Mechanical behaviour of landfill barrier

systems
L. Edelmann, PhD, DGGT , M. Hertweck, PhD, SIA, USIC and P. Amann, PhD,
COST, DGGT, DIA, SIA
&

Landlls may need to be surrounded by

engineered liner systems to prevent dangerous leakage to the environment.
Depending on the location of the liner, that
is, at the bottom, surface or sides of the
landll, the system may be highly stressed
in bending or shear. Full-scale tests and
additional eld measurements were
carried out to dene the ultimate state of
the permeability of horizontal and vertical
compacted clay liners. The results of these
tests can be used in the overall design of
such landll liners. The testing equipment
developed may be used to improve new
system designs or to test alternative combinations of materials.
Keywords: geotechnical engineering; landll; research & development

Notation

c
h
K
Ko
k
R
g
e
en
eg
y
f

cohesion
height
hydraulic conductivity
initial hydraulic conductivity
lateral stress ratio
radius of curvature
unit weight
strain
volumetric strain
shear strain
volumetric water content
internal friction angle

Introduction

To protect the environment against leakage

from landlls, multi-barrier systems have been
developed. One component of such systems
involves technical barriers, which surround the
deposits. Within a landll, it is possible to
distinguish between bottom, surface and side
liners.
2. As a rst requirement, the articial
barrier must be technically impermeable, which
means low conductivity (e.g. k  10 79 m/s)
and stressed by a `low' hydraulic gradient
(eld: i  2; but often in laboratory tests,
i  30).
3. The sealing component of most liner
systems consists of, or is combined with, clayey
materials. The conductivity will increase and
the containment capacity will be lost due to
deformation or cracking. Bending occurs with

non-uniform settlements of the subsoil (bottom

liner) or of the waste material (capping) (Fig. 1).
The latter will also be inuenced by the
sequence of lling. Steep wall liners are mainly
strained by shear deformation due to `silo'
conditions, with dierential settlements
between the deposited material and the side
walls. Additionally, kinematic failure mechanisms need to be analysed (Fig. 2).
4. Sloped liners are strained under combined conditions. While the tendency for
bulging is predominant, it may occur in
conjunction with shear failure. The sealing
system can become unserviceable because of
large lateral deformations or collapse under
shear failure. Large lateral displacements can
cause increasing volumetric strain and therefore an increase in hydraulic conductivity.
Considering the inclined drainage layer as a
solid body, overturning around the toe of the
wall is also possible. Gravity and external
loads decrease safety with respect to bearing
capacity failure.
5. Few laboratory or eld investigations of
the stressstrain behaviour of barrier systems
exist. In this paper, the authors report results of
1:1 scale tests performed with horizontal and
vertical barrier systems in combination with
eld measurements, and give suggestions for
practical applications. The idea for these investigations came from two landlls in Germany
where the last author was called in for expert
consultations. The experimental investigations
were performed at the Technical Universities at
Darmstadt (horizontal barrier) and Zurich (vertical barrier).

Proc. Instn
Civ. Engrs
Geotech. Engng,
1999, 137, Oct.,
215224
Paper 11855
Written discussion
closes 31 March 2000
Manuscript received
26 October 1998;
revised manuscript
accepted 27 May
1999

Lorenz Edelmann,
Consulting Engineer,
Amann Infutec
Consult Ltd, Muhltal

Michael Hertweck,
Consulting Engineer,
SKS Engineers Ltd,
Zurich

Horizontal barrier system

Principle of investigations
6. The experimental investigations concentrated on the bending eects of a thin
(06 m) mineral liner. 1 First, the damage
criterion had to be dened. It was decided to
use an increase in water content in the
drainage layer underneath the mineral liner
(Fig. 3) as a sign of the beginning of leakage.
With this increase in water content it was
possible to detect leakage due to cracking.
Therefore, the liner was covered with a 06 m
layer of water during the test. After some
initial tests, it was found that the best way to
induce bending was by lowering the founda-

Peter Amann,
Professor of Soil
Mechanics and
Foundation
Engineering,
Institute of
Geotechnical
Engineering, Swiss
Federal Institute of
Technology, Zurich

