Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The ritual called Yagna was the most important religious practice of the ancient Aryans
and was central to the communities spiritual and intellectual life. Just as technology and
science are the chief focus of the modern world, Yagna was the chief focus of the ancient
Aryans. This ritual, which is as much part of modern Hindu religion as millennia before,
consists of a fire Altar over which Vedic hymns are chanted to honor the sectarian deities
like Agni (the Fire God), Indra ( God of Material Prosperity and Rain ),
Saraswati( Goddess of Learning ) etc.
It was believed that even a single syllable along with the tones - which disappeared later
and are not seen in any modern Indian language including the Prakrits - ill-pronounced
would gain the wrath of the deities and lead to rebirth in Hell. Making matters worse,
writing down the Vedas was prohibited as was transmitting it to non-Brahmins. The Vedic
meters called Mantras are said to loose their efficacy if they are written down and must
be received orally only from a wise Brahmin Guru.
Mantras pronounced in the prescribed manner unerringly can alter the shape of the
Universe, upset the laws of Karma and bestow spiritual and material blessings like
longevity of life and wisdom to the officiating priest and his client. Besides destroying
enemies and curing illnesses.
A well-known parable in the Mahabhashya commentary relates how the demon Vritra
mispronounced a single tone in the compound word Indra-shatru (enemy of Indra)
while offering oblations with the chant indrashatrurvardhasva (may (I) - the destroyer
of Indra - prosper) thereby altering the meaning to (may Indra, the destroyer prosper)
leading to the mantra empowering Indra, the god of the Noble Deities and Vritras slaying
by the former.
Nagarjuna, called the greatest Buddhist philosopher, has described his philosophy
Madhyamika as something which misunderstood can be fatal like a snake held from the
wrong end or a mantra mispronounced.
Contemporary practitioners and scholars like Swami Agehananda Bharati (Austria-born
Indologist and Anthropologist who ordained as a Hindu Sanyasin and wrote prolifically)
and Frits Staal (Netherlands-born Professor Emeritus, Department of South and South
Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, Vedic Scholar par excellence) affirm
that this indeed is the case with mantric praxis.
To ensure that posterity does not get a corrupted version of their mantric corpus, the
learned Brahmins tried to ponder on the phonological and grammatical principles which
govern human speech. A pre-paninian grammatical work by Yaska called Nirukta,
survives which gives us a glimpse of their proto-grammatical musings. Over time
knowledge accumulated, theories refined, more discoveries made, culminating in the
Grammatical system of Panini who derives many of his methods and terminologies from
his predecessor which were doubtless many as he himself quoted around ten ancient
authorities( Sphotayana, Yaska, Galava etc ).
This treatise is unintelligible without the help of a proper Commentary. Patanjali, some
centuries later, incorporating the scholia (Vartikas) of Katyayana, did this commendable
task in his Mahabhashya. Hence, Proper Understanding of Grammar is believed to be
attained by the diligent study of Mahabhashya and Grammar is also referred to as
Trimuni-Vyakarana or the Grammar of the Three Sages.
Contents of Ashtadhyayi
The following is a topical arrangement of the chapters of Ashtadhyayi:
Book I
(a) the samjna sutras(lexical items) and paribhasha sutras(meta-rules)
(b) rules dealing with extension, atmane-parasmaipada and karakas(Syntax)
Book II
(a) rules dealing with compounding, nominal inflections, number and gender of
compounds, replacements relative to roots, deletion by luk.
Book III
(a) rules dealing with the derivation of roots ending in affixes san etc, items ending
in a kRt or ting
Book IV-V
(a) rules dealing with the derivation of a pada ending in a sup, feminine affixes;
derivation of nominal stems ending in an affix termed taddhita
Book VI- VII
(a) rules dealing with doubling, samprasarana, samhita, augment(agama),accents,
phonological operations relative to a pre-suffixial base(anga) suT
(b) rules dealing with operations relative to affixes and augments
Book VIII
(a) rules dealing with dvitva (Doubling) relative to a pada, accent relative to a pada
(b) rules dealing with miscellaneous operations relative to a pada and a non-pada.
