Construction Materials by Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab
Construction Materials
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT:........................................................................................................................................ 6
INTRODUCTION: .............................................................................................................................. 7
Construction Materials: ........................................................................................................................ 8
1.1
Cement: ................................................................................................................................. 8
INTRODUCTION: .............................................................................................................................. 8
HISTORY OF CEMENT:.................................................................................................................... 8
MANUFACURING PROCESS OF PROTLAND CEMENT:........................................................ 8
PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT: ..................................................................................... 10
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: .......................................................................................................... 10
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES: ......................................................................................................... 10
1.2
Aggregates:.......................................................................................................................... 13
INRODUCTION: ............................................................................................................................... 13
CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES: .................................................................................... 13
ACCORDING TO SIZE: ............................................................................................................... 13
COARSE AGGREGATES: ........................................................................................................... 13
FINE AGGREGATES: .................................................................................................................. 13
ACCORDING TO SHAPE:........................................................................................................... 14
ROUND SHAPED AGGREGATES: ............................................................................................ 14
IRREGULAR SHAPED AGGREGATES: ................................................................................... 15
FLAKY AGGREGATES: ............................................................................................................. 15
ANGULAR AGGREGATES: ....................................................................................................... 16
ELONGATED AGGREGATES:................................................................................................... 16
FLACKY AND ELONGATED:.................................................................................................... 17
ACCORDING TO SURFACE TEXTURE: .................................................................................. 17
GLASSY: ....................................................................................................................................... 17
SMOOTH:...................................................................................................................................... 18
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ROUGH: ........................................................................................................................................ 18
GRANULAR: ................................................................................................................................ 19
CRYSTALLINE: ........................................................................................................................... 19
ACCORDING TO WEIGHT:........................................................................................................ 19
NORMAL WEIGHT AGGREGATES: ......................................................................................... 20
LIGHT WEIGHT AGGREGATES: .............................................................................................. 20
HEAVY WEIGHT AGGREGATES: ............................................................................................ 20
GRADATION: ............................................................................................................................... 20
FINENESS MODULUS OF AGGREGATES: ................................................................................. 21
1.3
CONCRETE:....................................................................................................................... 21
INTRODUCTION: ............................................................................................................................ 21
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE .................................................................................................... 22
TYPES OF CONCRETE ................................................................................................................... 24
Normal Concrete: ........................................................................................................................... 24
Properties of Normal Concrete ...................................................................................................... 24
High Performance Concrete:.......................................................................................................... 25
Properties of High Performance Concrete: .................................................................................... 25
Air Entrained Concrete: ................................................................................................................. 25
Self-compacting concrete: ............................................................................................................. 25
Shotcrete: ....................................................................................................................................... 26
Roller Compacted Concrete: .......................................................................................................... 26
Pervious Concrete: ......................................................................................................................... 26
1.4
ADMIXTURES:.................................................................................................................. 27
INTRODUTION: ............................................................................................................................... 27
AIR-ENTRAINING ADMIXTURES ........................................................................................... 27
WATER-REDUCING ADMIXTURES ........................................................................................ 28
MID-RANGE WATER REDUCING ADMIXTURES................................................................. 29
HIGH-RANGE WATER REDUCING ADMIXTURES .............................................................. 29
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PLASTICIZERS FOR FLOWING CONCRETE .......................................................................... 30

RETARDING ADMIXTURES ..................................................................................................... 31
HYDRATION-CONTROL ADMIXTURES ................................................................................ 31
ACCELERATING ADMIXTURES .............................................................................................. 32
CORROSION INHIBITORS ......................................................................................................... 33
SHRINKAGE-REDUCING ADMIXTURES ............................................................................... 34
COLORING ADMIXTURES (PIGMENTS) ................................................................................ 34
DAMPPROOFING ADMIXTURES ............................................................................................. 34
PERMEABILITY-REDUCING ADMIXTURES ......................................................................... 34
PUMPING AIDS ........................................................................................................................... 35
BONDING ADMIXTURES AND BONDING AGENTS ............................................................ 35
GROUTING ADMIXTURES ....................................................................................................... 36
GAS-FORMING ADMIXTURES................................................................................................. 36
AIR DETRAINERS ....................................................................................................................... 36
COMPATIBILITY OF ADMIXTURES AND CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS ....................... 36
STORING AND DISPENSING CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES ................................................... 37
1.5
LUMBER: ........................................................................................................................... 37
INTRODUCTION: ........................................................................................................................ 37
Lumber Grades: ............................................................................................................................. 38
TYPES OF LUMBER........................................................................................................................ 38
1.6
Adhesives: ........................................................................................................................... 43
INTRODUCTION: ............................................................................................................................ 43
ADVANTAGES OF ADHESIVE: ................................................................................................ 43
DISADVANTAGES: ..................................................................................................................... 44
TYPES OF ADHESIVES: ............................................................................................................. 45
Structural adhesives: ...................................................................................................................... 45
Pressure sensitive adhesives: ......................................................................................................... 45
Drying adhesives:........................................................................................................................... 46
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NATURAL ADHESIVES: ............................................................................................................ 46

1.7
Paints: .................................................................................................................................. 46
INTRODUCTION: ............................................................................................................................ 46
COMPOSITION OF PAINTS: ...................................................................................................... 46
1. PIGMENTS............................................................................................................................... 47
2. BINDERS .................................................................................................................................. 47
3. VOLATILE SOLVENTS .......................................................................................................... 47
CLASSIFICATION OF PAINTS: ................................................................................................. 47
Oil Based Paints: ............................................................................................................................ 47
Water Based Paints: ....................................................................................................................... 47
Failure of a paint: ........................................................................................................................... 47
Contamination:............................................................................................................................... 47
VARNISHES: ................................................................................................................................ 48
COMPONENTS OF CLASSIC VARNISH: ................................................................................. 49
Drying oil ....................................................................................................................................... 49
Resin .............................................................................................................................................. 49
Solvent (traditionally turpentine): .................................................................................................. 49
TYPES OF VARNISHES: ............................................................................................................. 49
Violin: ............................................................................................................................................ 49
RESIN: ........................................................................................................................................... 50
SHELLAC...................................................................................................................................... 50
ALKYDS: ...................................................................................................................................... 51
SPAR VARNISH: .......................................................................................................................... 51
DRYING OILS: ............................................................................................................................. 51
POLYURETHANE: ...................................................................................................................... 52
LACQUER:.................................................................................................................................... 53
ACRYLIC: ..................................................................................................................................... 53
DISTEMPER: ................................................................................................................................ 54
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REMOVING DISTEMPER: .......................................................................................................... 54

2.0 Conclusion: .................................................................................................................................. 54
Appendices:.................................................................................................................................... 55
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ABSTRACT:
This report covers detailed discussion related to different construction materials used in modern
construction, that include cement, concrete, adhesives, admixtures, paints, varnishes and their
respective physical and chemical properties and types. Hopefully this report will answer any/all
related questions to the construction materials.
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INTRODUCTION:
Construction work in the past has always been very difficult and always had faults and failure, for
this reason researches were carried out to find better ways of construction, maintenance and
preservation of the civil constructions. This led to the discovery of different construction materials
that are used nowadays for various purposes. This include bonding materials for bricks and other
masonry, paints varnishes and adhesives etc. for preservation of surfaces and prevention from wear
and tear. Moreover, different chemicals are being used nowadays in concreting and cementing known
as adhesives providing extra properties to the construction material. Different construction materials
are discussed in this report to provide the knowledge of how they are used and how they affect the
modern construction.
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Construction Materials:
The following are different construction materials that are used in modern constructions:
1.1 Cement:
INTRODUCTION:
Cement is a type of bonding material that is used most commonly in todays constructions for
making concrete which is a mixture of cement water and aggregate. In case of fine aggregate used in
the mixture, it forms mortar used for bonding of brick masonry.
In modern construction Portland cement is most commonly used.
HISTORY OF CEMENT:
The history of cementing is as old as the history of engineering construction itself. Ancient Greeks
and Romans used cementing materials obtained by burning limestone. Later on they started
discovering and experimenting that adding suitable extra ingredients add more strength to the
cementing material. When they added volcanic ash and tuff, it resulted in good strength material, it
was named as Pozzolana because the volcanic ash and tuff was obtained near a village of Pozzuoli in
Italy.
It is found that the Romans added Blood, milk and lard to obtain better workability.
After this more builders started experimenting and obtaining better properties hence the investigations
of L.J. Vicat led him to prepare an artificial hydraulic lime by calcining and intimate mixture of
limestone and clay. This process may be regarded as the leading knowledge to manufacture of
Portland cement.
MANUFACURING PROCESS OF PROTLAND CEMENT:

The raw materials required for the manufacture of Portland cement are calcareous materials, such
as limestone or chalk and argillaceous material such as shale or clay. Cement factories are established
where these raw materials are available in plenty.
The process of manufacture of cement consists of grinding the raw materials, mixing them
intimately in certain proportions depending upon their purity and composition and burning them in a
kiln at a temperature of about 1300 to 1500C, at which temperature, the materials sinters and the
partially fuses to form nodular shaped clinker. The clinker is cooled and ground to fine powder with
addition of about 3 to 5% of gypsum. The product formed by using this procedure is Portland cement.
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There are two processes namely:
Wet Process.
Dry Process.
Depends on whether the ingredients are mixed in wet or dry conditions.
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PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT:

