock's five bells. The
other four are used as quarter bells.
The hour bell was probably named after Benjamin Hall, the First Commissioner of Works. Some sources
however claim the bell was named after Benjamin Caunt, a British heavyweight boxing champion.
The Clock:The clock was the largest in the world and is still the largest in Great-Britain. The clock faces
have a diameter of almost 25ft (7.5m). The hour hand is 9ft or 2.7m long and the minute hand measures
14ft (4.25m) long.
The clock is known for its reliability, it has rarely failed. Even after the nearby House of Commons was
destroyed by bombing during World War II, the clock kept on chiming. The clock's mechanism, designed
by Edmund Beckett Denison, has a remarkable accuracy. The clock's rate (frequenza) is adjusted by
simply adding small pennies on the shoulder of the pendulum.
The white face is made up of 312 individual pieces of white glass put together rather like a jigsaw so that
the clock fingers can be maintained from inside the tower by removing various parts of the face.
From time to time the four clock faces have to be cleaned and the job is done by abseilers who descend
from the balcony above.
The building of the clock tower began in 1843 with the laying of the foundation stone and it took 13 years
to complete. It is 316 feet high
The Tower:The tower was constructed between 1843 and 1858 as the clock tower of the Palace of
Westminster. The palace is now better known as the Houses of Parliament.
The clock tower rises 316ft high (96m) .The clock faces are 180ft / 55m above ground level.
A light at the top of the tower is illuminated when Parliament is sitting at night.
Unfortunately the clock tower is not publicly accessibile

The Seat of Government : Houses

of Parliament

In the middle of the eleventh century, King Edward the Confessor had moved his court to the Palace of
Westminster, situated on a central site near the river Thames. In 1265 a parliament was created with two
houses: the Lords and the Commons. The House of Lords met at the Palace of Westminster while the
House of Commons did not have a permanent location.
After King Henry VIII moved his court to Whitehall Palace in 1530, the House of Lords continued to meet
in Westminster. In 1547 the House of Commons also moved here, confirming Westminster as the central
seat of government, a position it still holds today.

View from the London Eye

The new Palace of Westminster:In 1834 a fire destroyed the Palace of Westminster, leaving only the
Jewel Tower, the crypt and cloister of St. Stephens and Westminster Hall intact. After the fire, a
competition was organized to create a new building for the two houses of parliament. A design by Sir
Charles Barry and his assistant Augustus Welby Pugin was chosen from ninety-seven others. They
created a large but balanced complex in neo-Gothic style and incorporated the buildings that survived
the fire. The whole complex was finished in 1870, more than thirty years after construction started. It
includes the Clock Tower, Victoria Tower, House of Commons, House of Lords, Westminster Hall and the
Lobbies.Commons Chamber & Lords Chamber: The Commons Chamber, where the House of Commons
meets, was destroyed during the Second World War but rebuilt in 1950 by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott in the
same neo-Gothic style.Central Lobby :One of several lobbies (atri) in the Houses of Parliament is the
Central Lobby where people can meet the Members of Parliament and persuade them to defend their
interests. Hence the verb 'to lobby'.
Victoria Tower:The tower opposite the Big Ben is the Victoria Tower, built in 1860. The tower contains
the records of both the House of Lords and the House of Commons since 1497. During the
parliamentary year the Union Flag is hoisted (ISSATO)on top of the 98 meter-tall tower.
Westminster Hall: The oldest hall of the Houses of Parliament is Westminster Hall, dating back to 1097.
The large hammer beam roof was built in the fourteenth century and replaced the original roof which was
supported by two rows of pillars. The hall is one of Europe's largest unsupported medieval halls.
The Houses of Parliament are open to the public. Residents and overseas visitors can come inside the
Houses of Parliament including taking tours and watching committees and debates.

The Gherkin:The Gherkin is one of several modern buildings that have been built over the years in a
historic area of London.

Construction:Construction of the Gherkin was commissioned by Swiss Re, a reinsurance company. The
41-story skyscraper was built in 2004 after a modern glass and steel design by the architectural firm of
Foster and Partners.

