Catacombs

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

614

uses the name of God is turned into a cat (Vital gives a detailed description of this kind of tomb,
Calabrese, "Seferha-Gilgulim,"ed. Warsaw, p. 125). the chief characteristic of which is ,that the bodies
were
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Lewysohn, Die Zoologie des Talmuds, pp.
74- placed in niches (Talmud, )'o D; Latin, ' loculi") in the subterranean vaults. The Christian
76, 108; Hamburger, R. B. T. s.v.; Brecher, Das Transeendentale, p. 52; Levy, Neuhebr. Wiirterbuch, s.v. 'Jinn.catacombs doubtless originated in imitation of this
E. c.
J.
Jewish custom, although it would appear from the
CATACOMBS : Underground galleries with ex- catacombs so far discovered at Rome that the Chriscavations in their sides for tombs or in which human tian ones are older than the Jewish. Among Chrisbones are stacked. The term is derived from " cata- tians, moreover, Jesus' tomb in the rock must have
comba," a compound of the Greek Kara and the been the model from the beginning.
Latin " comba " (" cumba "), meaning " near the sepJewish catacombs have been discovered at Rome
ulchers." Originally it designated a definite place as follows: (1) Before the Porta Portuensis; found
on the Via Appia near Rome, but since the ninth in 1602 by Bosio under the Colle Rosato. This catcentury it has been applied to all subterranean acomb has since become inaccessible through the

FRAGMENT OF A SARCOPHAGUS FROM THE VIONA RANDANINI AT ROME, SHOWING JEWISH SYMBOLS.

(From Garrucci, " Cimitero Degli Antichi Ebrei.")

burial-places in Italy as well as in other countries. filling in of the neighborhood. Its arrangement was
In the Middle Ages only Christian catacombs were extremely simple and primitive, as it contained only
known; in modern times, however, Jewish burial- two cubicula or burial-niches. It is evident, from
places have been discovered resembling the Christian ones, and hence are also called catacombs.
In point of fact, the mode of burial followed in
catacombs is undoubtedly of Jewish origin. Subterranean tombs were used in Palestine even in
early times. While in the East corpses were usuH c e A e
ally put into the earth, in the West they were cremated. The earliest example of a subterranean tomb
is the double cave of Machpelah, still preserved under
A C 6 Z H C 6 N G T H
the mosque built over it. Around Jerusalem there
are so-called tombs of the Prophetstombs of priests
according to Seppthat, in their labyrinthine arrangement, resemble the catacombs. Tombs of the
judgesi.e., tombs of the sanhedristsare also to
be found throughout Palestine. The architect
JJLZTA
Schick found at Jerusalem a catacomb begun by
.
Jews and continued by Christians. These tombs,
Inscription on Gravestone In the Vigna Cimarra at Rome.
which are hewn out of the rock, differ from the
CYNA(rr)HC EAE
The Synagogue ot Elea.
AC EZHOEN ETH
Roman catacombs only in that they are difficult of
II
He
Lived 70 Years.
access, while the latter are arranged with a view to
KAAwO KOIMOY
Pleasant Is the sleep
META Tom AIKE
ol the righteous.
the frequent visits of the living (Swoboda, " Die
<uN
Altpal&stinischen Felsengritber und die Catacomben," in "Romische Quartalschrift fur Christl. its situation on the road leading to Porto, that it
Altertumskunde," p. 321, Rome, 1890; compare also served as a cemetery for the Jews living in Trastethe word larS/uov = "quarry," used in the sense of vere. (2) In Porto itself, from which several Greek
"cemetery," which recalls these rock-tombs).
inscriptions of the first and second
Rome. centuries have been preserved. These
Wherever the Jews went in the course of their
inscriptions throw much light on the
wanderings, they endeavored to preserve this custom of their fathers as far as the nature of the history of the Jews at Rome. (3) In the
Vigna
ground permitted; and they did so at Rome, in Randanini on the Via Appia, discovered b}r Garrucci
lower Italj', Carthage, Cyrene, etc. The Talmud in 1862. He also found there twofiguredsarcophagi