215

EDELMANN ET AL.
Initial state
Deformed state

Soil liner

Fig. 1. Deformation of horizontal barriers

tion bed of the liner to simulate conditions for
local settlement.
Testing equipment
7. The simulator is shown in Figs 3 and 4. The
support construction consists of two parts: the
peripheral support and the central support with
a lowering capacity. The central support was
made of 19 cylindrical rubber cushions, concentrically arranged and lled with water. The
arrangement of the rubber cushions formed three
independently operated ring circles with cushion
No. 1 as the rst circle in the middle (Fig. 3).
8. The support construction could be
lowered by the hydraulically operated cushions
in a highly controlled way to simulate subsidence and deformation. By removing dierent
quantities of water from the rings of cushions, a
vertical displacement and a bending deformation of the barrier model could be imposed.
9. The 06 m thick barrier was constructed
by compacting approximately 16 t of soil
material placed on the top of the support
elements and the 025 m thick drainage layer
made of sand. The leakage was measured by
time domain reectometry (TDR) probes and
tensiometers in the drainage layer immediately
beneath the barrier. TDR is a method in which
volumetric water content is determined from
dielectric properties of wet soil. 2 Thirty TDR
probes and four tensiometer measuring lines
were installed in a grid which enabled the
measurement of changes in water content and
the precise localization of percolation and
leakage spots. The deformation subsidence was
measured by displacement transducers both on
top and at the bottom of the barrier. A
subsidence velocity of Dh = 4 mm per day in
the centre of the barrier was selected.
Material
10. Two natural soil types judged to be
characteristic of the range of materials used in
soil liner construction were selected for the
tests, namely silt and clay (Table 1). The silt
had a relatively low plasticity. The material
was susceptible to imposed deformations and,
even though it represented the lower limit of
the quality range of materials, is frequently
used in landll construction. The clay exhibited
higher plasticity and more or less represented
the upper limit of liner materials quality used
in construction.

216

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 2. Failure mechanism of steep-slope barrier systems: (a) bulging;

(b) shear failure; (c) overturning; and (d) bearing capacity failure.
Test results and analysis
11. Three large-scale tests were carried out,
two with silt and one with clay, lasting up to
three months each. With the tests using the silt,
the rst leakage was measured at a maximum
settlement of 315 cm in the bottom centre (Fig. 5).

Fig. 3. Cross-section of testing equipment (horizontal barrier)

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
OF LANDFILL BARRIER
SYSTEMS
Additional leaks were observed in the range of
maximum subsidence of 315553 cm. The
deformation of the barrier corresponded to an
arc of a circle. The radius of curvature for the
maximum subsidence in the centre at the onset
of leakage can be calculated as the limiting
value for acceptable deformation. For a subsidence of 315 cm the radius of curvature was
calculated to be R = 70 m for the silt (Fig. 5).
The radius of curvature corresponding to a
subsidence of 553 cm was calculated to be
R = 40 m. During dismantling of the models, no
cracks were observed visually.
12. In the deformation test with clay, the
testing apparatus support was lowered to its
maximum extent of h = 38 cm without any
failure occurring. The corresponding radius of
curvature was calculated to be R = 6 m. The
clay barrier was still intact at that subsidence
condition. Permeability tests (i = 30) were
carried out on extracted undisturbed samples
of the deformed clay barrier, yielding an
average coecient of permeability of
k = 28 6 10 710 m/s. A comparison with the
results of permeability measurements made
prior to the test (Table 2) indicates that no
signicant change in permeability occurred for
the clay in spite of a calculated average volume
expansion of the samples in the deformation
test of e v = +56%.
13. A nite element analysis was carried
out to investigate the deformed barrier
numerically. The stressstrain behaviour was
modelled using an elastic MohrCoulomb
plastic relationship. Therefore, the attention
was focused on the strain distribution in the
barrier. For the silt, the maximum horizontal
strain at the outer edge area of the barrier,
where the rst leaks were identied, was
calculated to be e h = +02% (Fig. 6). For the
clay, the maximum horizontal strain at the

outer edge area of the barrier was about

e h = +13%.
Results of in situ measurements
14. As a part of an industrial and municipal
landll, a 30 m thick waste body of sludge from
industrial waste water treatment was deposited
in Hessia, Germany, and covered by municipal
waste (Fig. 7). The two dierent waste bodies
are separated by a thin intermediate liner
system composed of a 075 m thick clay
composite liner. The material properties of the
sludge have been reported by Amann et al. 3 The
liner system was subject to imposed deformations due to the consolidation settlements of the
sludge itself, its strongly pronounced creep
behaviour and also from settlements caused by
the weight of the municipal waste (Fig. 7).
15. A measuring programme was developed
for in situ investigations of the deformation
behaviour of the intermediate liner system and
the industrial sludge. 4 As a part of the complete