Originally known as the Swiss Re Building, it was later renamed to its street address 30 St. Mary Axe
after Swiss Re sold the building in 2007. Even before its construction was complete Londoners dubbed
(soprannominarono) the building the 'Gherkin' for its distinctive shape, and it is still known by that name.
Tower Bridge:London's Tower Bridge is one of the most recognizable bridges in the world. Its Victorian
Gothic style stems (deriva ) from a law that forced the designers to create a structure that would be in
harmony with the nearby Tower of London.

Tower Bridge

Plans for the Tower Bridge were devised around 1876 when the east of London became extremely
crowded and a bridge across the Thames in that area of the city seemed a necessity. It would take
another eight years - and lots of discussions about the design - before construction of the bridge started.
The bridge, designed by city architect Horace Jones in collaboration with John Wolfe Barry, would
eventually be completed in 1894. Five contractors and nearly 450 workers were involved in the
construction of the 265 meter long bridge. It took 11,000 tons of steel to build the framework. At the time
many people disliked its Victorian Gothic design, but over time the bridge became one of London's most
famous symbols.

Mechanics

Tower bridge raising

The proximity of the harbor and its location in the direction of the sea required for the bridge to allow the
passage of large vessels. Hence the decision to create a moveable bridge which can be opened to
accommodate boat traffic. The mechanism to open the bridge is hidden in the two towers. Until 1976,
when the mechanism became electrified, steam power was used to pump water into hydraulic
accumulators which powered the engines.
Each deck is more than 30 meters wide and can be opened to an angle of 83 degrees. When opened
the bridge has a clearance of almost 45 meters. It used to open almost fifty times a day but nowadays it
is only raised about one thousand times a year. Bridge lifts are pre-scheduled (for cruise ships, etc)

Visiting the Bridge

Tower Bridge at night

Taking photographs of the Tower bridge is a favorite London tourist activity, but you can also go inside
the bridge, where you'll have a magnificent view over London from the walkway between the two bridge
towers.
Inside the bridge is the Tower bridge Exhibition, a display area that encompasses the walkway and the
two famous towers where you can observe the Victorian engine room. Visitors can learn about the
history of the bridge via photos, films, and other media.
In 2014 glass floors were installed in the walkways, giving visitors another, unusual view from the bridge.
The 11 meter (36 ft) long glass floors, more than 40 meters above the river, allow you to observe the
traffic over the Tower Bridge from above. It is particularly fascinating to see the bridge open and close
below your feet.A modern but already very popular tourist attraction is the London Eye, a giant
observation wheel located in the Jubilee Gardens on the South Bank. The 135 meter (443ft) tall structure
was built as part of London's millennium celebrations.

London Eye

A Landmark for the new Millennium

The structure was designed by the architectural team of David Marks and Julia Barfield, husband and
wife. They submitted their idea for a large observation wheel as part of a competition to design a
landmark for the new millennium.
None of the entrants won the competition, but the couple pressed on and eventually got the backing of
British Airways, who sponsored the project.
Construction
Construction of the observation wheel took more than a year and a half to complete. In the process over
1700 tonnes of steel were used for the structure and more than 3000 tonnes of concrete were used for
the foundations.

The futuristic looking capsules, accommodating up to twenty-five passengers, were transported all the
way from France by train through the chunnel. Each egg-shaped capsule is eight meters long and
weighs five hundred kilograms. The twenty-five meter (82 ft) long spindle (mandrino) was built in the
Czech Republic. The rim has a diameter of 122m (400ft), about two hundred times the size of a bicycle
wheel. Eighty spokes (Raggi)connect the rim with the spindle.
The Observation Wheel
The observation wheel turns slow enough for people to embark while it is moving. A complete turn takes
about thirty minutes. Thanks to the construction of the glass capsules on the outer side of the rim,the
passengers have a great 360 degree view over London.
Many famous landmarks are clearly visible, including Buckingham Palace,St. Paul's Cathedral and
the Houses of Parliament. On a clear day you can see as far as forty kilometers (25 miles). Make sure
you get your tickets in advance, lines can be very long, both the lines for embarking and for ticket
purchases. It's less crowded at night when the views are even more spectacular.