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
Particle Size:
The particle size of the cement is ultra-fine i-e 0.002 micro meter if particle size is larger, it provides
less surface area for hydration and decreases strength.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
Composition Of Cement:
The following are the main compunds in ordinary portland cement:
Main Compounds:
Dicalcium Silicate 2CaO.SiO2 (C2S)
Tricalcium Silicate 3CaO.SiO2 (C3S)
Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 (C3A)
Tricalcium Aluminoferrite 3CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 (C3AF)
Component Oxides:
CaO 60 67 %
SiO2 17 25 %
Al2O3 3 8 %
Fe2O3 0.5 0.6 %
Alkalis 0.2 1.3 %
SO3 1 3 %
MgO 1 4.0 %
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Hydration Of Cement:
The process of addition of water to the cement such as ordinary Portland cement,
and the reaction of water with the silicates (C3S and C2S) and the alluminates (C3A) present in the
cement and the formation of the products of hydration as hydrates is known as the hydration of
cement.
The hydration of the silicates (C3S & C2S) present in the cement are the main cause of the hardening
of the cement. The C3S hydrates faster than C2S and hence is responsible for the initial set of the
cement paste.
In commercial cements, these silicates are in impure forms, and these impurities cause major changes
in the properties of these hydrated silicates.
C3S in its impure form is known as Alites while the C2S is known as Belite.
The product of hydration of the C3S forms microcrystalline hydrates (C3S2H3) while the lime present
separates out in the crystalline form as Ca(OH)2. On the other hand the C2S follows the same reaction
but less amount of lime crystallizes out.
The hydration reactions are as follows:
For C3S:
2C3S [100] + 6H [24] C3S2H3 [75] + 3Ca(OH)2 [49].
For C2S:
2C2S [100] + 4H [21] C3H2S3 [99] + Ca(OH)2 [22].
The numbers in the square brackets represents the corresponding masses, based on these masses the
C2S and C3S both require almost the same amount of water for the hydration process.
The presence of C3A in the cements is undesirable because it is the cause of Flash Set due to rapid
hydration even faster than the calcium silicates. But the hydration of C3A can be delayed by the
addition of gypsum.
The hydrated structure of the calcium aluminate is of cubical crystalline form surrounded by the
calcium silicate hydrate ( C-S-H). The hydration reaction of the C3A can be shown by the equation:
C3A [100] + 6H [40] C3AH6 [140]
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It is cleear from the masses in the brackets that more water is required for the hydration of aluminates
than those of silicates.
Heat Of Hydration:
The hydration of the cement is an exothermic reaction, the heat evolved after complete
hydration at a given temprature is measured in joules per gram of unhydrated cement. The heat
evolved is called heat of hydration.
Between 1 & 3 days only half of the total heat is evolved, about three quarters after 7 days and almost
90 percent in 6 months.
The heat of hydration depends upon the composition of the cement and the total heat evolved is
approximately equal to the sum of the heat evolved by the hydration of the individual pure
compounds.
The amount of C3A and C3S are directly proportional to the heat of hydration, the heat can be
increased or decresed by increasing or decreasing the amount of C3A and C3S in the cement, but the
total amount of heat evolved remains the same although in concrete the total heat can be reduced by
controlling the amount of cement.
The heats of hydration of pure compounds:
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1.2 Aggregates:
INRODUCTION:
Aggregates are the basic ingredient in the formation of concrete, they may be coarse or fine and be
added, to form mortar in case of fine and concrete in case of coarse aggregate in addition to cement
and water.
Classification of aggregates is discussed in detail as follows:
CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES:
Generally aggregates are classified on the basis of size i-e ASTM classification of aggregates
namely:
ACCORDING TO SIZE:
COARSE AGGREGATES:
The type of aggregates which is retained at sieve #4 are known as coarse aggregates. The
aggregates of size greater than 4.75mm are placed in the category of coarse aggregates. In normal
construction coarse aggregates of the size 4.75 to 2 is used while in case of R.C.C maximum up to
1 is used to avoid stucking of it in the thick mesh of iron bars etc. while in case of mass concreting,
sizes range up to 5.
FINE AGGREGATES:
The type of aggregate which is retained at sieve # 200 is known as fine aggregate, or another
definition can be aggregates of sizes 4.75 and less are termed as fine aggregates. A mixture of
hydraulic cement and fine aggregate is known as mortar and it is mostly used for plastering of brick
walls as we see in our daily life.
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Figure 1 Fine and coarse aggregates
Figure 2 Sieves used for geadation
In the above figures on the left side is the coarse and fine aggregates shown while on the right side
different sized sieves are shown that are used for the sieve analysis and gradation of aggregates.
ACCORDING TO SHAPE:
Shape is actually the property of the coarse aggregates because they come in different shapes
and their shapes have positive as well as negative effects on the properties of both plastic and dry
concrete. Aggregates and classified in different categories based on their shape:
British standards:
ROUND SHAPED AGGREGATES:

Aggregates come in rounded shapes that are found mostly near seas and rivers it is because they
are water worn rounded aggregates, another factor also causes the aggregates to have rounded shape
that is wind and such aggregates are called as wind worn rounded aggregates, a figure shown below
is of rounded aggregates:
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IRREGULAR SHAPED AGGREGATES:

Such aggregates are naturally irregular or are partly shaped, they done have well defined edges
because they are rounded in one corner while angular at the other and does not have a proper shape.
E.G Hard grey siliceous stone. The figure shown below shows different irregular shaped aggregates:
Irregular shaped aggregates.
FLAKY AGGREGATES:
Aggregates having little thickness as compared to the other two dimensions is known as flaky
aggregates. You can take the example of a potato chip but of course it is very thin aggregates that
thin are not good for use in concrete, the picture below shows different flaky aggregates:
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ANGULAR AGGREGATES:
Aggregates which possess well defined angular edges at the intersection roughly planer faces is
known as angular aggregates. E.G. Crushed rocks of all types. The following image shows some
angular aggregates:
ELONGATED AGGREGATES:
In elongated aggregates, their length is more as compared to the other two dimensions such
aggregates are usually angular in shape. The following image shows elongated aggregates:
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FLACKY AND ELONGATED:

Aggregates having length larger than the width and width larger than the thickness are termed as
flaky and elongated aggregates, the following picture shows flaky and elongated aggregates:
Flaky and Elongated
ACCORDING TO SURFACE TEXTURE:

According to the surface texture aggregates are divided in to the following types:
GLASSY:
Aggregates having shining surface which reflects light are termed as glassy aggregates. Such
aggregates are mostly rounded in shape. Glassy aggregates are shown in the image below:
Glassy aggregates
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SMOOTH:
Such aggregates have smooth surface which provide sliding over one another and hence creating
a ball bearing effect when used in concrete and hence improves workability, they provide negligible
friction as compared to the rough surfaced aggregates, smooth surfaced aggregates are shown in the
image below:
Smooth surface aggregates
ROUGH:
Rough aggregates are those having rough surface which provides a lot of friction when rubbed
against each other due to the depression of one gets interlocked with the elevation of the other.
Rough aggregates are shown in the images below:
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GRANULAR:
Aggregates with granular surface texture are placed in this category, such aggregates have their
surface like granules coagulated to it, for example sandstone; oolites. It can be well understood by
the image shown below:
CRYSTALLINE:
Aggregates having crystal like texture and a smooth touch is placed in this category for example
basalt, limestone, dolerite e-t-c, it can be well understood by the image shown below:
ACCORDING TO WEIGHT:
On the basis of weight, the aggregates are divided into three types namely:
Normal Weight Aggregates.
Light weight Aggregates.
Heavy weight Aggregates.
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NORMAL WEIGHT AGGREGATES:

Normal weight aggregates are those having the bulk density from 1520-1680 Kg/m3 and are
called normal weight aggregates. Normal weight aggregates are further classified into natural
aggregates and artificial aggregates.
The natural aggregates are; Sand, gravel, crush rock such as granite, quartzite, and sand stone etc.
The artificial aggregates are; broken bricks, fly ash, bloated clay and air-cool slag etcetera.
LIGHT WEIGHT AGGREGATES:

Light weight aggregates are those having bulk density less than 1100 Kg/m3 and are used in the
manufacturing of light weight concrete.
Light weight aggregates can be; Processed natural materials (e.g expanded clay or expanded shale),
processed by-products (e.g foamed slag), unprocessed materials (e.g pumice)
Light weight concrete results in significant benefits in terms of load bearing elements of smaller xsection and also give better thermal insulation than ordinary concrete.
HEAVY WEIGHT AGGREGATES:

Aggregates having bulk density more than 2080 Kg/m3 are termed as heavy weight aggregates.
Iron, steel, limonite etc all come in the category of heavy weight aggregates, these aggregates are
used in the manufacturing of heavy weight aggregates which serves for the construction of radiation
shields.
Radiation shields protect the operating personnel against the biological hazards in the nuclear
energy industry or x-ray, gamma ray at therapy centers.
GRADATION:
Gradation can be defined as The distribution of different sizes of the aggregate particles in a
sample.
Gradation is very important when it comes to concreting, because the way particles fit together in
the mix actually depends on it and it effects different properties of the fresh as well as hardened
concrete. It is well known that the strength of the concrete depends on the water to cement ratio
provided the concrete is workable.
Good grading means that the sample must contain all standard fractions of the aggregate in the
required proportions so that the concrete in which it is used contains minimum voids. There are
three types of grading namely:
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Well Graded: contains all sizes of particles in standard proportions.

Poorly Graded: contains same sized particles.
Gap Graded: 0% retained at a number of sieves is known as gap graded aggregate.
FINENESS MODULUS OF AGGREGATES:

Abrams and others in their course of investigation found that the surface area of the aggregates
may vary widely without causing much appreciable change in the concrete strength, and the water
requirement to produce given consistency is dependent more on other characteristics than on the
surface area of aggregates. Therefore Abrams introduced a parameter called Fineness modulus. It
can be defined as Sum of all the retained cumulative divided by 100 is expressed in percentage
called fineness modulus of the aggregate sample. It means that any sieve analysis curve of
aggregate that will give the same fineness modulus will require the same amount of water.
Fineness modulus = sum of all the retained cumulative / 100
1.3 CONCRETE:
INTRODUCTION:
Concrete is a composite material composed mainly of water, aggregate, and cement. Usually there
are additives and reinforcements included to achieve the desired physical properties of the finished
material. When these ingredients are mixed together, they form a fluid mass that is easily molded into
shape. Over time, the cement forms a hard matrix which binds the rest of the ingredients together into
a durable stone-like material with many uses
Based on unit weight, concrete can be classified into three broad categories:
Ultra-light concrete <1,200 kg/m3

Lightweight concrete 1200- 1,800 kg/m 3
Normal-weight concrete ~ 2,400 kg/m3
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Heavyweight concrete > 3,200 kg/m3
Based on strength (of cylindrical sample)
Low-strength concrete: < 20 MPa compressive strength