615

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Catacombs

and gilded glasses of Jewish origin, which furnish

The chief value of the Jewish catacombs at Rome
proof of the interesting fact that the Jews also fol- lies in the numerous and multiform inscriptions that
lowed the higher arts. (4) ln the Vigna Cimarra they furnish, which throw a strong light on the life
near the Via Appia, discovered by De Rossi in 1867.
of the Jews at Rome. A great number of names
Among its inscriptions, which are also important,
has been preserved thereby; and sometimes the titles
one mentions the synagogue of Elea. (5) In the of the offices and the status of those buried are given.
Vigna Apolloni on the Via Labicana, discovered in Since about 110 of the inscriptions are in Greek and
1882 by Marucchi; it is less important, and contains oniy about 40 in Latin, the former was probably the
only a very few inscriptions, but is marked by easily language of the Jews at Rome. The Greek inscriprecognizable Jewish symbols. (6) On the Via Appia
tions date from between the first and
Pignatelli, discovered in 1885 by Nicolaus Muller
Inscripthird centuries, from which time to the
(see "Mitteilungen des Archaologischen Instituts,"
tions.
fourth century there are Latin inscriptions. A genuine Hebrew inscription
Roman section, 1886, i. 49-56).
According to F. X. Kraus's description, the Roman
has not yet been found, though the formulas 0'~1!'
catacombs consist of an immense labyrinth of gal- ("Pe.ace") and ~~ii!'' ~.II O'~~I!' [sic!] ("Peace to
leries excavated in the bowels of the earth and under Israel") have been noted in some instances. Where the
the hills surrounding the city. The galleries are ar- inscription does not begin with the name of the deranged in different stories(" piani "), often three or ceased, the usual introductory formula is EN8AL'.E
four of them one above the other, and
KE~TE (for Kei-&at): the Latin "Hie J acet" (Here Lies)
Arrange- crossing a number of times in the is seldom found. Eulogies recalling Biblical verses
ment.
same story. The galleries are from and idioms are used as final formulas; e.g., Isa. I vii. 2
one-half to one meter wide, hence gen- or Ps. iv. 9. The frequent ou1 {3iov, taken to mean
erally very narrow; in height they vary with the 0~'.11 "n~ C' for life eternal"), must also be considered
nature of the rock out of which they are hewn.
a pious wish. The Jewish inscriptions of the cataThe walls on both sides are perforated by horizontal combs of Rome have been collected in the works of
caves or niches like oblong ovens, each of which Berliner and of Vogelstein and Rieger.
The commonest symbol found in the Jewish cataaffords space for one or more bodies. The rows are
broken at intervals by passageways leading into combs is the seven-branched candlestick, doubtless
smaller chambers, the walls of which are also per- in reference to the verse, "The spirit of man is the
forated by niches. There is little difference between candle of the Lord" (Prov. xx. 27). It is an infallithe Christian and the Jewish catacombs; certain ble sign that the tomb in questionis Jewish, as it is
variations in construction being no greater than the not found on Christian tombs. Another symbol
differences among the several Christian catacombs is a fruit from which an ear of grain sprouts, and
themselves. There is the same arrangement of which is interpreted as "lulab" (pal!.11-branch) and

WNA6

A'PXWN
EN GA~
X f I eE 6

ewN

"'VIII
f.N11'H NH
KO.JMHCHN

INSCRIPTION ON A SARCOPHAGUS IN THE VIGNA C1IMARRA AT RO:l!E.

ZwNAA
APXwN
ENA'1.E
XEIEF.
@wN XVIII
EN EIPHNH
KOIMH CHN

galleries and cubicula, the same method in the disposition of the graves, and the same decoration in
colors and tints. It has been remarked, however,
that' the flags closing the niches on the outside are
fitted better in the Jewish than in the Christian
tombs; so that no one would suspect that tombs
were behind these stones. The only real difference
consists in the presence of Jewish formulas and
symbols and in the absence of Christian ones.

Zonatba ( = Jonathan)
the arcbon.
here
lies

aged eighteen years.