Fig. 4. Testing
equipment for
horizontal barrier
systems (D = 42 m)

Table 1. Geotechnical parameters of tested materials

Soil parameters

Units

Horizontal tests
Silt

Classication
Grading C, S, S, G
Permeability
Water content
Liquid limit
Plastic limit
Plasticity index
Shrinkage limit
Proctor density
Opt. water content
Uniax. compr.
Cohesion
Friction angle
CC-modulus

K
w
wL
WP
IP
wS
r pr
w
qu
c'
f'
ME

%
m/s
%
%
%
%
%
t/m 3
%
kN/m 2
kN/m 2
Degrees
MN/m 2

18/71/11/0
6 6 10 710
177
314
201
113
165
181
152
230
23
27

Vertical tests

Clay

48/44/8/0
29 6 10 710
175
428
206
222
172
178
167
294
20
27

Barrier
Field

Test

CL
17/60/23/0
05 6 10 711
198
395
152
243
153

20
18
5212

CL
23/36/23/19
5 6 10 711
21
47
26
22
166
172
21

22
24
6523

Weak
suppport

Sti
support

Peat

180

05
90

30
1477

GP
0/10/22/58

217
63

>35
2858

217

EDELMANN ET AL.

14

21

Testing time, t: days

28
35

45

42

49
2
4

Displacement against testing tube

40

35

30

10

25

12

20

14

15

16

10

18

20

Displacement, h: cm

50

Water content, : vol-%

programme, an approximately 170 m long

exible tube placed in the upper drainage layer
was installed for hydrostatic prole gauge
measurements to investigate the settlements
of the intermediate liner along the tube. The
results of the hydrostatic prole gauge measurements show comparatively continuous
settlement curves (Fig. 8).
16. The measurements were carried out in
1 m long sections. The radii of curvature were
back-calculated from the data after carrying out
a regression analysis to smooth out the settlement curves. Thus, the minimum radius of
curvature back-calculated with the measurements from August 1996 were found to be in
the order of R = 2030 m. In comparison with
the large-scale test results with clay, it is
concluded that the current deformation state
was within the serviceability limit of the
intermediate liner system. This is in accordance
with the eld leakage measurements.

22

0
100

90

80

TDR12

70

60
50
40
Radius of curve, R: m

TDR25

30

TDR13

20

10

TDR24

TDR3

Fig. 5. Water content measurements of the rst leakage (silt)

Vertical barrier system

Principle of investigation
17. Vertical or steep-sloped barriers are
used in pits, for example deep quarries. The
mineral component of the sealing must be
constructed simultaneously with the lling of
the waste, which acts as a retaining material.
The most stressed component of these barrier
systems is the footing, especially the connection
between the vertical and the horizontal parts. It
was decided to concentrate the research on this
area by 1:1 scale loading tests. 5 Higher construction stages up to a height of 35 m were
simulated. The various weights of the composite construction were simulated by stepwise
and dierent additional loading with loading
beams (see Fig. 9). The investigations included

Fig. 6. Isograph of horizontal strains (silt, R = 70 m)

Table 2. Summary of strains and permeability of horizontal and vertical barriers

Horizontal barrier:

Vertical barrier:

Notation

Units

eh
R
ev
[K 0 ]
K

%
m
%
m/s
m/s

Notation

Units

Waste (support):
eh
ez
ev
eg
[K 0 ]
K

218

%
%
%
%
m/s
m/s

Model tests

Laboratory tests

Field
measurements

Silt

Clay

Silt

Clay

Clay

02
70

>13
6

[6 6 10 710 ]

+56
[29 6 10 710 ]
28 6 10 710

2030

Silt

Silt

Silt

Weak

Sti

Weak

Sti

Weak

8
710
76
1016

1
76
76
ev* eg

7 6 10 711
2 6 10 711

3 610 711
1 6 10 711

59
74
75
17

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
OF LANDFILL BARRIER
SYSTEMS
360