Moderate-strength concrete: 20 -50 MPa compressive strength
High-strength concrete: 50 - 200 MPa compressive strength
Ultra high-strength concrete: > 200 MPa compressive strength
Based on additives:
Normal concrete
Fiber reinforced concrete
Shrinkage-compensating concrete
Polymer concrete
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
Water-cement ratio: The single most important indicator of strength is the ratio of the water used
compared to the amount of cement (w/c ratio). Basically, the lower this ratio is, the higher the final
concrete strength will be. This concept was developed by Duff Abrams of The Portland Cement
Association in the early 1920s and is in worldwide use today. A minimum w/c ratio (water-to-cement
ratio) of about 0.3 by weight is necessary to ensure that the water comes into contact with all cement
particles (thus assuring complete hydration). Typical values are in the 0.4 to 0.6
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Workability of concrete: that property of freshly mixed concrete that determines its working
characteristics, i.e. the ease with which it can be mixed, placed, compacted and finished
Mix Proportions: The ingredients of concrete can be proportioned by weight or volume. The goal is
to provide the desired strength and workability at minimum expense. A low w/c ratio is used to
achieve strong concrete.
Aggregate Size and Shape: Larger aggregate sizes have relatively smaller surface areas (for the
cement paste to coat). Use the largest practical aggregate size and the stiffest practical mix.
Hydration: When first mixed the water and cement constitute a paste which surrounds all the
individual pieces of aggregate to make a plastic mixture. A chemical reaction called hydration takes
place between the water and cement, and concrete normally changes from a plastic to a solid state in
about 2 hours. Concrete continues to gain strength as it cures.
Heat of hydration: The heat energy given off during hydration is called as heat of hydration.
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TYPES OF CONCRETE
Normal Concrete:
The concrete in which common ingredients i.e. aggregate, water, cement are used is known
as normal concrete. It is also called normal weight concrete or normal strength concrete.
It has a setting time of 30 - 90 minutes depending upon moisture in atmosphere, fineness of
cement etc.
The development of the strength starts after 7 days the common strength values is 10 MPa
(1450 psi) to 40 MPa (5800 psi). At about 28 days 75 - 80% of the total strength is attained.
Almost at 90 days 95% of the strength is achieved.
Properties of Normal Concrete
Its slump varies from 1 - 4 inches.

Density ranges from 140 pcf to 175 pcf.
It is strong in compression and weak in tension.
Air content 1 - 2 %.
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Normal concrete is not durable against severe conditions e.g. freezing and thawing
High Performance Concrete:

High-performance concrete (HPC) exceeds the properties and constructability of normal concrete.
Normal and special materials are used to make these specially designed concretes that must meet a
combination of performance requirements. Special mixing, placing and curing may also be needed.
High-performance concrete has been primarily used in tunnels, bridges etc.
Properties of High Performance Concrete:
High strength
High early strength
High modulus of elasticity
High abrasion resistance
High durability
Low permeability
Resistance to chemical attack, deicing etc.
ease of placement
volume stability
compaction without segregation
Air Entrained Concrete:

Air entrainment is the intentional creation of tiny air bubbles in concrete. The bubbles are introduced
into the concrete by the addition to the mix of an air entraining agent, a surfactant (surface-active
substance, a type of chemical that includes detergents). The air bubbles are created during mixing of
the plastic (easy flowing, not hardened) concrete, and most of them survive to be part of the hardened
concrete. The primary purpose of air entrainment is to increase the durability of the hardened concrete,
especially in climates subject to freeze-thaw; the secondary purpose is to increase workability of the
concrete while in a plastic state.
Self-compacting concrete:
Self-consolidating concrete or self-compacting concrete (SCC) is characterized by a low yield stress,
high deformability, and moderate viscosity necessary to ensure uniform suspension of solid particles
during transportation, placement (without external compaction), and thereafter until the concrete sets.
Such concrete can be used for casting heavily reinforced sections, places where there can be no access
to vibrators for compaction and in complex shapes of formwork which may otherwise be impossible
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to cast, giving a far superior surface than conventional concrete. SCC was conceptualized in 1986 by
Prof. Okamura at Ouchi University, Japan.
Shotcrete:
Sprayed concrete is reinforced by conventional steel rods, steel mesh, and/or fibers. Fiber
reinforcement (steel or synthetic) is also used for stabilization in applications such
as slopes or tunneling.
Shotcrete is concrete (or sometimes mortar) conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at
high velocity onto
a
surface,
as
a
construction
technique.
Shotcrete is usually an all-inclusive term that can be used for both wet-mix and dry-mix versions.
Shotcrete undergoes placement and compaction at the same time due to the force with which it is
projected from the nozzle. It can be impacted onto any type or shape of surface, including vertical or
overhead areas.
Roller Compacted Concrete:

Roller-compacted concrete (RCC) or rolled concrete is a special blend of concrete that has essentially
the same ingredients as conventional concrete but in different ratios, and increasingly with partial
substitution of fly ash for Portland cement. RCC is a mix of cement/fly ash, water,
sand, aggregate and common additives, but contains much less water. The produced mix is drier and
essentially has no slump. RCC is placed in a manner similar to paving; the material is delivered
by dump trucks or conveyors, spread by small bulldozers or specially modified asphalt pavers, and
then compacted by vibratory rollers.
Pervious Concrete:
Pervious concrete (also called porous concrete, permeable concrete, no fines concrete and porous
pavement) is a special type of concrete with a high porosity used for concrete flatwork applications
that allows water from precipitation and other sources to pass directly through, thereby reducing
the runoff from a site and allowing groundwater recharge. Pervious concrete is made using large
aggregates with little to no fine aggregates. The concrete paste then coats the aggregates and allows
water to pass through the concrete slab. Pervious concrete is traditionally used in parking areas, areas
with light traffic, residential streets, pedestrian walkways, and greenhouses. It is an important
application for sustainable construction and is one of many low impact development techniques used
by builders to protect water quality.
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1.4 ADMIXTURES:
INTRODUTION:
Admixtures are those ingredients in concrete other than Portland cement, water, and aggregates that
are added to the mixture immediately before or during mixing. Admixtures can be classified by
function as follows:
Air-entraining admixtures
Water-reducing admixtures
Plasticizers
Accelerating admixtures
Retarding admixtures
Hydration-control admixtures
Corrosion inhibitors
Shrinkage reducers
Alkali-silica reactivity inhibitors
Coloring admixtures
Miscellaneous admixtures such as workability, bonding, damp proofing, permeability
reducing, grouting, gas-forming, anti washout, foaming, and pumping admixtures.
Concrete should be workable, finish able, strong, durable, watertight, and wear resistant. These
qualities can often be obtained easily and economically by the selection of suitable materials rather
than by resorting to admixtures (except air-entraining admixtures when needed). The major reasons
for using admixtures are:
To reduce the cost of concrete construction
To achieve certain properties in concrete more effectively than by other means
To maintain the quality of concrete during the stages of mixing, transporting, placing, and
curing in adverse weather conditions
To overcome certain emergencies during concreting operations
Despite these considerations, it should be borne in mind that no admixture of any type or amount can
be considered a substitute for good concreting practice. The effectiveness of an admixture depends
upon factors such as type, brand, and amount of cementing materials; water content; aggregate shape,
gradation, and proportions; mixing time; slump; and temperature of the concrete.
AIR-ENTRAINING ADMIXTURES
Air-entraining admixtures are used to purposely introduce and stabilize microscopic air bubbles in
concrete. Air- entrainment will dramatically improve the durability of concrete exposed to cycles of
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freezing and thawing. Entrained air greatly improves concretes resistance to surface scaling caused
by chemical deicers. Furthermore, the workability of fresh concrete is improved significantly, and
segregation and bleeding are reduced or eliminated. Air-entrained concrete contains minute air
bubbles that are distributed uniformly throughout the cement paste. Entrained air can be produced in
concrete by use of an air-entraining cement, by introduction of an air- entraining admixture, or by a
combination of both methods. Air-entraining cement is a Portland cement with an air-entraining
addition underground with the clinker during manufacture. An air-entraining admixture, on the other
hand, is added directly to the concrete materials either before or during mixing.
WATER-REDUCING ADMIXTURES
Water-reducing admixtures are used to reduce the quantity of mixing water required to produce
concrete of a certain slump, reduce water-cement ratio, reduce cement content, or increase slump.
Typical water reducers reduce the water content by approximately 5% to 10%. Adding a waterreducing admixture to concrete without reducing the water content can produce a mixture with a
higher slump. The rate of slump loss, however, is not reduced and in most cases is increased. Rapid
slump loss results in reduced workability and less time to place concrete. An increase in strength is
generally obtained with water-reducing admixtures as the water-cement ratio is reduced. For
concretes of equal cement content, air content, and slump, the 28-day strength of a water-reduced
concrete containing a water reducer can be 10% to 25% greater than concrete without the admixture.
Despite reduction in water content, water-reducing admixtures may cause increases in drying
shrinkage. Usually the effect of the water reducer on drying shrinkage is small compared to other
more significant factors that cause shrinkage cracks in concrete. Using a water reducer to reduce the
cement and water content of a concrete mixture while maintaining a constant water-cement ratio can
result in equal or reduced compressive strength, and can increase slump loss by a factor of two or
more. Water reducers decrease, increase, or have no effect on bleeding, depending on the chemical
composition of the admixture. A reduction of bleeding can result in finishing difficulties on flat
surfaces when rapid drying conditions are present. Water reducers can be modified to give varying
degrees of retardation while others do not significantly affect the setting time.
ASTM C 494 (AASHTO M 194) Type A, water reducers can have little effect on setting, while
Type D admixtures provide water reduction with retardation, and Type E admixtures provide water
reduction with accelerated setting. Type D water-reducing admixtures usually retard the setting time
of concrete by one to three hours. Some water-reducing admixtures may also entrain some air in
concrete. Lignin-based admixtures can increase air contents by 1 to 2 percentage points. Concretes
with water reducers generally have good air retention. The effectiveness of water reducers on concrete
is a function of their chemical composition, concrete temperature, cement composition and fineness,
cement content, and the presence of other admixtures.
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MID-RANGE WATER REDUCING ADMIXTURES

Mid-range water reducers were first introduced in 1984. These admixtures provide significant water
reduction (between 6 and 12%) for concretes with slumps of 125 to 200 mm (5 to 8 in.) without the
retardation associated with high dosages of conventional (normal) water reducers. Normal water
reducers are intended for concretes with slumps of 100 to 125 mm (4 to 5 in.). Mid-range water
reducers can be used to reduce stickiness and improve finish ability, pump ability, and place ability
of concretes containing silica fume and other supplementary cementing materials.
HIGH-RANGE WATER REDUCING ADMIXTURES