He rests in peace.

"etrog" (citron). This interpretation is, however,

not certain. An oil-vessel is also found on some
stones, a symbol probably identical
Symbols. with the candlestick. Garrucci interpreted it as referring to :i;Ianukkah,
but this is inadmissible. It may be considered an
artistic expression of the thought, "A good name is
.better than precious ointment; and the day of death
than the day of one's birth" (Eccl. vii. 1). There

Catacombs

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

is no reason to doubt that a curved horn signifies

the shofar. It is' intended to symbolize the res,urrection of the dead, which shall precede the Messianic
times to be announced by the shofar. A heartshaped leaf is often found, as a}so on Cl1ristian
stones: this signifi~s sorrow for the dead.
The symbols of the Christian tombs also, in so far
as they are taken from the Old Testament, are interesting from a Jewish point of view. The chief types
are: Noah in the Ark, the sacrifice of Isaac, the miraculous water produced by Moses in the desert,
Israel's passage through the Red Sea, the ascension
of Elijah, Jonah's deliverance, ,the three youths in
the.fiery furnace, and Daniel in the den of lions.
All these pictures express the thought that'there are
comfort and deliverance from sorrow and trouble.
Kaufmann explains the fact that these and not
other scenes from the Old Testament were used, by
the circumstance that this cycle was based on an old
passage of the Jewish liturgy.
In some Jewish tombs gilded glasses were found,
having drawings in gold-leaf executed on the fiat
bottoms of the vessels in such a way that the letters
and figures were visible from the inside. An illustration given by Berliner shows, in addition to the
candlestick, the palm-branch, the heart-shaped leaf,
and a lion beside the open book of the Law. On
one of the glasses there is even a representation of
the Temple at Jerusalem. The gilded glasses are
supposed to be the "l).iddush" cups scd on the
Sabbath and at festivals. Berliner supposes them
to refer to the "cup of consolation" that was offered
to the mourners.
In addition to the six Jewish catacombs mentioned
above, Rome "has a few others that may be either
Jewish or Christian. In the 'first decades of Christianity, baptized Jews probably used tlrn existing
Jewish catacombs as burial-places; thus, for example, the Hebrew inscription of one
Doubtful Shefael was found in the Ca~acomba
Catacombs Callisti. In the case of the large and
at Rome. wellknown Catacomb of Domitilla (so
called because Nie noble Domitilla, of
the imperial Flavian house, is supposed to be buried
there), its Jewish origin depends on the question
whether Domitilla was a Jewish or a Christian pros-
elyte. The arc.J1itectural character of this catacomb
points to Jewish origin, because one of its chambers contains only a single-trough tomb (" arcosolium "), with a bench in front. Since both of these,
the single tomb as well as the fiat bench, are specially characteristic of the Jewish rock-tombs in
Palestine, it is possible that the Catacoml;Ja Domitillrn was originally laid out by Jews, alt.hough it
was certainly finished by Christians. The architectural characteristics of this catacomb are so striking
that even Muller admits Jewish influence, although
he thinks that the Christian catacombs were constructed on pagan and not on Jewish patterns. (Herzog-Hauck, "Real-Encyc." 3d ed., x. 863).
It is also impossible to determine whether certain
catacombs in places other than Rome are Jewish
or Christian, particularly as investigations have not
yet been carried to the same extent as in Rome.
This is especially the case at Naples and its vicinity,
and, in general, througl)out southern Italy. Aside

616

from those near the little town of .Matera, the catacombs of Venosa are~ modern discovery, and none
has been definitely recognized as
Venosa, Christian, while most of .them are certainly Jewish. Discovered in 1853,
Sicily,
Carthage. these catacombs have been investi~
gated and .described by G. I. Ascoli,
l<'ran<;ois Lenormant, and Nicolaus Muller. Notwithstanding the tu fa, which tends to crumble easily,
there are galleriesiiere more than two meters wide;
hence wider than those at Rome.~ In the subterranean main street the trough-tombs-i.e., thos~ holluwed out in the form of a trough (" arcosolia ")are much more numerous than the niche-tombs
(" loculi "); moreover, not only the walls, but also
the floors, contain many tombs. The chief interest
of the catacombs of Venosa lies in their inscriptions.
These are written partly in Latin and partly in
Greek, the language in both cases being incorrect
and barbaric. It is most important to note that Hebrew occurs more frequently; for there are epitaphs
written entirely in that language; and the characters
used are remarkable for paleographic reasons. One
of these epitaphs reads:
inot:1J it:1tiJ niJ [o J1J'ooii::i