Level: m+NM

12/95

Municipal waste

7/94

340
330

4/96

10/96
12/95

3/92

11/93

3/92

Intermediate liner
320

Industrial sludge

310

Subsoil

300
240

220

200 180 160 140 120

Horizontal tube length: m

100

80

Fig. 7. Cross-section
of Asslar landll
06

336
Zero measurement 11/93
Height 6/95
Height 8/96

334
332
Level: m+NM

Testing equipment
18. The installed model and the deformation measuring device are shown in Figs 9 and
10. A typical wall sealing system with a width
of 11 m made of a silty clay was reproduced.
A nal height of the composite construction of
37 m was simulated by the application of
surcharge loads. The inclined natural wall
(e.g. rock wall) was evened with a bituminous
layer. Two tests with the same sealing material
but with dierent waste material were carried
out. The rst test used a weak material,
modelling MSW (municipal solid waste); the
second used a sti material, modelling MSW
slag.
19. The load was increased on the sealing
system and on the waste deposit alternately.
Generally, the wall sealing system was loaded
rst, to simulate preconstruction in the eld.
Up to a height of 12 m, 1 m loading increments
were used with 3 m increments above 12 m.
Both tests were executed with the same loading
stages. Each test required one year.
20. The deformations, stresses, pore water
pressures and the volumetric water content in
the liner were measured during loading. Priority was given to the deformation measurements
in the sealing, which were measured by displacement transducers (LVDTs). The arrangement of the transducers gave a framework of
eight rectangular grid elements (Fig. 10). The
volumetric strain could be calculated in each
one. The stress state could also be recorded at
dierent levels using pressure cells (Glo tzl
type). The volumetric water content was
observed by measuring the electrical resistance.
In the waste, no measurements were made. A
detailed description of the measuring device is
found in reference 5.

350

04
02
0
02

330

04
328

06

326

08

Settlements
11/936/95
11/938/96

324

10
12

322
320

Settlement, s: m

varying the relative stinesses of the barrier

and the waste material.

14
160

140

120

100
80
Length: m

60

to the gabions. The average shear stress then

increased with height up to a maximum of
90 kN/m 2 .
23. The deformations in the second test
were smaller; at the top of the wall sealing a
total settlement of 6% of the actual model
height was measured. The settlement of
the body of waste was of the same order
of magnitude as the liner. The mobilized
shear stress along the gabions was constant
(20 kN/m 2 ). In the rst full-scale test, a large
lateral strain of the sealing of e h = 8% was
measured at the maximum simulated height. In

40

20

16

Fig. 8. Results of
hydrostatic settlement
measurements (Asslar
landll)
Fig. 9. Testing
equipment for vertical
barrier systems (60 m
long 6 52 m
wide 6 50 m high).
On top can be seen the
loading beams

Material
21. The parameters of the material used are
listed in Table 1. For the weak support a peat
compost mixture was used, having similar
deformation characteristics to MSW. 5
Test results and analysis
22. In both full-scale tests the proposed
height of 37 m was reached without any failure
or loss of serviceability of the wall sealing
system. After the rst test (using weak waste
material), the wall sealing system showed a
total surface settlement of 10% of the actual
model height (40 m). The deformation of the
body of waste near the gabions was 28% of the
actual height of the waste material. Up to a
simulated height of 17 m, the waste material
slid along the gabions, producing an average
shear stress of 30 kN/m 2 over the height of the
model, after which the waste material adhered

219

EDELMANN ET AL.
20
Triaxial compression

el. 6

Distortion y = hor + ver: %

el. 5
15

el. 4
10

Confined
compression
v = y
el. 13 and
el. 78

Isotropic compression
Constant load at
maximum
height (62 days)

(a)

Distortion y = hor + ver: %

20

15

10

Confined
compression
v = y

Triaxial compression
el. 4

el. 13 and
el. 78

5
Isotropic compression
0

Fig. 10. Cross-section of testing equipment

(vertical barrier) (dimensions in metres)
the second full-scale test, a horizontal strain of
only e h = 1% was measured in the sealing. The
horizontal strain of the gabions was measured
to be e h = 19% in the rst test and approximately zero in the second test. The large
deformation during the rst test was required
to mobilize sucient support in the weak waste
body to prevent failure.
24. The sealing and the gabions acted like a
composite, interlocked construction. The settlement of the wall sealing was not aected by the
interface between the wall sealing and the
gabions. No relative movements took place at
this interface and deformations in the wall
sealing and the gabions were of the same order
of magnitude. Unhindered vertical deformation
could take place, resulting in a volume
decrease. The volumetric strain of the rst test
is shown in Fig. 11(a). An overall volume
decrease was registered. In both tests, identical
volumetric strains of e v = 76% were measured
in the wall sealing but with dierent distortions
e g . In the rst test (Fig. 11(a)), the grid elements
of the wall sealing (Nos. 46) were in eect
under triaxial compression with a signicant
distortion of e g = 1016%.
25. The observed plastic deformation of the
upper element (No. 6) during the rst test was