High-range water reducers, ASTM C 494 (AASHTO M 194) Types F (water reducing) and G (water
reducing and retarding), can be used to impart properties induced by regular water reducers, only
much more efficiently. They can greatly reduce water demand and cement contents and make low
water-cement ratio, high-strength concrete with normal or enhanced workability. A water reduction
of 12% to 30% can be obtained through the use of these admixtures. The reduced water content and
water-cement ratio can produce concretes with
Ultimate compressive strengths in excess of 70 MPa (10,000 psi)

Increased early strength gain
Reduced chloride-ion penetration
Other beneficial properties associated with low water-cement ratio concrete.
High-range water reducers are generally more effective than regular water-reducing admixtures in
producing workable concrete. A significant reduction of bleeding can result with large reductions of
water content; this can result in finishing difficulties on flat surfaces when rapid drying conditions
are present. Some of these admixtures can cause significant slump loss. Significant retardation is also
possible, but can aggravate plastic shrinkage cracking without proper protection and curing. Drying
shrinkage, chloride permeability, air retention and strength development of concretes with high-range
water reducers are comparable to concretes without them when compared at constant water-cement
ratios (reduced cement and water contents). Concretes with high-range water reducers can have larger
entrained air voids and higher void-spacing factors than normal air-entrained concrete. This would
generally indicate a reduced resistance to freezing and thawing; however, laboratory tests have shown
that concretes with a moderate slump using high-range water reducers have good freeze-thaw
durability, even with slightly higher void-spacing factors. This may be the result of lower watercement ratios often associated with these concretes. When the same chemicals used for high-range
water reducers are used to make flowing concrete, they are often called plasticizers or super
plasticizers.
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PLASTICIZERS FOR FLOWING CONCRETE

Plasticizers, often called super plasticizers, are essentially high-range water reducers meeting ASTM
C 1017; these admixtures are added to concrete with a low-to-normal slump and water-cement ratio
to make high-slump flowing concrete. Flowing concrete is a highly fluid but workable concrete that
can be placed with little or no vibration or compaction while still remaining essentially free of
excessive bleeding or segregation. Following are a few of the applications where flowing concrete is
used:
thin-section placements
Areas of closely spaced and congested reinforcing steel
Pumped concrete to reduce pump pressure, thereby increasing lift and distance capacity,
Areas where conventional consolidation methods are impractical or cannot be used
For reducing handling costs
The addition of a plasticizer to a 75-mm (3-in.) slump concrete can easily produce a
concrete with a 230-mm (9-in.) slump. Flowing concrete is defined by ASTM C 1017 as a concrete
having a slump greater than 190 mm (712 in.), yet maintaining cohesive properties. ASTM C 1017
has provisions for two types of admixtures:
Type 1plasticizing, and
Type 2plasticizing and retarding.
Plasticizers are generally more effective than regular or mid-range water-reducing admixtures in
producing flowing concrete. The effect of certain plasticizers in increasing workability or making
flowing concrete is short-lived, 30 to 60 minutes; this period is followed by a rapid loss in workability
or slump loss. High temperatures can also aggravate slump loss. Due to their propensity for slump
loss, these admixtures are sometimes added to the concrete mixer at the jobsite. They are available in
liquid and powder form. Extended-slump-life plasticizers added at the batch plant help reduce slumploss problems. Setting time may be accelerated or retarded based on the admixtures chemistry, dosage
rate, and interaction with other admixtures and cementing materials in the concrete mixture. Some
plasticizers can retard final set by one to almost four hours. Strength development of flowing concrete
is comparable to normal concrete. While it was previously noted that flowing concretes are essentially
free of excessive bleeding, tests have shown that some plasticized concretes bleed more than control
concretes of equal water-cement ratio; but plasticized concretes bleed significantly less than control
concretes of equally high slump and higher water content. High-slump, low-water-content, plasticized
concrete has less drying shrinkage than a high-slump, high-water- content conventional concrete;
however this concrete has similar or higher drying shrinkage than conventional low- slump, lowwater-content concrete. The effectiveness of the plasticizer is increased with an increasing amount of
cement and fines in the concrete. It is also affected by the initial slump of the concrete. Plasticized
flowing concrete can have larger entrained air voids and greater void-spacing factors than
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conventional concrete. Air loss can also be significant. Some research has indicated poor frost- and
deicer-scaling resistance for some flowing concretes when exposed to a continuously moist
environment without the benefit of a drying period.
RETARDING ADMIXTURES
Retarding admixtures are used to delay the rate of setting of concrete. High temperatures of fresh
concrete (30C [86F]) are often the cause of an increased rate of hardening that makes placing and
finishing difficult. One of the most practical methods of counteracting this effect is to reduce the
temperature of the concrete by cooling the mixing water and/or the aggregates. Retarders do not
decrease the initial temperature of concrete. The bleeding rate and bleeding capacity of concrete is
increased with Retarders. Retarding admixtures are useful in extending the setting time of concrete,
but they are often also used in attempts to decrease slump loss and extend workability, especially
prior to placement at elevated temperatures.
Retarders are sometimes used to:
Offset the accelerating effect of hot weather on the setting of concrete

Delay the initial set of concrete or grout when difficult or unusual conditions of placement
occur, such as placing concrete in large piers and foundations, cementing oil wells, or pumping
grout or concrete over considerable distances
Delay the set for special finishing techniques, such as an exposed aggregate surface.
The amount of water reduction for an ASTM C 494 (AASHTO M 194) Type B retarding
admixture is normally less than that obtained with a Type A water reducer. Type D
admixtures are designated to provide both water reduction and retardation. In general, some
reduction in strength at early ages (one to three days) accompanies the use of retarders. The
effects of these materials on the other properties of concrete, such as shrinkage, may not be
predictable. Therefore, acceptance tests of retarders should be made with actual job materials
under anticipated job conditions.
HYDRATION-CONTROL ADMIXTURES
Hydration controlling admixtures became available in the late 1980s. They consist of a two-part
chemical system:
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A stabilizer or retarder that essentially stops the hydration of cementing materials

An activator that reestablishes normal hydration and setting when added to the stabilized
concrete. The stabilizer can suspend hydration for 72 hours and the activator is added to the
mixture just before the concrete is used. These admixtures make it possible to reuse concrete
returned in a ready-mix truck by suspending setting overnight. The admixture is also useful
in maintaining concrete in a stabilized non-hardened state during long hauls. The concrete is
reactivated when it arrives at the project.
ACCELERATING ADMIXTURES
An accelerating admixture is used to accelerate the rate of hydration (setting) and strength
development of concrete at an early age. The strength development of concrete can also be accelerated
by other methods:
Using Type III or Type HE high-early-strength cement
Lowering the water-cement ratio by adding 60 to 120 kg/m3 (100 to 200 lb./yd3) of additional
cement to the concrete
Using a water reducer
Curing at higher temperatures
Accelerators are designated as Type C admixtures under ASTM C 494 (AASHTO M 194). Calcium
chloride (CaCl2) is the chemical most commonly used in accelerating admixtures, especially for nonreinforced concrete. It should conform to the requirements of ASTM D 98 (AASHTO M 144) and
should be sampled and tested in accordance with ASTM D 345. The widespread use of calcium
chloride as an accelerating admixtures has provided much data and experience on the effect of this
chemical on the properties of concrete. Besides accelerating strength gain, calcium chloride causes
an increase in drying shrinkage, potential reinforcement corrosion, discoloration (a darkening of
concrete), and an increase in the potential for scaling. Calcium chloride is not an antifreeze agent.
When used in allowable amounts, it will not reduce the freezing point of concrete by more than a few
degrees. Undissolved lumps in the mix can cause pop outs or dark spots in hardened concrete. The
amount of calcium chloride added to concrete should be no more than is necessary to produce the desired results and in no case exceed 2% by mass of cementing material. When calculating the chloride
content of commercially available calcium chloride, it can be assumed that:
Regular flake contains a minimum of 77% CaCl2
Concentrated flake, pellet, or granular forms contain a minimum of 94% CaCl2
An overdose can result in placement problems and can be detrimental to concrete. It may cause: Rapid
stiffening, a large increase in drying shrinkage, corrosion of reinforcement, and loss of strength at
later ages.
Applications where calcium chloride should be used with caution:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Concrete subjected to steam curing

Concrete containing embedded dissimilar metals, especially if electrically connected to steel
reinforcement
Concrete slabs supported on permanent galvanized- steel forms
Colored concrete Calcium chloride or admixtures containing soluble chlorides should not be
used in the following:
Construction of parking garages
Pre stressed concrete because of possible steel corrosion hazards
Concrete containing embedded aluminum (for example, conduit) since serious corrosion of
the aluminum can result, especially if the aluminum is in contact with embedded steel and the
concrete is in a humid environment
Concrete containing aggregates that, under standard test conditions, have been shown to be
potentially deleteriously reactive
Concrete exposed to soil or water containing sulfates
Floor slabs intended to receive dry-shake metallic finishes
Hot weather generally
CORROSION INHIBITORS
Corrosion inhibitors are used in concrete for parking structures, marine structures, and bridges where
chloride salts are present. The chlorides can cause corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete.
Ferrous oxide and ferric oxide form on the surface of reinforcing steel in concrete. Ferrous oxide,
though stable in concretes alkaline environment, reacts with chlorides to form complexes that move
away from the steel to form rust. The chloride ions continue to attack the steel until the passivizing
oxide layer is destroyed. Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures chemically arrest the corrosion reaction.
Commercially available corrosion inhibitors include: calcium nitrite, sodium nitrite, dimethyl
ethanolamine, amines, phosphates, and ester amines. Anodic inhibitors, such as nitrites, block the
corrosion reaction of the chloride-ions by chemically reinforcing and stabilizing the passive protective
film on the steel; this ferric oxide film is created by the high pH environment in concrete. The nitriteions cause the ferric oxide to become more stable. In effect, the chloride-ions are prevented from
penetrating the passive film and making contact with the steel. A certain amount of nitrite can stop
corrosion up to some level of chloride-ion. Therefore, increased chloride levels require increased
levels of nitrite to stop corrosion. Cathodic inhibitors react with the steel surface to interfere with the
reduction of oxygen. The reduction of oxygen is the principal cathodic reaction in alkaline
environments.
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SHRINKAGE-REDUCING ADMIXTURES
Shrinkage-reducing admixtures, introduced in the 1980s, have potential uses in bridge decks, critical
floor slabs, and buildings where cracks and curling must be minimized for durability or aesthetic
reasons. Propylene glycol and polyoxy alkaline, alkyl ether have been used as shrinkage reducers.
Drying shrinkage reductions of between 25% and 50% have been demonstrated in laboratory tests.
These admixtures have negligible effects on slump and air loss, but can delay setting. They are
generally compatible with other admixtures.
COLORING ADMIXTURES (PIGMENTS)