.tiSiv ['] 'n~

ilO'::i ~t:I i::i::it:1t.)

("Resting-place of Beta, son of Faustinus. Peace to

his soul! May his spirit share in the life eternal!"}
An epitaph of which the second portion is Greek
written in Hebrew characters is also noteworthy,
and for that reason is given here, from a reproduction in Ascoli's "Iscrizioni Greche, Latine, Ebraiche di Antichi sepolcri Giudaici del Napolitano,"
No. 17.

("Peace to his resting-place.") (sic!) 1:1il::lt:l'r.i Sv ti'S~

110~ ~J'i'~Ot.) 'i' iio::iioiti 1J'iJ,PilO ou:io

.~OJ~mi~

(Ta~o~

l:mJV<livov Ilqecr(forepov 1wl

Marl/p!va[~]

irwv

byooijvra.)

("Tomb of Secundinus [son of] Presbyterns ahd

l\faterina, eighty years old.") Muller found a number of other catacombs at Venosa, in addition to
those discovered in 1853. It has not yet been deter.mined, however, whether they are of Jewish or Christian origin. The same symbols are found here, and
in the places still to be mentioned, as are found at
Rome.
The island of Sicily abounds in catacomhs. These
have not yet been thoroughly investigate.a, nor has

"''

617

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

their Jewish or Christian character been determined;

but there certainly are Jewish catacombs at Syrac use (see Paolo Orsi, in " Romische Quartalsch1ift,"
1897, pp. 475-495; ib. 1900, p. HJO). The geological formation of the island was most favorable to
the construction of rock-tombs, which were built by
pagans, Jews, and Christians. There a re more single than common tombs; and the bodies are placed

Catacombs

Archeologique, " 3d series, xiii. 178, P aris, 1889).

The necropolis. lies to the north of the city, on moderately high hills near the hill Gamart. It contains
about 200 tombs, that resemble the Palestinian hype
ogea, althoug h th e loculi give it the character of
catacombs. lt has been found that the Talmudic
regulations regarding the rock-tombs have been implicitly observed in this necropolis; and the fact

GROUND-PLAN OF THE JEWISH CATACOMBS AT VESOSA.

A, B, entrance grottoes; C, entrance to catacombs; D, principal corridor ; E- K, side corridors; L-P, corridors In ruins.
(After Ascoli .)

not in niches, but in arcosolia. The Sicilian tombs

must therefore be designated as hypogea-i.e., subterranean vaults-rather than as catacombs, and resemble more closely their Palestinian models. J ewish hypogea have also been found in recent times
at H eliopolis in Phrygia (Humann, "Altertruner
von H eliopolis," p. 46, Berlin, 1898).
In Africa t.he first Jewish graveyards to be noted are those of Carthage, in which J ewish catacombs are recognized (see Delattre, in " Rev ue

that it. is Jewish is fully determined by the frag ments of H ebrew inscript.ions that have been found
and the frequent representation of the sevenbranched cand lestick, although most <if the inscriptions a re in Latin. 'fhe tombs contained no vessels
except the lamps; but the walls were richly decorated in relief and fresco, indicating a certain degree
of wealth among the J ews of Carthage(" Rev. Etudes
Juives," xliv. 14).
On closer investigation J ewish catacombs will be

Catalan, Abraham
'Catalogues of Hebrew Book'