Tower of London
The Tower of London was built at the beginning of the eleventh century by William the conqueror. The
tower was expanded during the thirteenth century into the fortified complex that we know today. The
Tower's most popular attraction is its famous collection of Crown Jewels.

Tower of London

Construction of the Tower of London was initiated in 1070 by William the Conqueror, shortly after his
victory at Hastings in 1066. The Tower was built to enforce the power of the Norman king over the newly
conquered land.
The fortress, strategically located at the Thames, was originally not more than a temporary wooden
building which was replaced later by the White Tower. Over time the complex was expanded into a
stronghold(roccaforte) with about twenty towers.
Today the Tower of London is best known for its Crown Jewels, but it used to be notorious for the many
political opponents of the kings that were locked, tortured and killed in the Tower. The Tower was also a
royal residence: several kings lived here, especially during turbulent times when the donjon seemed a lot
safer than the palace in Westminster.

White Tower

The White Tower

The oldest part of the fortress is the so-called White Tower, which was completed in 1097. This keep was
long the tallest building in London at 27.4 meters (90ft). Its walls are 4.6 meter wide.
The tower was whitewashed during the reign of Henry III, which gave the tower's facade its white
appearance. Ever since the tower has been known as White Tower. The building has four domed turrets
at each corner. Three of them have a square shape, the other is round, due to its spiral staircase. The
round turret was long used as an observatory.

Other Towers
The Tower of London was significantly expanded in the thirteenth century, during the reign of Henry III,
when two defensive walls were built around the White Tower. The inner wall had thirteen towers and the
outer wall another six. The towers were mostly used to imprison political opponents.

Traitors' Gate

Some of the most famous prisoners locked in the Tower were two princes, the sons of king Edward IV.
After Edward's dead in 1483 the children were locked in the Bloody Tower by their uncle, who would later
ascend the throne as king Richard III. The princes were never seen again and were probably killed by
guards.
The St. Thomas Tower is located close to the Bloody Tower. Here, prisoners were brought into the
fortress by boat through the Traitor's gate.
Important prisoners were often locked in the Beauchamp Tower, sometimes with their servants. An
inscription on the wall of the tower is believed to refer to Lady Jane Grey, who, nine days after she was
crowned Queen, was executed on Tower Green, an open terrain in the Tower of London.

Byward Tower

Thomas More was imprisoned in the Bell Tower until his execution after he refused to accept king Henry
VIII as head of the Anglican church. Even Queen Elisabeth I was confined here for some time.

Yeoman Warders
The main entrance of the Tower of London is at the Byward Tower, where you'll find the so-called
Beefeaters or Yeoman Warders.
Dressed in historic clothes, they not only guard the tower, but also give guided tours of the fortress. One
of the about forty Yeoman Warders is known as the Ravenmaster, responsible for the ravens that have
been living here for centuries.

Yeoman Warder

Legend has it that the Tower and the kingdom will fall if the ravens leave. Hence King Charles II placed
the birds under royal protection and the wings of the ravens are clipped (troncate) to prevent them from
flying away.

Crown Jewels
The most famous tourist attraction in the Tower of London is the collection of Crown Jewels that has
been on display here since the seventeenth century, during the reign of Charles II. Most of the jewels
were created around the year 1660, when the monarchy was reinstalled. The majority of the older crown
jewels were destroyed by Oliver Cromwell.
The jewels can be found in the Jewel House, which is part of the Waterloo Barracks just north of the
White Tower. Some of the highlights of the collection are the 530 carat First Star of Africa, which is set in
the Scepter of the Cross; the Imperial State Crown with more than 2800 diamonds and the famous KohI-Noor, a 105 carat diamond.

Imperial State Crown

More Sights
There's plenty more to see in the Tower of London, such as the Royal Armories, which includes the
personal armory of King Henry VIII, one of the world's largest.
The medieval palace in the Tower of London is also open to visitors and there are often reenactments of
historic events in the fortress. In the middle of the square stands a tall column honoring admiral Nelson.

Trafalgar Square
The square was originally called Charing. Later it became known as Charing Cross, after a memorial
cross on the square. The nearby underground station (the 'tube') is still named Charing Cross.