220

4
6
Volumetric strain v: %
(b)

10

Fig. 11. Volumetric strains plotted against

distortions during the tests with: (a) weak
support; and (b) sti support
accompanied by high excess pore pressures. A
small volume increase occurred at large distortions but the wall sealing did not fail due
to the bearing capacity reserve. At higher
stress levels, the volumetric deformation came
close to conned compression behaviour. In
the second test, the wall sealing was under
conned compression during the whole test
(Fig. 11(b)). The observed behaviour during the
rst test can also be seen in central cores in
earth dams. 7 In both tests, the measured stress
ratio k = s H /s V in the wall sealing corresponded to the active state of plastic equilibrium (Fig. 12(a)). Therefore, the mobilized
coecient of earth pressure for the waste body
can be expressed by the active stress ratio of
the sealing, the relationship between the dierent unit weights and heights assuming that the
strength of the waste is not fully mobilized.
kd

gb hb b
k
gd hd

kd

gb b
k
gd

with hb > hd ; hd > 0

with hb hd

1
2

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
OF LANDFILL BARRIER
SYSTEMS

Results of in situ measurements

30. The in situ measurements were carried
out in the wall sealing of a waste deposit for
MSW (Wirmsthal, Germany). The inclination of
the rock wall was 808, evened by concrete
plates covered with a bituminous layer. The
mineral liner consisted of a silty clay (CL)
(Table 1). The thickness of the retaining
gabions which were used to collect leachate was
1 m. They were lled with coarse crushed rock.
The wall sealing system was built to a height of
between 3 and 5 m before placement of any
waste. At the time of evaluation the wall
sealing was installed to a maximum height of
20 m, with the total depth of the quarry being
60 m. Two measuring cross-sections were
installed to analyse the deformations and the
stress state of the wall sealing during construction and after construction (Fig. 13).
31. The lateral extension of the wall
sealing could be obtained from the inclinometer
measurements and is shown in Fig. 14(a). In
cross-section I, the wall sealing widened from a
height of 15 m upwards, causing an overturning
of the gabions towards the waste body as a mode
of movement. In contrast, in cross-section II,

12

k d = ( b/ d)(h b/h d)k b

(with h b > h d; h d > 0)

b = 20 kN/m3
d = 11 kN/m3

Stress ratio k = h /v

10

hd = hb 3 m
08

k d = ( b/ d)k b (with h b = h d)

dh = bh
d = deposit
b = barrier

06

04

k b (calculated = 20; c = 20 kPa)

02

k b (measured from first large-scale test)

0
(a)
12
Inclination 80
10
Stress ratio k = h /v

where `d' is the deposit and `b' is the barrier.

26. Equation (1) is valid for a parallel
construction and lling sequence, and equation
(2) where the steep slope sealing system is
constructed prior to lling.
27. A higher stress ratio was obtained
when the liner was constructed prior to lling
(Fig. 12(a)). In the earlier construction stages,
higher deformations occurred, but for higher
walls this eect became less pronounced.
28. The stress ratios required to prevent
failure were calculated for the proposed failure
mechanisms. The results where construction
takes place before the placement of a 3 m depth
of waste are presented in Fig. 12(b). Further
results are presented in Reference 6. For
inclinations of 708 and greater, bulging of the
wall is also a critical failure mechanism. For
the analysed parameters, the safety reserve for
shear failure will be sucient. Independent of
wall inclination, the shear failure mechanism
with plastic ow at the toe of the wall (Fig. 2(b),
No. 1) will be more critical than a failure
mechanism across the wall liner (Fig. 2(b),
No. 2).
29. For bearing capacity failure, the width
of the sealing system (wall liner and gabions) is
important with regard to the nal height. The
nal height in the large-scale test for a factor of
safety of 20 was 30 m. The height for the MSW
deposit presented, with a width of 3 m, was
56 m. The factor of safety for bearing capacity
failure strongly depends on the inclination of
the wall and the thickness. The ultimate height
decreases signicantly for less inclined walls
and thinner liners.