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

found among the many Christian ones in Cyrenaica

and in its capital, CYRENE. In .Lower Egypt,
.also, especially near Alexandria, there are pagan,
Jewish, and Christian catacomlls ("Am. Jour.
.of Archeology," pp. 145 et ,~eq., Baltimore, 1887).
In the Egyptian catacombs there are
Egypt.
many cell-tomlls; i.e., tombs in which
the bodies are pushed forward into
.the niches. According to Schultze, this indicates
that the tomb in question is Jewish. This assumption, however, is rightly criticized lly other scholars,
.and a decision of the question must await further
investigation. See BURIAL and CEMETERIES.
.BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bosio, Roma Sotterranea, II. ch. 22, posthumous, Rome, 1632; De Rossi, Bolletino, 1864, iv. 40; Idem,
Roma Sot.terranea, 1877, iii. 386; Garrucci,. Cimitero deg!i
Antichi Ebrei . . . in Vigna Randanini, Rome, 1862;
Franz Xaver Kraus, Roma Sotterranca, pp. 489 et seq., Frelburg-in-Breisgan, 1873, 2d ed., 1879; idem, in Rea!-Encyc. der
Christ!. Alterthitmer, ib. 1883; ~.v. Katakomben; idem,
Gcsch. der Christ!. Kunst, I. 5h, 1b. 1895; Kaufmann, Sens
et Origine des Symbolcs de /,'Ancien '.l'cstament dans !'Art
Chretien Primilij, in Rev. Etudcs Juives, xiv. 33, 217 ; Ascoli, Iscrizioni TnBdite o Mal Note, 'Greche, Latine, Ebraiche di Antichi Sepolc1l Giudaici de! Napolitano, Turin
and Rome, 1880; Lenormant, La Catacombe Juive de Venosa, in Rev. Etudcs Juives, vi. 201 7 207; Adolf von Engestrom, Om Judarne i Rom Under Aldre '.l'ider och Deras
Katakomber, Upsala, 1876; Schurer, Die Gemeindeverfassung der 'Judcn in Rom in der Kaiserzeit, Leipsic, 1879;
Berliner, Gesell. der Juden in Rom, l. 46-70, Frankfort-onthe-Main, 1893; Vogelstein and Rieger. Gcsch. der Juden in
Rom, !. 70 et seq.; Nicolaus Millier, Koimeterien, in HerzogHanck, Real-Encyc. 3d ed., x. 794 et seq.; Lowrie, Christian
Art and Archeology, p. 42, New York, 1901.
E.

c.

S. Kn.

CATALAN,

ABRAHAM: Well-known Talmudist of the seventeenth century. He and his son,

Abraham Catalan, and his brother, Elijah Catalan, were contemporaneous with R. I.Iayyim Shabbethai in Sftlonica.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, ~ore lla-Dorot, p. 45a.
G.
1\'I. K.
CATALAN (CATALANO), ABRAHAM ;
Physician in Padua; died 1642. He is the author of
"'Olam Hafuk," an unpublished manuscript treatise on the plague of 1630-31, during which time he
was very active.
JlIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Osimo, Narrazione ... CenniBiograjici
dell.a Famiglia. Koen Cantarini, pp. 50, 107 et seq., Casale,
Montferrat, 1875; Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. xvi. 36.
G.
1\'I. K.
CATALAN, ABRAHAM SOLOMON BEN
ISAAC BEN SAMUEL (not Solomon Abraham); born in Catalonia ;died 1492'; autllorof a?wurk,..
treating of the eternity of the world, Providence,
prophecy, immortality, and the resurrection, and
also dealing with mathematical, physical, and cabalistic subjects. It appeared under the title" Neweh
Shalom" (Dwelling of Peace), Constantinople, 1538;
Venice, 1574, with a preface by Moses Almosnino,
who cites it several times in his work, "Me'amme~
Koal.1." Abraham Solomon translated into Hebrew
Albertus Magnus' "Philosophia Pauperum," under
the title "Ki~~ur ha-Philosophia ha-'fib'it" (Syn
-0psis of Natural Philosophy), and l\farsilins all
Inghen's "Questions,'' under the title "8ha'alot
u-Teshubot" (Questions and Answers). Both are still
extant in manuscript; Catalan's preface to the latter
work was published by A. Jellinek. without mention of the translator, together with the index of the

618

questions, under the title "Marsilius ab Inghen"

(Leipsic, 1859) .
BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Rossi. Hi.st: Wi!rterbuch der Jll.d. Schriftstel!er, p. 69; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 465, 469.
G.
M. K.