(adapted from Prof. Ram Nath Sharmas The Ashtadhyayi of Panini)
Panini has divided the Ashtadhyayi into two basic organizational units: the
sapadasaptadhyayi (the first seven chapters and first quarter of the Eighth) and the
tripadi (the remaining three quarters of the eighth). These two are blind to the effects of
each other.
Abbreviatory Devices Used in Ashtadhyayi
Panini has used several ingenious devices to achieve economy of words and syllables,
even phonemes. The foremost amongst these techniques are the Siva-Sutra-pratyahara
system.
The Siva Sutras
Of unknown authorship the fourteen Siva Sutra or Siva aphorisms are a catalog of
phonemes divided into 14 sets. They are in essence a reordering of the traditional
enumeration of the Devanagari alphabets (akshar-samamnaaya). Each of the fourteen
groups contains an extraneous phoneme appended at the end technically called an it
(meaning going away or disappearing) or marker and has a merely indicatory role and is
not part of the set. These fourteen Siva aphorisms are:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
0
11
1
2
1
3
1
4
Class of Phonemes
Simple vowels
Simple vowels
Dipthongs
Dipthongs
Semi-vowels
Semi-vowel
Nasals
Voices aspirated stops
Voices aspirated stops
Voices non-aspirated stops
Member Phonemes
a i u
R lR
e o
ai au
h y v r
l
J m G N n
jh bh
gh Dh dh
j b g D d
it or markers
N
k
G
c
T
N
m
J
S
z
kh ph ch Th th c T t
k p
v
y
spirants
z S s
spirant
If Panini wants to bring up a discussion of say, dipthongs, he has two options, coin a term
for dipthongs or list them (e, o, ai, au). This can be cumbersome and is done
away with the shorthand notation ec which is technically called a pratyahaara and
generated using the afore-listed Siva-Sutras.
To find out what ec signifies the first phoneme e should be searched amongst the
Column entitled member phonemes and it is located at the beginning of Sutra number 3.
The second phoneme c should be searched amongst the Column markers or its and
can be found in the fourth row.
Thus ec is a short-from notation for all phonemes between e and c (e, o, ai, au)
not including the markers which are merely indicatory.
Similarly, hl means all consonants, jh-y all stops etc. In this way tens of pratyahaaras
can be generated though Panini only used forty-two. Thus, Panini was saved from
coining forty-two new terms and also from the awkward way of listing them.
The affixes (3.1.1) {tavyat, tavya, anIyar (3.1.96)} occur (introduced by convention)
after (3.1.2) a Verbal Root (3.1.91)
Thus Panini has saved at least three words in one sutra. He has made very extensive use
of anuvritti and there are very few sutras which do not borrow terms from prior sutra.
Hence, understanding ellipsis is crucial to understanding the Ashtadhyayi.
Unique System of Notation
Panini has used the inflections of the Sanskrit Language to indicate special operations.
Consider
lasya (3.4.77)
tiptas.vahimahing (3.4.78)
3.4.77 translated into plain English will look like Ls.
3.4.78 is a listing of eighteen post-verbal affixes.
These two sutras dont make much sense.
To understand 3.4.77 we have to invoke the meta-rule,
shashthi sthaneyoga (1.1.49)
A meaningless genitive implies an item that will be replaced. This can be symbolically
represented as X-gen, where item X is a substituend because it has been stated in the
genitive case
Hence Ls implies that in an operation if we encounter the affix L it must be replaced
by any one of {tip,tas.vahi, mahing}.
Similarly meaningless ablative endings (tasmaditi uttarasya; 1.1.67) imply a left context:
such that in a grammatical operation something applies to what follows and meaningless
locative endings (tasminniti nirdishte pUrvasya; 1.1.66) imply a right context such that in
a grammatical operation something applies to what precedes.