Natural and synthetic materials are used to color concrete for aesthetic and safety reasons. Red
concrete is used around buried electrical or gas lines as a warning to anyone near these facilities.
Yellow concrete safety curbs are used in paving applications. Generally, the amount of pigments used
in concrete should not exceed 10% by weight of the cement. Pigments used in amounts less than 6%
generally do not affect concrete properties. Unmodified carbon black substantially reduces air
content. Most carbon black for coloring concrete contains an admixture to offset this effect on air.
Before a coloring admixture is used on a project, it should be tested for color fastness in sunlight and
autoclaving, chemical stability in cement, and effects on concrete properties. Calcium chloride should
not be used with pigments to avoid color distortions.
DAMPPROOFING ADMIXTURES
The passage of water through concrete can usually be traced to the existence of cracks or areas of
incomplete consolidation. Sound, dense concrete made with a water- cement ratio of less than 0.50
by mass will be watertight if it is properly placed and cured. Admixtures known as damp proofing
agents include certain soaps, stearates, and petroleum products. They may, but generally do not,
reduce the permeability of concretes that have low cement contents, high water- cement ratios, or a
deficiency of fines in the aggregate. Their use in well-proportioned mixes may increase the mixing
water required and actually result in increased rather than reduced permeability. Damp proofing
admixtures are sometimes used to reduce the transmission of moisture through concrete that is in
contact with water or damp earth. Many so-called damp proofers are not effective, especially when
used in concretes that are in contact with water under pressure.
PERMEABILITY-REDUCING ADMIXTURES
Permeability-reducing admixtures reduce the rate at which water under pressure is transmitted
through concrete. One of the best methods of decreasing permeability in concrete is to increase the
moist-curing period and reduce the water-cement ratio to less than 0.5. Most admixtures that reduce
water-cement ratio consequently reduce permeability. Some supplementary cementing materials,
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especially silica fume, reduce permeability through the hydration and pozzolonic-reaction process.
Other admixtures that act to block the capillaries in concrete have been shown to be effective in
reducing concrete corrosion in chemically aggressive environments. Such admixtures, designed for
use in high-cement content/low-water-cement ratio concretes, contain aliphatic fatty acid and an
aqueous emulsion of polymeric and aromatic globules.
PUMPING AIDS
Pumping aids are added to concrete mixtures to improve pumpability. Pumping aids cannot cure all
unpumpable concrete problems; they are best used to make marginally pumpable concrete more
pumpable. These admixtures increase viscosity or cohesion in concrete to reduce dewatering of the
paste while under pressure from the pump. Some pumping aids may increase water demand, reduce
compressive strength, cause air entrainment, or retard setting time. These side effects can be corrected
by adjusting the mix proportions or adding another admixture to offset the side effect. Some
admixtures that serve other primary purposes but also improve pump ability are air- entraining agents,
and some water-reducing and retarding admixtures.
BONDING ADMIXTURES AND BONDING AGENTS

Bonding admixtures are usually water emulsions of organic materials including rubber, polyvinyl
chloride, polyvinyl acetate, acrylics, styrene butadiene copolymers, and other polymers. They are
added to Portland cement mixtures to increase the bond strength between old and new concrete.
Flexural strength and resistance to chloride-ion ingress are also improved. They are added in
proportions equivalent to 5% to 20% by mass of the cementing materials; the actual quantity
depending on job conditions and type of admixture used. Some bonding admixtures may increase the
air content of mixtures. Non reemulsifiable types are resistant to water, better suited to exterior
application, and used in places where moisture is present. The ultimate result obtained with a bonding
admixture will be only as good as the surface to which the concrete is applied. The surface must be
dry, clean, sound, free of dirt, dust, paint, and grease, and at the proper temperature. Organic or
polymer modified concretes are acceptable for patching and thin-bonded over layment, particularly
where feather-edged patches are desired. Bonding agents should not be confused with bonding
admixtures. Admixtures are an ingredient in the concrete; bonding agents are applied to existing
concrete surfaces immediately before the new concrete is placed. Bonding agents help glue the
existing and the new materials together. Bonding agents are often used in restoration and repair work;
they consist of Portland cement or latex- modified Portland cement grout or polymers such as epoxy
resins.
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GROUTING ADMIXTURES
Portland cement grouts are used for a variety of purposes: to stabilize foundations, set machine bases,
fill cracks and joints in concrete work, cement oil wells, fill cores of masonry walls, grout prestressing tendons and anchor bolts, and fill the voids in pre-placed aggregate concrete. To alter the
properties of grout for specific applications, various air-entraining admixtures, accelerators, retarders,
and non-shrink admixtures are often used.
GAS-FORMING ADMIXTURES
Aluminum powder and other gas-forming materials are sometimes added to concrete and grout in
very small quantities to cause a slight expansion of the mixture prior to hardening. This may be of
benefit where the complete grouting of a confined space is essential, such as under machine bases or
in post-tensioning ducts of pre-stressed concrete. These materials are also used in larger quantities to
produce autoclaved cellular concretes. The amount of expansion that occurs is dependent upon the
amount of gas-forming material used, the temperature of the fresh mixture, the alkali content of the
cement, and other variables. Where the amount of expansion is critical, careful control of mixtures
and temperatures must be exercised. Gas-forming agents will not overcome shrinkage after hardening
caused by drying or carbonation.
AIR DETRAINERS
Air-detraining admixtures reduce the air content in concrete. They are used when the air content
cannot be reduced by adjusting the mix proportions or by changing the dosage of the air-entraining
agent and other admixtures. However, air-entrainers are rarely used and their effectiveness and dosage
rate should be established on trial mixes prior to use on actual job mixes.
ANTIWASHOUT ADMIXTURES
Anti-washout admixtures increase the cohesiveness of concrete to a level that allows limited exposure
to water with little loss of cement. This allows placement of concrete in water and under water without
the use of tremies. The admixtures increase the viscosity of water in the mixture resulting in a mix
with increased thixotropy and resistance to segregation. They usually consist of water soluble
cellulose ether or acrylic polymers.
COMPATIBILITY OF ADMIXTURES AND CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS

Fresh concrete problems of varying severity are encountered due to cement-admixture incompatibility
and incompatibility between admixtures. Incompatibility between supplementary cementing
materials and admixtures or cements can also occur. Slump loss, air loss, early stiffening, and other
factors affecting fresh concrete properties can result from incompatibilities. While these problems
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primarily affect the plastic-state performance of concrete, long-term hardened concrete performance
may also be adversely affected. For example, early stiffening can cause difficulties with consolidation
of concrete, therefore compromising strength. Reliable test methods are not available to adequately
address incompatibility issues due to variations in materials, mixing equipment, mixing time, and
environmental factors. Tests run in a laboratory do not reflect the conditions experienced by concrete
in the field. When incompatibility is discovered in the field, a common solution is to simply change
admixtures or cementing materials.
STORING AND DISPENSING CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES

Liquid admixtures can be stored in barrels or bulk tankers. Powdered admixtures can be placed in
special storage bins and some are available in pre-measured plastic bags. Admixtures added to a truck
mixer at the jobsite are often in plastic jugs or bags. Powdered admixtures, such as certain plasticizers,
or a barrel of admixture may be stored at the project site. Dispenser tanks at concrete plants should
be properly labeled for specific admixtures to avoid contamination and avoid dosing the wrong
admixture. Most liquid chemical admixtures should not be allowed to freeze; therefore, they should
be stored in heated environments. Consult the admixture manufacturer for proper storage
temperatures. Powdered admixtures are usually less sensitive to temperature restrictions, but may be
sensitive to moisture. Liquid chemical admixtures are usually dispensed individually in the bath water
by volumetric means. Liquid and powdered admixtures can be measured by mass, but powdered
admixtures should not be measured by volume. Care should be taken to not combine certain
admixtures prior to their dispensing into the batch as some combinations may neutralize the desired
effect of the admixtures.
1.5 LUMBER:
INTRODUCTION:
Lumber or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in
the process of wood production.
There are two general categories of lumber:
Hardwoods and
Softwoods.
Hardwood lumber is made from deciduous trees, whereas
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Softwood lumber is made from coniferous trees. Lumber grade is typically