08

Existing stress ratio

Shear failure (1)

06

Shear failure (2)

Bulging (overturning)

04

Bulging (buckling)

02

0
0

20
40
60
Height of the wall liner: m
(b)

80

Fig. 12. Existing and required stress ratios in the waste body:
(a) comparison of measured and calculated results; and (b) requirements
for dierent failure mechanism

20 m 10 m

Leachate collection system

gabions; mesh wire filled with
coarse crushed rock
Wall sealing

Inclinometer
sliding micrometer
Rock wall

Sliding layer
(bituminous)
Ground water
drainage

20 m

Earth pressure
cells (Gltzl type)

Drainage layer

Displacement
transducer (LVDT)

10 m
05 m
35 m

10 m

Fig. 13. Barrier system and measuring device, Wirmsthal landll

221

EDELMANN ET AL.
20

Height: m

15

Cross
section

10

(a) horizontal stretching

(b) increase of volume
(c) increase of shear strain.
While (a) is the most likely eect for horizontal
barriers, vertical or inclined barriers might fail
by (b) and/or (c).
34. The maximum horizontal strains and
volume changes of the models and laboratory
tests performed are summarized in Table 2
together with the permeability measured on
samples both compacted before and taken after
the model tests. Without overburden (horizontal
tests), the stretching strains at which damage
occurs are much less than in an overall stress
state (02% (silt) to 13% (clay) instead of
10% (silt) to 50% (clay)). On the other hand,
laboratory tests showed that for clayey material
under volume extension up to 56% no sig-

222

Crosssection

Foundation of the gabions

0
5

5
10
Horizontal strain: %
(a)

15

20
Vertical line near the side wall
Vertical line near the body of waste
15

10

Foundation of
the gabions

Comparison of the 1:1 scale tests

33. With the two model tests, horizontal and

vertical, the stressstrain behaviour of possible
barrier systems has been investigated.
However, there exist dierent conditions which
possibly lead to failure and loss of serviceability. Generally, there are three main points
which increase the hydraulic conductivity

Body of waste

Side wall
(rock)

Height: m

the maximum lateral extension was recorded at

a height of 12 m. This led to a bulging of the
gabions. It can be seen from the in situ
measurements that during the construction of
the sealing system large horizontal strain
occurred in the wall sealing ( e h = 17% at
maximum). The horizontal strain in the wall
sealing increased linearly with increasing
height. The low support of the gabions during
compaction resulted in these large horizontal
strains. Additionally, this construction technique led to an exponential increase in the
horizontal strain in the base sealing under the
gabions.
32. The vertical deformation in the wall
sealing was constant across its width due to the
smooth surface along the side walls and the
large ductility of the gabions. The dierential
vertical settlements at maximum were
e Z = 78% (Fig. 14(b)), the horizontal strain at
maximum e h = 59% (Fig. 14(a)). The
maximum extension produced a tilt of about
128. The horizontal strain during construction
produced an additional rotation of 28. In crosssection II the vertical and horizontal deformations resulted in a distortion of e g = 17% at a
height of 6 m above the foundation of the
gabions. The volumetric deformation can be
calculated approximately from the inclinometer
and the sliding micrometer measurements. A
volume decrease of 5% (without volume
decrease during compaction) at maximum was
obtained in the wall sealing, implying a
decrease in hydraulic conductivity.

4
6
Vertical strain: %
(b)

10

nicant change of permeability (k = 29 to

28 6 10 710 m/s) was measured.
35. The vertical model tests show that
distortions up to 16% also do not cause an
increase in permeability for silty material. But
it should be considered that the strain conditions produced a nal volume decrease of 6%
within the same loading procedure. So, in the
investigated system, the material can also
withstand temporary volume increase (up to
6%) without reducing the hydraulic conductivity signicantly.