Types of Rules
Traditionally, scholars have classified the Sutras into six types. Panini has not hinted to
any such classification and it is strictly Post-Paninian. However, there are obvious
advantages to it and aid in the understanding of the purport of the Sutra.
Modern Paniniyas have added few more types to the traditional six-fold classification.
(1) samjna sutras or technical rules: rules which assign a term for a given entity. For
example in rule 1.1.1 the term vriddhi is coined meaning the set of phonemes aa,
ai, au. They have been compared to the Backus-Naur Notation of Modern
Computer Science.
(2) paribhasha sutras or interpretive rules or meta-rules: rules which provide a check
on the operational rules so that they do not suffer from over-application, underapplication and impossible application. For example, vipratishedhe param
kaaryam: when two rules are equally applicable, the rules that appear later shall
apply.
(3) vidhi sutra or operational rules: these form the core of the grammar. All other
rules assist the operational rules. Example vartamAne laT: To indicate the
present tense, use the affix laT.
(4) niyama rules or restriction rules: rules which restrict the scope of other rules. For
example, Sutra sheSo ghyasakhi (1.4.7) states that terms other than those
already discussed ending in i or u are to be considered ghi except the word
sakhi.
Subsequent sutra patiH samAsa eva (1.4.8) however declares that the word pati
will be termed ghi only if it used in a Compound and not independently.
Therefore, the original set of elements which ghi would contain has been
restricted by sutra 1.4.8 and therefore 1.4.8 is a niyama sutra.
(5) adhikAra rules or heading rules: these rules are similar to a heading in modern
books. Adkikaras have domains which are not always well defined and only the
commentaries like Kasika and Mahabhashya have to be consulted to understand
their scope. Within the domain of an adhikara, all rules will pertain to it and also
use parts or whole of that rules words to complete their meaning (refer to
Anuvritti above). For example, rule 3.1.91 is dhatoh (Verbal Roots). The word
is meaningless unless understood to imply that rules till 3.4.117 are under its
domain and every rule described between 3.1.91 to 3.4.117 is formulated to
describe Dhatus. Also, since rules are only stated partially, the phrase dhatoh
has to be supplied along with other phrases from other adhikaras which may
come within the domain and extend beyond to make these rules a complete
sentence.
(6) nishedh sutras or negation rules: rules which negate the provisions made by a
previous Sutra. For example, rule 1.3.3 halantyam states that ending consonants
of affixes should be treated as markers, hence disappear. But subsequent rule 1.3.4
na vibhaktau tusmaah, immediately negates this rule for nominal affixes whose
consonants end with t, th, d,dh n ,s, m.
(7) vibhasha or optional rules: Sometimes more than two rules can apply to a given
operation and hence two forms of a word are possible. This is hardly unusual,
because language being a living entity, native speakers take liberties which are as
common in English as Sanskrit. To account for more than two forms of a word,
Panini uses Vibhasha rules to state that alternate forms are also possible. For
example, rule 1.1.31 vibhasha jasi states that the set of pronouns catalogued in
the sarva group when compounding with other words to become dvandva class
of compounds and related to jas affixes will optionally not be considered
compounds.
Three terms, vibhasha, anyatarasyam and va are used to indicate optionality.
Panini and all the commentators have given us no indication that they are
supposed to be anything but synonyms. But the modern scholar Paul Kiparsky has
wondered how could this be so, because Panini has vowed to eliminate every
needless extraneous syllable and their must be a deeper reason to suggest the use
of three different terms. Hence he has propounded the hypothesis in his wellargued study Panini as a Variationist that the three terms va, vibhasha,
anyatarasyam refer respectively to three different kinds of options: those that are
preferable(va), those that are marginal(vibhasha)and those that are simple
options(anyatarasyam). If this is true than Kiparsky has shown us something
which twenty-five hundred years of scholarship has overlooked.