determined by the surface of the wood and the number of knots present.
Lumber Grades:
Utility:
The roughest grade, utility grade lumber is affordable and can be used for rough
framing.
Standard (construction)
Standard lumber is strong but still rough, and can be used for general framing.
No. 3 Common
Knots in No. 3 Common lumber can be loose, and the surface of the wood is still
marred, as with standard and utility grades.
No. 2 Common
No. 2 Common lumber has a much smoother surface with tighter knots. This type of
lumber is a good choice for shelving.
Select or Select Structural Lumber:
This kind of lumber is extremely high-quality, and is divided into grades 1-3 and A-D.
Lower grades are distinguishable because they have more knots.
Clear Lumber:
Clear lumber has a clear surface, meaning there are no knots.
TYPES OF LUMBER
In addition to the grades discussed above, lumber is available in several pre-cut
configurations for specific applications. (Note: All sizes given in feet.)
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Furring Lumber:
Furring lumber is used as trim in drywall and paneling applications, as well as for trim
and edging. It is rough wood with small dimensions, so it can easily fit into smaller
spaces. Furring lumber is available in sizes such as 1x2 and 1x3.
Finished Lumber:
This type of wood, like furring, is appropriate for paneling and trim but can also be
used for siding, decking, and furniture. The lumber is smooth and finished, giving it
greater aesthetic appeal, and is available in a wider range of sizes: 1x4, 1x6, 1x8, 1x10,
and 1x12.
Tongue and Groove Lumber:
Tongue and groove lumber is designed to fit snuggly togethertongue planks fit into
groove planks corresponding slots. Applications for this kind of lumber include
paneling, siding, decorative treatments, and flooring and subflooring. Sizes include
1x4, 1x6, and 1x8.
Shiplap Lumber:
Much like tongue and groove, shiplap is designed to fit together. The configuration,
however, is different, with each plank featuring an edge that either fits under or on top
of a neighboring planks edge. Sizes include 1x4, 1x6, and 1x8.
Glue Laminate
Achieved by layering dimensional lumber (flat) and laminating until they cohere into
one functional piece, glue laminate is a common choice for rafters, beams, and joists.
Sizes include 4x10, 4x12, 6x10, and 6x12.
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Micro-laminate
Made in a similar fashion as glue laminate, micro-laminate consists of individual pieces
of veneer joined together. Typical applications are also the same as for glue laminate.
Standard micro-laminate size is 4x12.
Wood framework construction:
Solid wood and various wood-based products are used for framing, insulating and
finishing.
Framing Lumber:
Framing lumber, also known as structural wood, is the grade of wood used for house
framing (studs, headers, roof trusses and floor joists, etc.). Its technical characteristics
make it perfectly suitable when large spans are necessary. The list below outlines the
different families of framing lumber.
Standard SPF (spruce-pine-fir) lumber Softwood lumber
Light structural lumber is mainly used in residential construction. It is milled
from softwood trees (spruce, fir and pine) that are sawn and machine-planed to
standard dimensions (2x4", 2x6", 2x8", etc.). Wood as a framing material is
advantageous in that it doesn't undergo much transformation during processing,
it has a low embodied energy, it's a renewable resource and it stores carbon.
Heavy timber refers to any dimensional lumber over 4.5" and is often used for
post-and-beam construction. Large dimensions of wood can support heavy loads
and facilitate long spans, in addition to being extremely fire resistant.
Finger-jointed lumber (also known as end-jointed and end-glued) is
manufactured using short, dry pieces of wood that have been machined on each
end and joined using a water repellent structural adhesive. This technique is
ecologically beneficial, as it makes use of short pieces of wood to create a
finished product that is larger, more stable and easier to align.
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ENGINEERED WOOD:
Engineered wood requires more processing than standard wood. As may be expected,
engineered wood is more expensive than the types described above, and has a higher
embodied energy given that it undergoes multiple transformations. Even so, it has
many technical and ecological advantages: it can be very strong and facilitate large
spans without requiring large trees. Wiring with open web joists
It also makes use of short pieces of wood that might otherwise be heading for a landfill,
so as soon as you need something larger than 2x8", opt for engineered wood whenever
possible.
In many cases, the added cost you may incur from choosing engineered wood will be
recouped through significant labor savings. Engineered framing materials are straight
and consistent - compare this to a 2x8" or 2x10" which in any given pile may have
discrepancies of 3/8" or more from the largest to the smallest. In order to build a straight
floor for example, some pieces will need to be shimmed and others will need to be
shaved, and that takes a lot of time.
Wiring with solid floor joists:
If you didn't get your money back from a quicker installation of open-web floor joists,
you certainly will when your electrician and plumber easily pass wires and pipes
through existing openings rather than drilling a thousand holes through solid floor joists
(see images to the right).
Here are the different types of engineered wood products and their main characteristics.
Cross-laminated wood:
Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is manufactured using many sheets of wood stacked on
top of each other and then glued together. Each layer is oriented crosswise to the next,
which makes for extremely stable and strong panels. Having established itself on the
European market over the past twenty years, CLT has only recently become available
in North America. This type of wood has excellent thermal and acoustic properties, is
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highly resistant to fire, and provides exceptional structural strength. CLT can be used
to build load-bearing walls, floors and roofs. To date, it has mainly been used in
residential construction, but tall wood buildings (between 5 and 10 stories) are now
starting to pop up all over the world.
OSB sheathing:
OSB (Oriented Strand Board), also known as Aspenite, is a panel fabricated using small
strips of wood. OSB is not as strong as plywood, or as resistant to weather. It is most
often used as exterior sheathing, as well as being the center web of engineered wooden
I-Joists. OSB makes use of small pieces of waste wood and is bonded using a phenol
formaldehyde, a far less toxic substitute for the urea formaldehyde of days past. All
that to say, it certainly won't improve the air quality of your home, but it is generally
not thought to be too great a health hazard.
Birch plywood
Plywood is used for different structural elements such as studs in load-bearing walls,
partitions, floor beams and roof supports. Plywood is most commonly found as a 4 x 8'
panel that is made from thin sheets of wood veneer that are bonded together using
phenol formaldehyde glues. It is assembled with the grain of each layer running in the
opposite direction of the previous one, making a very stable and strong final product
that is highly resistant to cracking, twisting and shrinkage. Plywood is commonly used
on residential construction sites as a flooring substrate, exterior wall and roof
sheathing, as well as certain interior finishing applications and furniture.
Engineered wood is at greater risk of moisture damage, learn more here.
Interior finishing wood
Furniture:
Regardless of the type of wood that is used, your furniture should ideally be free of
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including formaldehyde, to protect your indoor
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air quality. For finishing and maintenance - again to protect your air quality - look for
either low or zero VOC paints and finishes.
1.6 Adhesives:
INTRODUCTION:
An adhesive is any substance applied to the surfaces of materials that binds them together and resists
separation. The term "adhesive" may be used interchangeably with glue, cement, mucilage, or paste.
Adjectives may be used in conjunction with the word adhesive to describe properties based on the
substance's physical or chemical form, the type of materials joined, or conditions under which it is
applied.
The use of adhesives offers many advantages over binding techniques such as sewing, mechanical
fastening, thermal bonding, etc. These include the ability to bind different materials together, to
distribute stress more efficiently across the joint, the cost effectiveness of an easily mechanized
process, an improvement in aesthetic design, and increased design flexibility. Disadvantages of
adhesive use include decreased stability at high temperatures, relative weakness in bonding large
objects with a small bonding surface area, and greater difficulty in separating objects during testing.
Adhesives are typically organized by the method of adhesion. These are then organized into reactive
and non-reactive adhesives, which refers to if the adhesive chemically reacts to harden. Alternatively
they can be organized by whether the raw stock is of natural, or synthetic origin, or by their starting
physical phase.
ADVANTAGES OF ADHESIVE:
The adhesives materials allows joint substrates with different geometries, sizes and
composition. With the adhesive we can joint glass, plastics, metals, ceramics etc.
The use of adhesives eliminates the corrosion associated with dissimilar metals joining with
different galvanic potential, such as the joining of steel with aluminum.
The use of adhesive as bonding material does not produce any deformation in the materials or
substrates, eliminating metal grinding processes (grinding and putty), reducing the
manufacturing cost and improving the aesthetics of the product.
Great flexibility in the product design as well as an improvement in its aesthetics.
Reduction of the product weight, in the case of traction vehicles (cars, ships, locomotives ....)
weight reduction is directly linked to reducing energy consumption and pollutant emissions
to the environment.
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Increasing the resistance to impact and fatigue resistance using elastic adhesive, increasing
reliability and product life cycle.
Sealing function and protection against corrosion.
DISADVANTAGES:
Time to cure - The final strength of the adhesive bond is not obtained immediately, unlike
the case with a rivet or a screw, you must wait a time to solidify or cure the adhesive, this time
depends on the choice of adhesive to be used, and also sometimes it depends on the
environmental conditions that make the bonding process. If you want to reduce this waiting
time you can use a chemical booster compatible with the adhesive.
Resistance to temperature - Adhesives are polymer-based materials, for this reason the
adhesives and glues have an average resistance to temperature, adhesives silicone-based are
more resistant to temperature adhesives, that kind of glues can withstand temperatures
reaching point of 800 C.
Ageing - The long-term strength of adhesive bonding is affected by various physical and
chemical actions which are in the environment, actions such as ultraviolet light, chemical
attacks on the environment, and the presence of moisture. There are adhesives that are not
altered against ultraviolet light while others break down in front of this radiation. The solution
to this problem is to select an adhesive according to the environmental conditions in later
work; this will allow us to perform a series of accelerated aging tests in order to observe the
goodness of the adhesive bond.
Surface Preparation - As in the process of painting, surface preparation required prior to
adhesive application process in order to achieve good adhesion between the adhesive and the
substrate. Surface preparation that will vary depending on the materials to be bonded, the
adhesive selected and technical requirements needed to fulfill the adhesive bond.
Removal or disassembly - As in the welding or rivet process, the process of disassembly
adhesive bonds can destroy or distort the substrates joint together, being an expensive process
to do, this does not happen when using techniques such as bolting, is so that those unions that
require disassembly during maintenance work during the life of the product, must perform
techniques that allow easy disassembly and assembly, such as using screws, Velcro, etc...
Safety and Environment - Due the basis of the adhesives are chemical compounds, it is
necessary to define the necessary actions to prevent human exposure to these products during
the time of application, these measures will depend on the application amount and the type of
the adhesive, glue or sealant used. Also you must properly manage the waste generated during
the application process for further treatment and recycling.
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TYPES OF ADHESIVES:
There are a large number of adhesive types for various applications. They may be classified in a
variety of ways depending on their chemistries (e.g. epoxies, polyurethanes, polyimides), their form
(e.g. paste, liquid, film, pellets, tape), their type (e.g. hot melt, reactive hot melt, thermosetting,
pressure sensitive, contact, etc.), or their load carrying capability (structural, semi-structural, or nonstructural).
Structural adhesives:
They refer to relatively strong adhesives that are normally used well below their glass transition
temperature, an important property for polymeric materials, above which polymers are rubbery and
below which they are glassy. Common examples of structural adhesives include epoxies,
cyanoacrylates, and certain urethanes and acrylic adhesives. Such adhesives can carry significant
stresses, and lend themselves to structural applications.
For many engineering applications, semi-structural (applications where failure would be less critical)
and non-structural (applications of facades, etc. for aesthetic purposes) are also of significant interest
to the design engineer, and provide cost-effective means required for assembly of finished products.
These include contact adhesives where a solution or emulsion containing an elastomeric adhesive is
coated onto both adherents, the solvent is allowed to evaporate, and then the two adherents are brought
into contact. Examples include rubber cement and adhesives used to bond laminates to countertops.
Pressure sensitive adhesives:

They are very low modulus elastomers which deform easily under small pressures, permitting them
to wet surfaces. When the substrate and adhesive are brought into intimate contact, van der Waals
forces are sufficient to maintain the contact and can provide relatively durable bonds for lightly loaded
applications. Pressure sensitive adhesives are normally purchased as tapes or labels for non-structural
applications, although can also come as double-sided foam tapes which can be used in semi-structural
applications. As the name implies, hot melts become liquid when heated, wetting the surfaces and
then cooling into a solid polymer. These materials are increasing used in a wide array of engineering
applications using more sophisticated versions of the glue guns widely used by consumers.
.Adhesives may be applied in a variety of ways depending on the form it comes in. Adhesives may
be spread on a surface manually, or may be dispensed using a variety of sophisticated nozzles and
robotic equipment that is currently available. Maintaining adherent cleanliness, providing proper jigs
and fixturing during cure, and providing adequate cure conditions may all be important considerations
for certain types of adhesives.
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Drying adhesives:
There are two types of adhesives that harden by drying:
Solvent based adhesives and
Polymer dispersion adhesives, also known as emulsion adhesives.
Solvent based adhesives are a mixture of ingredients (typically polymers) dissolved in a

solvent. White glue, contact adhesives and rubber cements are members of the drying adhesive
family. As the solvent evaporates, the adhesive hardens. Depending on the chemical
composition of the adhesive, they will adhere to different materials to greater or lesser degrees.
Polymer dispersion adhesives are milky-white dispersions often based on polyvinyl acetate
(PVAc). They are used extensively in the woodworking and packaging industries; also used
with fabrics and fabric-based components, and in engineered products such as loudspeaker
cones.
NATURAL ADHESIVES:
Natural adhesives are made from organic sources such as vegetable starch (dextrin), natural resins, or
animals (e.g. the milk protein casein and hide-based animal glues). These are often referred to as bio
adhesives.
1.7 Paints:
INTRODUCTION:
Paints are fluids that are applied on a surface to form a hard continuous film on it for protection or
decoration.
Wooden and metallic articles are coated with paints to decorate them as well as to protect from
corrosion or rusting
COMPOSITION OF PAINTS:
Paints are usually composed of three components.
1. Pigments
2. Binders
3. Volatile Solvent.
To make a paint, a suitable solvent is used in which both the binder and the pigment are
dissolved.
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1. PIGMENTS
The pigment of paint gives it color, it also gives hardness and bulk. Common pigments are titanium
dioxide - TiO2 (white), Iron oxide - Fe2O3 (brown or red), Carbon Black - C (black), Chrome Yellow
- PbCrO4 (yellow) and organic dyes of various colors.
2. BINDERS
The binder or vehicle is the part of the paint that carries the pigment particles and hold the entire film
of the paint on the surface. Generally some plant oils such as linseed oil, natural and synthetic resin
(liquid plastics) are used as binders.
3. VOLATILE SOLVENTS
To make paint a suitable solvent is selected in which both the pigment and binder are dissolved. The
solvent evaporates after the paint is applied. Solvent does not affect the quality of dry paint.
Commonly, water or turpentine is used as solvent.
CLASSIFICATION OF PAINTS:
On the basis of nature of solvent, the paints are classified into the following two classes.
1. Oil Based Paints
2. Water Based Paints
Oil Based Paints:

In these paints turpentine is used as solvent. Turpentine is a liquid mixture of hydrocarbon that is
obtained from pine trees.
Water Based Paints:

In these paints, water is used as solvent. Both binders and pigments form a suspension in water
Failure of a paint:
The main reasons of paint failure after application on surface are the applicator and improper
Application
Defects
can
be
attributed
to:
Dilution:
This usually occurs when the dilution of the paint is not done as per manufacturers recommendation.
There can be a case of over dilution and under dilution, as well as dilution with the incorrect diluent.
Contamination:
Foreign contaminants added without the manufacturers consent can cause various film defects.
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Peeling/Blistering:
Most commonly due to improper surface treatment before application and inherent
moisture/dampness
being
present
in
the
substrate.
Chalking:
Chalking is the progressive powdering of the paint film on the painted surface. The primary reason
for the problem is polymer degradation of the paint matrix due to exposure of UV
radiation in sunshine and condensation from dew. The degree of chalking varies as epoxies react
quickly while acrylics and polyurethanes can remain unchanged for long periods. The degree of
chalking can be assessed according to International Standard ISO 4628 Part 6 or 7 or American
Society of Testing and Materials(ASTM) Method D4214 (Standard Test Methods for Evaluating the
Degree
of
Chalking
of
Exterior
Paint
Films).
Cracking:
Cracking of paint film is due to the unequal expansion or contraction of paint coats. It usually happens
when the coats of the paint are not allowed to cure/dry completely before the next coat is applied. The
degree of cracking can be assessed according to International Standard ISO 4628 Part 4 or ASTM
Method D661 (Standard Test Method for Evaluating Degree of Cracking of Exterior Paints).
Erosion:
Erosion is very quick chalking. It occurs due to external agents like air, water etc. It can be evaluated
using ASTM Method ASTM D662 (Standard Test Method for Evaluating Degree of Erosion of
Exterior.Paints).
Blistering:
Blistering is due to improper surface exposure of paint to strong sunshine. The degree of blistering
can be assessed according to ISO 4628 Part 2 or ASTM Method D714 (Standard Test Method for
Evaluating Degree of Blistering of Paints).
VARNISHES:
Varnish is a mixture of resin, volatile organic solvents and drying oils. To prepare Varnish such as
resin (plastic in liquid state) is dissolved in volatile organic solvents, such as ether or alcohol and then
drying
oil
such
as
linseed
oil
is
added
to
it.
The drying oils such as linseed oil consist of esters of highly unsaturated acids containing two or more
double bonds. When exposed to air, these oils absorb oxygen and form hard and tough film. The film
is
insoluble
in
water.
When a Varnish is applied to the surface, the volatile organic solvents evaporate quickly and the
drying oil absorbs oxygen and a hard tough glossy film is obtained. The glossy appearance of the film
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is due to the presence of resin. Varnish differ from paints in such a manner that, it does not has any
added pigment.
COMPONENTS OF CLASSIC VARNISH:

Drying oil
There are many different types of drying oils, including linseed oil, Tung oil, and walnut oil. These
contain high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Resin
Resins that are used in varnishes include amber, kauri gum, dammar, copal, rosin (pine
resin), sandarac, balsam, elemi, mastic, and others. Shellac is also a resin. In the 1900s in Canada,
resins from local trees were used to finish pianos. As a result these now antique pianos are considered
difficult to refinish. However, shellac can be used over the existing resins provided sufficient time is
allowed for thin coats to cure. Thus the original finish can be returned to its original lustre while
preserving the color and age-related crackle.
Solvent (traditionally turpentine):

Traditionally, natural (organic) turpentine was used as the thinner or solvent, but has been replaced
by several mineral-based turpentine substitutes such as white spirit or "paint thinner", also known as
"mineral spirit".
TYPES OF VARNISHES:
Violin:
Violin varnishing is a multi-step process involving some or all of the following: primer, sealer,
ground, color coats, and clear topcoat. Some systems use a drying oil varnish as described below,
while others use spirit (or solvent) varnish. Touchup in repair or restoration is only done with spirit
varnish.
Drying oil such as walnut oil or linseed oil may be used in combination with amber, copal, rosin or
other resins. Traditionally the oil is prepared by cooking or exposure to air and sunlight, but modern
"stand oil" is prepared by heating oil at high temperature without oxygen. The refined resin is
sometimes available as a translucent solid and is then "run" by cooking or literally melting it in a pot
over heat without solvents. The thickened oil and prepared resin are then cooked together and thinned
with turpentine (away from open flame) into a brushable solution. The ingredients and processes of
violin varnish are very diverse, with some highly regarded old examples showing defects (e.g.
cracking, crazing) associated with incompatible varnish components.
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Some violin finishing systems use vernice bianca (egg white and gum arabic) as a sealer or ground.
There is also evidence that finely powdered minerals, possibly volcanic ash, were used in some
grounds. Some violins made in the late 18th century used oxen's blood to create a very deep-red
coloration. Today this varnish would have faded and currently be a very warm, dark orange.
RESIN:
Most resin or "gum" varnishes consist of a natural, plant- or insect-derived substance dissolved in a
solvent, called spirit varnish or solvent varnish. The solvent may be alcohol, turpentine,
or petroleum-based. Some resins are soluble in both alcohol and turpentine. Generally, petroleum
solvents, i.e. mineral spirits or paint thinner, can substitute for turpentine. The resins
include amber, dammar, copal, rosin, sandarac, elemi, benzoin, mastic, balsam, shellac, and a
multitude of lacquers.
Synthetic resins such as phenolic resin may be employed as a secondary component in certain
varnishes and paints.
Over centuries, many recipes were developed which involved the combination of resins, oils, and
other ingredients such as certain waxes. These were believed to impart special tonal qualities to
musical instruments and thus were sometimes carefully guarded secrets. The interaction of different
ingredients is difficult to predict or reproduce, so expert finishers were often prized professionals.
SHELLAC
Shellac is a very widely used single-component resin varnish that is alcohol-soluble. It is not used for
outdoor surfaces or where it will come into repeated contact with water, such as around a sink or
bathtub. The source of shellac resin is a brittle or flaky secretion of the female lac insect, Kerria
lacca, found in the forests of Assam and Thailand and harvested from the bark of the trees where she
deposits it to provide a sticky hold on the trunk. Shellac is the basis of French polish, which for
centuries has been the preferred finish for fine furniture. Specified "dewaxed" shellac has been
processed to remove the waxy substances from original shellac and can be used as a primer and
sanding-sealer substrate for other finishes such as polyurethanes, alkyds, oils, and acrylics.
Prepared shellac is typically available in "clear" and "amber" (or "orange") varieties, generally as
"three-pound cut" or three pounds dry shellac to one US gallon of alcohol. Other natural color shades
such as ruby and yellow are available from specialty pigment or woodworker's supply outlets. Dry
shellac is available as refined flakes, "sticklac," "button lac," or "seedlac." "White pigmented" shellac
primer paint is widely available in retail outlets, billed as a fast-drying interior primer "problem
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solver", in that it adheres to a variety of surfaces and seals off odors and smoke stains. Shellac cleanup may be done either with pure alcohol or with ammonia cleansers.
ALKYDS:
Typically, modern commercially produced varnishes employ some form of alkyd for producing a
protective film. Alkyds are chemically modified vegetable oils which operate well in a wide range of
conditions and can be engineered to speed up the cure rate and thus harden faster. Better (and more
expensive) exterior varnishes employ alkyds made from high performance oils and contain UVabsorbers; this improves gloss-retention and extends the lifetime of the finish. Various resins may
also be combined with alkyds as part of the formula for typical "oil" varnishes that are commercially
available.
SPAR VARNISH:
Spar varnish was originally intended for use on ship or boat spars, to protect the timber from the
effects of sea and weather. Spars bend under the load of their sails. The primary requirements were
water resistance and also elasticity, so as to remain adhering as the spars flexed. Elasticity was a precondition for weatherproofing too, as a finish that cracked would then allow water through, even if
the remaining film was impermeable. Appearance and gloss was of relatively low value.
Modified Tung oil and phenolic resins are often used.
When first developed, no varnishes had good UV-resistance. Even after more modern synthetic resins
did become resistant, a true spar varnish maintained its elasticity above other virtues, even if this
required a compromise in its UV-resistance. Spar varnishes are thus not necessarily the best choice
for outdoor woodwork which does not need to bend in service.
Despite this, the widespread perception of "marine products" as "tough" led to domestic outdoor
varnishes being branded as "Spar varnish" and sold on the virtue of their weather- and UV-resistance.
These claims may be more or less realistic, depending on individual products. Only relatively recently
have spar varnishes been available that can offer both effective elasticity and UV-resistance.
DRYING OILS:
By definition, drying oils, such as linseed and Tung oil, are not true varnishes though often in modern
terms they accomplish the same thing. Drying oils cure through an exothermic reaction between the
polyunsaturated portion of the oil and oxygen from the air. Originally, the term "varnish" referred to
finishes that were made entirely of resin dissolved in suitable solvents, either ethanol (alcohol) or
turpentine. The advantage to finishes in previous centuries was that resin varnishes had a very rapid
cure rate compared to oils; in most cases they are cured practically as soon as the solvent has fully
evaporated. By contrast, untreated or "raw" oils may take weeks or months to cure, depending on
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ambient temperature and other environmental factors. In modern terms, "boiled" or