History:From the thirteenth century on the area was the site of the King's Royal Hawks and later
the Royal Mews. In 1812 the Prince Regent - who would later become King George IV - asked architect
John Nash to redevelop the area. After much delay work finally started in 1830. Nash had the terrain
cleared but he died before his plans were realized and works were halted. (fermati)

Nelson's Column

The completion of the National Gallery in 1838 on the north side of the square reignited
(riaccese)interest in its redevelopment. A new design by architect Charles Barry (best known for

his Houses of Parliament), which consisted of two levels separated by a monumental flight (rampa)of
stairs was approved and construction started in 1840. Five years later the square was finally completed.

Nelson's Column
The name of the square commemorates the victory of Admiral Horatio Lord Nelson over the French fleet
at the Battle of Trafalgar, a naval battle that took place on the 21st of October 1805 near Cape Trafalgar,
just off the Spanish coast.
Initially there were no plans for a statue in honor of the admiral, who lost his life during the battle.
Instead, a statue of King William IV was planned. Eventually, in 1838, it was decided that Trafalgar
Square was the ideal place for a monument to Britain's most famous admiral and a competition was
organized to select a design for the 'Nelson Testimonial'.

Landseer Lion

The winner of the competition was William Railton, who proposed a fifty-two meter tall (170ft) Corinthian
column and statue. The column was built between 1841 and 1843. On top of the column stands a tall
statue of Lord Nelson, created by Edward Hodges. At the base of the column are four huge lions
modeled by Sir Edwin Landseer. They were added later, in 1868.

Statues

King George IV

James Napier

King Charles I

In the four corners of the lower level of Trafalgar Square stand four plinths(plinti, basi). The plinth in the
north-east carries the equestrian statue of George IV, installed here in 1843. The statue of the king was
created by Francis Chantrey for the Marble Archbut was instead placed here.
In the south-west corner stands a statue of Charles Napier, a military leader best known for his time as
commander-in-chief in India. The statue, by George Gamon Adams, was installed in 1856. On the
western side is the statue of Henry Havelock, another military leader who spent much of his career in
India. His statue was created in 1861 by William Behnes.
For over 150 years the plinth in the north-west corner of Trafalgar Square, commonly known as the
'Fourth Plinth', remained empty. It was intended to hold an equestrian statue of King William IV. A failure
to gather sufficient funds for its construction meant it was never realized. In 1999 it was decided to use
the plinth for the temporary display of modern sculpture.
There are several more statues in and around Trafalgar Square. The most interesting is the equestrian
statue of King Charles I, which occupies the middle of a small traffic circle just south of Nelson's Column.
It is the oldest equestrian statue in London, created in 1633 by the French sculptor Hubert Le Sueur.
After the execution of Charles I in 1649 the Parliament ordered the statue to be melted down. The
brazier assigned with this task instead hid the statue and sold it back to King Charles II after the English
monarchy was restored.

Fountains

Trafalgar Square Fountain

The first fountains at Trafalgar Square were installed as part of its development in the nineteenth century.
They were replaced by the two current fountains, created in 1939 as a memorial to David Beatty and
John Rushworth Jellicoe, admirals of the Royal Navy. The fountains were designed by architect Edwin
Lutyens and are decorated with sculptures of dolphins, mermaids and small sharks.

National Gallery

National Gallery

On the north side the neoclassicalNational Gallery, built between 1834 and 1838, overlooks Trafalgar
Square from its elevated position.
The museum is home to an impressive collection of paintings, spanning six centuries. You can admire
works from some of the world's most famous painters, including Rubens, Vermeer, van Gogh, Titian,
Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Renoir and Claude Monet.

St. Martin-in-the-Fields

St. Martin-in-the-Fields

At the north-east corner of Trafalgar Square is the St. Martin-in-the-Fields parish

church. It is one of the most famous churches in London, partly thanks to its prominent
location at one of the busiest areas in the city.
The church, with a large white steeple and neoclassical portico, was built in 1721 by
James Gibbs and was used as a model for many churches, particularly in the United
States. It is the fourth church at this site; the first was built in the thirteenth century.
At the time this area was still rural, hence its name.