(8) atidesh sutras or extension rules: A rule is termed atidesha if it transfers certain
qualities or operation to something for which they did not previously qualify. This
is generally accomplished by the use of affixes vat/mat ( like).Example: in rule
3.4.85 loTo langvat( the loTs are like lang ) loT lakAr affixes are being given all
the attributes unique to lang lakAr affixes. Hence this is an atidesh sutra.
(9) nipAtan or ad hoc rules: Certain nominal and verbal forms are underivable by any
rules. Such forms, Panini accounts by just mentioning them. Such sutras are
termed nipAtan.
For example, in the domain of sutra avayayIbhAva (2.1.5), compounds (samas)
of the type avayayi-bhava are being discussed. He discusses many rules which
qualify a compound to be called avayayibhava. However, in Sutra:
tishThadguprabhRtIni cha
(2.1.17; all the elements of tishthadgu-group are to be considered avayayibhava)
he merely states that all the thirty-three elements of the tishThadgu group listed
in the Gana-Path (Catalog of nominals) are to be considered avayayibhava.
Elements of set tishThadgu are said to be avyayIbhAva by nipAtan.
Example of Paninian Derivation: Siddhis of verb-form paThati (reads, singular person,
Present Tense)
When natives of Sanskrit uses sentences like sah paThati( he reads) they are, as all the
native speakers of a language, speaking unconsciously. Paninis Grammatical Engine
generates these correct forms from his rules, similar to how a Computer code using
programmatic instructions generates desired output.
paTha
n
paTh
paTh
paTh
+ laT
paTh
+ lan
paTh
+ l
lasya( 3.4.77)
tip-tas-jhi-sip-thas-tha-mib-vas-mas-ta-AtAm-jha-thAs-athAmdhvam-iD-vahi-mahing(3.4.78)
Parasmai-pada Triplet
tip, tas, jhi
sip, thas, tha
Atmanepada Triplet
ta, AtAm, jha
thAs, athAm, dhvam
Parasmai-pada Triplet
Single Dual
Plural
Atmanepada Triplet
Single Double
Plural
Prathma (third
person)
Madhyama
(middle person)
Uttama (first
person)
tip
tas
jhi
ta
AtAm
sip
thas
tha
thAs
athAm
mib
vas
mas
iD
vahi
Since, in saH paThati, (He reads) there is only one person, paTh
must take an affix denoting Single number. Amongst the three
remaining affixes tip/tas/jhi, only the first affix tip is in the Column
for Single Number. Hence, paTh will accept tip to indicate third
person, Single Number, and parasmaipada ending.
9
1
0
1
1
paTh
+ tip
paTh
+
shap
+ tip
paTh
+ sha
+ ti
paTh
+ a +
ti
paTha
ti
Akin to how paThan conjugates into paThati, all nominal and verbal bases inflect and
conjugate. These millions of morphological and phonological forms they assume in
everyday speech (loka) are accounted for in A.s algebra-like Derivational System
explaining each phonological and morphological change in proper steps by giving
relevant sutras (just as above).
Each and every Sanskrit word or phrase to be considered correct (sadhu) must be
subjected to the aforementioned stepwise process. Only if it confirms to all the rules laid
down will that word or phrase be recognized as correct (sadhu). . And in turn each and
every form generated by his Engine must correspond to the spoken language (loka)
exactly which Paniniyas consider the only valid proof (pramana) of correct speech.
Sometimes, however this is not possible and one word in an infinite set does not yield to
the patterns. Panini takes this into account and creates one unique rule for that one
anomalous word.
For example, rule anudattatangit Atmanepadam (1.3.12) states that verbal roots in the
Dhatu-path (the catalog of all known verbal roots which are around 2000 and is ancillary
to A.) that are marked by the sign indicating low-pitch(anudatta) or have the marker (ng)
appended to them take atmanepada endings.
The verbal root ji is not marked with either anudatta or ng in the Dhatu-path and in
regular usage does not have atmanepada endings (it takes parasmaidpada endings).