partially polymerized drying oils with added siccative or dryers (chemical catalysts) have cure times
of less than 24 hours. However, certain non-toxic by-products of the curing process are emitted from
the oil film even after it is dry to the touch and over a considerable period of time. It has long been a
tradition to combine drying oils with resins to obtain favorable features of both substances.
POLYURETHANE:
Polyurethane varnishes are typically hard, abrasion-resistant, and durable coatings. They are popular
for hardwood floors but are considered by some wood finishers to be difficult or unsuitable for
finishing furniture or other detailed pieces. Polyurethanes are comparable in hardness to certain
alkyds but generally form a tougher film. Compared to simple oil or shellac varnishes, polyurethane
varnish forms a harder, decidedly tougher and more waterproof film. However, a thick film of
ordinary polyurethane may de-laminate if subjected to heat or shock, fracturing the film and leaving
white patches. This tendency increases with long exposure to sunlight or when it is applied over soft
woods like pine. This is also in part due to polyurethane's lesser penetration into the wood. Various
priming techniques are employed to overcome this problem, including the use of certain oil varnishes,
specified "de-waxed" shellac, clear penetrating epoxy sealer, or "oil-modified" polyurethane
designed for the purpose. Polyurethane varnish may also lack the "hand-rubbed" luster of drying oils
such as linseed or Tung oil; in contrast, however, it is capable of a much faster and higher "build" of
film, accomplishing in two coats what may require multiple applications of oil. Polyurethane may
also be applied over a straight oil finish, but because of the relatively slow curing time of oils, the
emission of certain chemical byproducts, and the need for exposure to oxygen from the air, care must
be taken that the oils are sufficiently cured to accept the polyurethane.
Unlike drying oils and alkyds which cure, after evaporation of the solvent, upon reaction with oxygen
from the air, true polyurethane coatings cure, after evaporation of the solvent, by a variety of reactions
of chemicals within the original mix, or by reaction with moisture from the air. Certain polyurethane
products are "hybrids" and combine different aspects of their parent components. "Oil-modified"
polyurethanes, whether water-borne or solvent-borne, are currently the most widely used wood floor
finishes.
Exterior use of polyurethane varnish may be problematic due to its heightened susceptibility to
deterioration through ultra-violet light exposure. All clear or translucent varnishes, and indeed
all film-polymer coatings (e.g. paint, stain, epoxy, synthetic plastic, etc.) are susceptible to this
damage in varying degrees. Pigments in paints and stains protect against UV damage. UV-absorbers
are added to polyurethane and other varnishes (e.g. spar varnish) to work against UV damage but are
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decreasingly effective over the course of 24 years, depending on the quantity and quality of UVabsorbers added, as well as the severity and duration of sun exposure. Water exposure, humidity,
temperature extremes, and other environmental factors affect all finishes. By contrast, wooden items
retrieved from the Egyptian pyramids have a new and fresh appearance after 4000 years of storage.
Even there, however, fungal colonies were present, and mildew and fungus are another category of
entities which attack varnish. In other words, the only coat of varnish with near perfect durability is
the one stored in a vacuum, in darkness, at a low and unvarying temperature. Otherwise, care and
upkeep are required.
LACQUER:
The word lacquer refers to quick-drying, solvent-based varnishes or paints. Although their names
may be similarly derived, lacquer is not the same as shellac and is not dissolved in alcohol. Lacquer
is dissolved in lacquer thinner, which is a highly flammable solvent typically containing butyl
acetate and xylene or toluene. Lacquer is typically sprayed on, within a spray booth that evacuates
overspray and minimizes the risk of combustion.
Outside America, the rule of thumb is that a clear wood finish formulated to be sprayed is a lacquer,
but if it is formulated to be brushed on then it is a varnish. Thus, by far most pieces of wooden
furniture are lacquered.
Lacquer may be considered different from varnish because it can be re-dissolved later by a solvent
(such as the one it was dissolved in when it was applied) and does not chemically change to a solid
like other varnishes.
ACRYLIC:
Acrylic varnishes are typically water-borne varnishes with the lowest refractive index of all finishes
and high transparency. They resist yellowing. Acrylics have the advantage of water clean-up and lack
of solvent fumes, but typically do not penetrate into wood as well as oils. They sometimes lack the
brush ability and self-leveling qualities of solvent-based varnishes. Generally they have good UVresistance.
In the art world, varnishes offer dust-resistance and a harder surface than bare paint they sometimes
have the benefit of ultraviolet light resistors, which help protect artwork from fading in exposure to
light. Acrylic varnish should be applied using an isolation coat (a permanent, protective barrier
between the painting and the varnish, preferably a soft, glossy gel medium) to make varnish removal
and overall conservation easier. Acrylic varnishes used for such a final removable art protection layer
are typically mineral-spiritbased acrylic, rather than water-based.
Syed Kaleem Gilani

Abdul Basit
Asif Afridi
Hamza Sahibzada
Muneeb ur Rehman
Page 53 of 56
DISTEMPER:
Distemper is a term with a variety of meanings for paints used in decorating and as a historical
medium for painting pictures, and contrasted with tempera. The binding element may be some form
of glue or oil; these are known in decorating respectively as soft distemper and oil bound distemper.
Distempers are used to remove the ill view of brick masonry and hence give architectural looks.
REMOVING DISTEMPER:
Distemper used to be a popular finish, and in older houses you are quite likely to come across
it when renovating or redecorating. Distemper is chalk mixed with a glue and water. The
problem with it is that if it gets wet it tends to come away from the surface it is on. This means,
if you paint or wallpaper over it, all your hard work could peel straight back off again.
To remove distemper, brush away any loose material on the surface and wash the area well
with sugar soap or a detergent solution. Water with a small amount of wallpaper stripper can
also work well. Paint the wall with a stabilizing primer solution to bind any remaining
distemper to the surface.
If you are trying to remove distemper from delicate plaster moldings, wet one small area at a
time and brush away the distemper with a an old toothbrush. If it remains if the finer detailing,
you can use pointed wooden skewers to carefully scrape it out. Once the molding is clear of
distemper, wash it down and apply a stabilizing primer.
2.0 Conclusion:
Finally it is concluded that different construction materials are interconnected and to obtain one
desired property one may use several different materials, also we see that the preservation of different
constructions can be done by coating them with paints or varnishes etc. In case of concrete, strength
is of primary importance and secondly it is the durability, these properties can be obtained by the
quality of material itself and also by the use of other construction materials. This report helps in
advancing the knowledge about different construction materials and how they can be used to obtain
desired properties.
Syed Kaleem Gilani

Abdul Basit
Asif Afridi
Hamza Sahibzada
Muneeb ur Rehman
Page 54 of 56
Appendices:
Figure 3 Concrete
Figure 5 Varnish
Syed Kaleem Gilani

Abdul Basit
Asif Afridi
Hamza Sahibzada
Muneeb ur Rehman
Figure 4 Adhesives
Figure 6 Cement
Page 55 of 56
Figure 7 Lumber
Figure 9 Admixture
Syed Kaleem Gilani

Abdul Basit
Asif Afridi
Hamza Sahibzada
Muneeb ur Rehman
Figure 8 Paints
Figure 10 Distemper
Page 56 of 56

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CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

PLASTICIZERS FOR FLOWING CONCRETE .......................................................................... 30

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

NATURAL ADHESIVES: ............................................................................................................ 46

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

REMOVING DISTEMPER: .......................................................................................................... 54

Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

MANUFACURING PROCESS OF PROTLAND CEMENT:

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

There are two processes namely:

Depends on whether the ingredients are mixed in wet or dry conditions.

Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT:

Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

Figure 1 Fine and coarse aggregates

Figure 2 Sieves used for geadation

ROUND SHAPED AGGREGATES:

Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

IRREGULAR SHAPED AGGREGATES:

Irregular shaped aggregates.

Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

FLACKY AND ELONGATED:

Flaky and Elongated

ACCORDING TO SURFACE TEXTURE:

Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

Smooth surface aggregates

Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

NORMAL WEIGHT AGGREGATES:

LIGHT WEIGHT AGGREGATES:

HEAVY WEIGHT AGGREGATES:

Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

Well Graded: contains all sizes of particles in standard proportions.

FINENESS MODULUS OF AGGREGATES:

Ultra-light concrete <1,200 kg/m3

Syed Kaleem Gilani

CE-214L Mechanics of solids Lab

Heavyweight concrete > 3,200 kg/m3

Based on strength (of cylindrical sample)

Low-strength concrete: < 20 MPa compressive strength

Syed Kaleem Gilani