Conclusions

36. There is only scant information available in the literature and in regulations concerning the deformation behaviour of soil liners
for practical applications. For example, in
German regulations, a minimum radius of
curvature of R = 200 m is given for which no
deformation improvement is necessary for horizontal soil liners of at least medium plasticity. 8
From the large-scale tests, the limiting value of
deformation of silt is about R = 70 m, corresponding to the maximum radius of curvature

Fig. 14. Measured

strains versus height
for Wirmsthal
landll, showing:
(a) horizontal (cross
sections I + II); and
(b) vertical (crosssection II)

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
OF LANDFILL BARRIER
SYSTEMS
which caused the rst leak. Silt of low plasticity already meets the requirements concerning
deformability of barrier material of medium
plasticity according to the LWA Instructions.
The barrier model with clay sustained a radius
of curvature of R = 6 m without reaching a
limit state. The important dierence in the
amount of deformation is attributed to the
dierent plasticity of the materials. The limits
of R were measured in the model test without
overburden. These conditions are similar to
caps. The eld test showed values of R  30 m
without damage under an overburden. These
conditions are similar to conditions of intermediate liners.
37. The stressstrain conditions of vertical
or steep-sloped liners are characterized by the
construction detail of the barrier system. It is
obvious that if the inclined wall is rough and if
large displacements occur along the wall, the
slender wall sealing will be subject to uncontrolled shear stress, producing vertical cracks.
Beside the roughness of the wall, the low
normal stress on the wall also contributes to the
uncontrolled shear stress. Therefore the shear
forces along this interface must be reduced.
However, it is not necessary to have a smooth
contact surface between the wall sealing and
the leachate collection system, if a transition
zone (drainage layer) is installed.
38. The magnitudes of the total vertical and
horizontal strains in the vertical liner depend
on the stiness of the waste body. In the case of
a sanitary landll in a quarry, the principal
load case is the so-called self-weight loading.
The load transfer from the weak waste material
causes smaller additional vertical deformations.
The requirements concerning the strength of
the sealing material depend upon the height.
39. The lling and construction sequences
have an important inuence on the stability and
the deformation of the sealing system. Increasing displacements can be avoided by adapting
the lling sequence accordingly. High compaction of the MSW is recommended near the
sealing system, to provide sucient support
and smaller lateral deformation in the wall
sealing.
40. Both vertical model tests and the eld
measurements conrmed that the chosen construction of the Wirmsthal barrier system with
a sealing material of high plasticity, fullled
the requirements. Nevertheless, a sealing
material should be compacted and installed at a
moulding water content on the wet side of
Proctor optimum, yielding densication at low
stress levels and insurance against volume
change due to drying during the long-term life
of a waste deposit.
41. The investigations presented in this
paper give the possibility to perform an overall
design for horizontal, vertical and sloped disposal barrier systems. The given design criteria

are stretching, bending, buckling and also

bulging. The testing equipment developed also
allows tests for the quality control of new
system designs or a combination of materials.
Nevertheless, 1:1 scale tests are very costly and
time-consuming. Therefore the results will be
evaluated by further nite element computations and more sophisticated element tests with
the construction materials used.

Acknowledgements

42. The horizontal model test was performed at the Technical University in Darmstadt and nanced by the German Research
Institution. The vertical model test was
installed at the Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology in Zurich and nanced by the
Research Commission and fund of the school.
The eld measurements in both cases were
funded by the owner of the landlls in Asslar,
Germany and Wirmsthal, Germany. Thanks
are given to all who have supported this
extensive work, especially to the people of the
university workshops who constructed, operated and repaired the equipment with a consistently high level of commitment to the
research work.
References

1. E D E L M A N N L. Contribution to the Limiting Deformation Behaviour and to the Serviceability of

Horizontal Soil Liners for Landlls. Phd thesis,
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Darmstadt, 1998 (in German with English
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5. H E R T W E C K M. Research about the Behaviour of
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6. H E R T W E C K M. Slope stability of clay liners at
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7. M A R S A L R. J. and D E A R E L L A N O L. R. Performance
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223

EDELMANN ET AL.
8. LWA Instructions; Mineral Soil Liners for Landlls. Landesamt fu r Wasser und Abfall (LWA),
North Rhine Westfalia (NRW). Abfallwirtschaft

NRW, Richtlinie Nr. 18, Du sseldorf: Schriftenreihe

des Landesumweltamtes NRW, 1993, 59pp. (in
German).

Please email, fax or post your discussion contributions to the Secretary:

email: Wilson_l@ice.org.uk; fax: 0171 799 1325; or post to Lesley Wilson,
Journals Department, Institution of Civil Engineers, 17 Great George Street,
London SW1P 3AA.

224