However, native speakers in speech conjugate atmanepada endings if ji is preceded by
preverbs vi and par. Panini took this irregular behavior into account and coded rule
viparAbhyAm jeH (1.3.19). Thus, Panini didnt allow one exception to be missed out
from his comprehensive system.
Paninis Grammar Engine simulates natural speech in a manner very similar to the
methods of the Modern Discipline of programming. Historians of both Computer
Programming and Linguistics should study Panini and ascertain whether it is appropriate
to recognize him as the Father of these two disciplines.
Appreciating Paninis Task in Codifying a Complicated Language like Sanskrit
In English, if I were to make a sentence like Johns book, it will not make any
difference in the structure of the sentence if I were to say instead Marys book, Lizzys
book, and Antonios book.
However, in Sanskrit the case-ending will differ according to the terminal phoneme of the
nominal stem, as also by its gender and number (singular/double/plural).
Some examples of this diversity are:
Sanskrit Statement
TP -> APICR*
English Equivalent
Ramasya pustakam
a -> sya
Ramas book
Gender; Number;
Ending Phoneme;
Masc.; Sing; a
Seetaayaah pustakam
Hareh pustakam
Patayuh pustakam
aa -> yaah
i -> eh
i -> ayuh
Seetaas book
Harms book
Husbands book
Fem; Sing.; aa
Masc.; Sing; i
Masc. ; Sing; i;
Guroh pustakam
u -> oh
Guru(Teacher)s
book
Masc.; Sing; u
Madhunah pustakam
u -> unah
Madhus book
Fem.; Sing; u
Rajnah pustakam
an -> nah
Masc. ; Sing, n
tasya pustakam
t -> sya
Rajans ( Kings)
book
His ( tat ) book
Masc. ; Sing.; t
*TP -> APICR = Terminal Phoneme - > Altered Phoneme Indicating Case Relationship
Please note: the paradigms shown above are far from being a complete listing of the
known inflections of the genitive case in Sanskrit. The actual number of distinct examples
may run into more than one hundred forms all of which indicate the idea of someone
possessing something, in our case, a book.
Panini provides only one affix for indicating a singular genitive case relationship: nas
(Jas in HK Scheme of Transliteration). Therefore, it is Paninis job to formulate a number
of rules that will account for all the x number of inflections, the native speakers uses
unconsciously.
In order to achieve this, he must first have an exhaustive listing of each and every known
inflection in our case the singular genitive of the Nominal Stems. He has to study this
list and discover the underlying phonological and morphological patterns. Once he has
discovered the patterns, he creates rules. Every exceptional case (apavaada) has to be
accounted for.
But nas is only one of twenty-one affixes introduced in rule su-au-jas-am-autshas.(4.1.2) which govern the Sanskrit case-endings. All twenty one of these combine
with nominal stems and each one of them generates hundreds of variant case-ending
morphs as in the illustrated example of the affix nas (Jas).
The case of the verbal roots and affixes is equally complicated. . Consider the following
in English,
(1) eat -> eats ,
(2) gain -> gains,
(3) offer -> offers,
(4) drink -> drinks,
(5) read -> reads
Conjugating a verb to imply present Continuous Tense is as simple as appending an s.
Now look at equivalent forms in Sanskrit.
(1) at -> atti* (eats),
(2) labh -> labhate(gains),
(3) hu -> juhoti(offers [an oblation]),
(4) pA -> pibati (drinks).