CATALAN, GERSON B. SOLOMON: Author; li ve<l at Aries in the middle of the thirteenth
century; died (possillly) at Perpignan toward the
end of the thirteenth century. According to Abraham Zacuto and, others, he was the father of Levi
b. Gerson (Gersonides). He compiled, about 1280,
an eneyclopeuia entitled "Sha 'ar ha-Shamayim"
(Door of Heaven), which contains many quotations
and even whole treatises from previous translations
of works written in Arabic. Following Ibn Palquera, he-0.ivided his work into three parts, dealing
respectively with: (1) physics, including a chapter
on dreams; (2) astronomy, taken chiefly from .AlFergani; and (3) theology or metaphysics, which
part, as Catalan expressly says, contains nothing
new, but is a copy of Maimonides' "Book of the
Soul." The Greek authors cited are; Alexander of
Aphrodisias, Aristotle, Empedocles, Galen, Hippocrates, Homer, Plato, Ptolemy, Pythagoras, Themistius, and Theophrastus; the Arabic: Ali ibn alAbbas, Ali ibn Ridhwan, Averroes, Avicenna, Costa
ibn Lucca, Al-Farabi, Al-Fergani, I.Ionain, Isaac
Israeli, Ibn Tufail, and Ibn Zuhr. The work was
published in Venice, 1547, ROdelheim, 1801.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Stelnschne!der, Cat. Bodi. col. 1014; idem,
Hebr. Uebers. pp. 9 et seq.; Gross, in Monatsschrift, xxx.
20 et seq.; idem, Gallia Judaica, p. 82; Sen. Sachs, Kerem
Hemed, vlll. 153 et seq.; De Rossi-Hamberger, Wi!rterbuch,
p. 69; Rev. Et. Juivcs, v. 278, xvi. 186. A number of citations
are to be found in Kaufmann, Die Sinne (see Index).
G.

M. K.

CATALAN, MOSES~AYYIM: Italian poet;

born in Padua; son of the physician Abraham Catalan. He was rabbi in his native town, and died
there at an advanced age in 16th. It WlJrS to him
that the first letters of Isaac Vita Cantarini, whose
teacher he was, were addressed. His "Me~aref haSekel," a rhetorical pamphlet on man, has never
been published. He wrote a poem in honor of the
marriage of his sister Perla to Raphael Gans Levi,
which can be read either as Hebrew or as Italian.
It has been reprinted by Wolf, "Bibi. Hebr." iii.
726. In 1645 he wrote a similar.poem in honor of
Shabbethai Astruc. An elegy on Lamentations in
ottava rima was also published by him at Padua.
~'i'liiiLiOGRAPHY: CantminCPa!lad Yi.?!ia~, lOa; Osimo, Narrazione, p. 68; Del!tzsch, Zur Gesell. der JUdlschen Pocsie, p.
71; Steinschneider. Oat. Bodi. col. 1785 ; Cat. Ghir.ondi (Sam.
Scb5nblum, Berlin, 1872), p. 2, cod. 4B (where the pamphlet ls
erroneously ascribed to Abraham Catalan, "rabbi in Padua");
Steinschneider, in Monatsschrift, xllll. 420.
G.
M. K.
CATALAN, SO.LOMON; Probably a grandson
of Gerson b. Solomon Catalan. He was rabbi in
the city of Coimbra in 1360.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserl!ng, Gesch. der Juden in Portugal,
p. 24.

G.
M. K.
CATALOGUES OF HEBREW BOOKS:
These were of frequent use among the Jews in
the Middle" Ages. -Judah ibn Tibbon (about 1200)
speaks in loving terms of his collection of books and
of its catalogue, both of which he recommends to