(5) paTh -> paThati(reads)
(6) chur -> chorayati
*bold and italicized text indicates changes due to conjugation
Unlike English, not one of them terminates analogously. We have endings such as ti,
ate, ju..oti, bati, ati,ayati. One reason for divergent forms is that the verbs belong
to a different gana or group. The Dhatu-Path lists about 1967 verb roots (2014 including
kaNDvAdi roots) divided into 10 conjugation classes (gaNas) to undergo peculiar
operations. Each of these ganas are classified on the basis of distinct augments(shap,
shyan, shnuh, shah, shnam, zero(luk) etc ) that tend to append to the verbal bases
resulting in distinct grammatical operations. These verbal roots interact with the postverbal affixes (the set of tings) which are eighteen in number. These eighteen affixes get
modified in ten ways( 10 * 18 = 180 ) to yield meaning indicating various tenses and
moods, such as past tense ( lan-lakaar), historical past tense( liT lakaar), present
tense( laT lakAr), imperative mood ( loT lakaar).
For example:
paTh* + shap** + tip = paThati; (He) is reading; Present tense
paTh + shap + Nal (modification of tip) = papaTh; He read; Historical Past (for historical
characters like Lord Buddha read)
paTh + shap + yaasuT + suT = paThet; (You should) read; Injunctive Mood
*Verbal Root placed in the gana Bhu-adi.
** shap, the infix which appends exclusively to the Bhu-adi group
tan* + u** + tip = tanoti; spreads: Present Tense
tan + u + shya + tip= tanishyati; will spread; Future Tense
*Verbal Root placed in the gana Tanu-adi gana
**u is the unique infix for members of the Tanu-adi gana
hu* + shlu** + tip = juhoti; (He) is offering (oblations); Present Tense, Singular, Third
Person
hu + shlu + jhi = juhvati; (They) are offering (oblations); Present Tense, Plural
hu + shlu + mip = juhomi; (I) am offering (oblations); Present Tense, Plural, First Person
hu + shlu + tip = juhotu; (They) should offering (oblations); Imperative Mood, Third
Person
*Verbal Root placed in the gana juhoti-adi gana
**shlu is the unique infix for members of the juhoti-adi gana and tend to elision
Summary of the Major Topics of Ashtadhayi
Sanjna or Terms:
Panini has coined several technical terms in his A. which are sometimes meaningful (like
samhita, samprasaran, anunasika) and sometimes meaningless (like ghu, Ti, bha).
Some of these are borrowed from ancient authorities (pUrva-AchArya). He sometimes
defines them; sometimes uses them without explicitly stating their meaning - implying
that the term was in current usage and widely known. And if the term refers to sets of
grammatical items he merely lists the members that constitute that finite set indicated by
the Sanjna. For example,
kta-ktavatu niShTha (1.1.25) enumerates the two constituents of finite set niShTha.
niShTha: = {kta, ktavatu}
vRddhirADaich (1.1.1) phonemes A ai and au are termed VRddhi.
vRddhi: = {A, ai, au}
Panini has used more than one-hundred technical terms and the first two quarters of
Chapter 1 concentrate on Sanjnakaran or Terminology-coining.
Sandhi (Euphonic Combination):
In English, a statement like Who is going? in the speech of some native speakers often
becomes Whos going. In Sanskrit, this tendency for phonemes to fuse when in close
proximity is extravagantly copious. Their can hardly be a sentence where at least one
instance of Sandhi is not observable, if not more.
Sandhis given by Paninis Sutra paraH sannikarshaH samhita (1.4.108) are
morphophonological alterations that occur between terminal and initial phonemes of
juxtaposed words (external Sandhi) or between morphemes within words (internal
Sandhi). For example, in the sentence aham Agachhami (I am coming), the terminal
phoneme m of aham (I) fuses with the initial phoneme A of Agachchhami (am
coming) to become ahamAgachchhami.
Sandhis have been popularly classified into three types:
(1) Vowel Sandhi: between two vowels.
For example:
tadA Agachhet (Come then) becomes
tadA + Agachhet = tadAgachhet
( by the rules akaH savarNe dIrghaH(6.1.101) )
the two phonemes A and A fuse to become one phoneme A
(2) Consonant Sandhi: between consonants or between a vowel and
a consonant.
For example:
Tat + Shivah = tachchhivah
phoneme t transforms into ch and phoneme sh transforms
into chh
(3) Visarga Sandhi: between Visargas (roughly like the h sound in
English) and other phonemes.
For Example in Harih avadat (Hari spoke)
Harih + avadat = Hariravadat
SANSKRIT
COMPOUND
S
DVANDV or
COPULATIVE
ITARETARA
SAMAAHAARA
EKASHESA
TATPURUSA (Inflectional)
TATPURUSA or
DETERMINATIVE NAN (Negative)
Accusative
Instrumental
Dative
Ablative
Genitive
Locative
KARMADHAARAYA
Dvigu
(Appositional)
PRAADI (Prepositional, 1st kind)
GATI (Prepositional, 2nd kind)
UPAPADA (Compounds containing a upapada)
BAHUVRIIHI or SAMAANAADHIKARANA
ATTRIBUTIVE (The members --generally two-- are in apposition
to one another)
VYADHIKARANA
(The members --generally two-- are not in
apposition to one another)
AVYAYIIBHAAVA or ADVERBIAL
.
*from http://www.sanskrit-sanscrito.com.ar/english/sanskrit/sanskrit8intro.html
kRt
taddhita
Others
kRtya
tadrAja
**Ardha
nishThA
vibhakti
***sArva
sat
gha
Feminine
* sh-marked
Others
* sh-marked sArvadhAtuka and ArdhadhAtuka krt Affixes, includes the unadi group.
** ArdhadhAtuka affixes which include the Dhatu-affixes
*** sArvadhAtuka which includes tings and the sh-marked vikaranas (augments)
The major group of affixes are discussed below:
(1) kRt or primary Affixes: They serve to form derived nominal bases and generally
denote objects of acts or abstract acts themselves. These are mostly appended to
verbal roots. There are nearly one hundred and twenty-two Krit affixes
described by Panini. In the chart above I have divided them into four groups:
(a) kRtya: The seven affixes tavyat, tavya, anIyar, yat, kyap, Nyat and
kelimar are kRtyas and are used in the sense of should be done. Example: kR +
tavya = kartavya; must do.
(b) nishTha: kta and ktavatu are the only two elements of this group.
(c) sat: shatR and shAnach are the two elements of this group.
(d) shit sArvadhAtuk and ArdhadhAtuk affixes: several in number and includes the
Unadis which are extremely irregular in behaviour.
(2) taddhita or Secondary affixes: They also serve to form derived nominal bases but
are appended to substantives to change the meaning of the nominal in different
ways. 1100 rules in the A., covering most of the fourth and fifth chapter deal with
taddhita affixes. The total number of taddhita affixes is two-hundred and
seventeen. Examples are aN, chha, atsuch, kha. etc.
(3) Feminine. Converts a given word from the masculine to the feminine gender.
Examples: TAp, DAp, chap etc.
(4) Ting: These eighteen affixes append to verbal roots and are responsible for verbal
inflections. Example, paTh + si = paThasi (you read).
(5) Sup: These twenty-one affixes append to substantives and are responsible for
Nominal Inflections. Example RAma + TA = RAmeNa (done by Rama).
(6) DhAtu: These affixes form derivative verbs from primitive roots. For example:
"kR" (to do -- a primitive root) can conjugate into karoti (does). If you want to
express "a desire to do", Dhatu affix san is appended and yields chikIrSati. (He
wants to do, he desires to do). Other examples are Nich, yang, san etc
Karakas:
Karakas are the equivalent of case relationships and are syntacto-semantic in Paninis
system. There are six karakas in Sanskrit. These are:
1. kartA Karaka (corresponds to the nominative case)
2. karma Karaka (accusative case)
3. karan Karaka (instrumental case)
4. sampradAna Karaka (dative case)
5. apAdAna Karaka (ablative case)
6. adhikaraN Karaka (locative case)
The genitive (sambaandh) case is not recognized as a Karaka because it does not
directly participate in the action denoted by the sentence.
Post-Paninian Scholarship
The study of Paninis Grammar had spawned a vast commentarial literature in the past.
The sages Katyayana and Patanjali have been mentioned previously. Katyayana intended
to improve upon some of Paninis rules where he felt they were inadequate. Inadequacies
could either be due to changes that had crept into Sanskrit over the period of time
between Katyayana and Panini or due to the oversights of Panini himself. Another
purpose was to provide with fresh linguistic insights.
He has merely commented upon 1500 Paninian sutras in about 4000 vartikas (scholia)
which are mostly one-liners. These vartikas are not an independent treatise and are only
found in the commentary of Patanjali, the Mahabhashya, regarded as the second most
important grammatical text after the Ashtadhyayi.
Patanjali has commented upon 1701 sutras in 85 chapters called day-sessions (ahnikas).
The commentary is in the form of a discourse between a student, a teachers aide and a
teacher. The Mahabhashya is an extremely elegantly written treatise, composed in a very
simple yet subtle style; and full of charming anecdotes and maxims
Prominent names besides the three sages are Bhartrihari(Vakyapadiya), VamanaJayaditya(Authors of Kashika), Kaiyata(Pradeep Commentary on Mahabhashya),
Bhattoji Dikshit( author of Siddhanta Kaumudi ), Kaunda Bhatt(Vyakarana Bhushan
Sara) Nagesh( Voluminous author on Sanskrit Grammar, chief amongst them
LaghushabdenduShekhar, Paribahshendu-Shekhar, Udyot Commentary ).
Special mention must be made of the Siddhanta Kaumudi of Bhattoji Dikshit written in
the seventeenth century by a learned Brahmin of Maharashtra which revolutionized the
way Grammar was taught in the length and breadth of the entire subcontinent. Following
the Prakriya School which emphasizes derivation of correct forms above others and
teaches the A. without regard to its spatial order; it became the most important
pedagogical text and replaced traditional teaching of Grammar through A.
Many modern scholars like Ram Nath Sharma and the Arya Samajis likes Brahma Dutt
Jijnasu and Yuddhishthir Mimansaka consider the SKs prakriya system unscientific even
unfortunate. The latter have leashed a diatribe of vehemence on its methods and equated
the downfall of Indian Culture with the emergence of the Prakriya Schools in the 11th
Century. The use of mythological paradigms by Bhattoji to illustrate rules has done much
to increase its popularity amongst teachers who consider it a text with a dual aim:
teaching of grammar and inculcating religiosity.
In modern times, some of the worlds most brilliant linguists - both Indian and Western have studied Panini and produced a plethora of novel research. Paniniyas such as George
Cardona, Madhav Deshpande, Ram Nath Sharma, S.D. Joshi, Roodenberg, Devashthale,
Ashok Aklujkar etc have written very precise treatises and laid bare all the intricacies of
the technique in English so that a modern student has no longer to depend on his teacher
or a cryptic Sanskrit commentary and can comprehend the intricacies of Sanskrit
Grammar from his reading desk. The research P. has inspired is extremely meticulous,
scientific and detail-oriented. Scholars have written lengthy books to discuss the use and
significance of single words like cha (and), the markers (The Anubabdhas of Panini),
the optionality-signifying words( va, vibahsa, anyatarasyam)( Panini as a Variationist)
etc. There is nothing new in this as from the times of Patanjali itself, exhaustive
discussion on single sutras (example Samarthanhnika: single chapter on Sutra 2.1.1
samarthah padavidhi) was the norm rather than the exception. Modern Civilization with
its rapid means of communications and transmittal of knowledge has catalyzed this
process.
Summing up my paper I would like to mention the A. is not only the most important
means for a proper understanding of the Sanskrit Language and Grammar, its technique is
so interesting in itself that one can study it for the mere pleasure of learning a very
engaging and intellectual system which American Linguist Leonard Bloomfield felt was
one of the greatest monuments of human intelligence (quoted in Panini: A Survey of
Research, George Cardona, pg 243).