The Influence of Music On Exercise in A Group of Sedentary Elderly Women

ORIGINAL ARTICLES
J SPORTS MED PHYS FITNESS 2014;54:536-44
The influence of music on exercise

in a group of sedentary elderly women:
an important tool to help the elderly to stay active
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B. RUSCELLO 1, 2, S. DOTTAVIO 1, 2, E. PADUA 1, 2, C. TONELLI 1, L. PANTANELLA 1
Aim. The aim of this study was toverify howlistening to instrumental asynchronous music, with tempoof 90bpm,can
affect the aerobic physical performance in elderly women
engaged in a continuous and constant exercising, predominantly aerobic, consisting of walking routines.
Methods. Twenty women(N.=20, age=75.84.2 years)volunteered to the study and underwent a six-week period of physical exercising. All women were previously sedentary, as they
had not trained systematically within the last 5 years. The
experimental group (Eg=10) performed all the exercise sessions and tests listening tomusic. The control group (Cg=10)
performed the same program without listening tomusic. Total distances covered, heart rates before and after the tests
andthe rates of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured.
Results. Significantdifferences between groups(P<0.01)were
foundin RPE. No statistically significant differenceswere observed in total distances covered and heart rates, although
there was an increase of 9.83% in the total distance covered
by the Eg compared to the Cg, in accordance with other previous researches.
Conclusion. The results are in line with those reported by
other authors in differentpopulations and ages, confirming
that music may be considered an important tool in supporting elderly people involved in physical exercising.
Key words: Music - Motor activity - Aged.
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OTHER AREAS
n Italy, as well as in other Western and Europeancountries, the process ofageingisa social phenomenon ofgreat interest, because of allthe sociocultural and economic challenges that it presents.
The issues of health and preventive activities relatedtotheageing-related degenerative phenomena thus
becomeof increasinginterest toall the agenciesthat
deal with theelderly people. Physical activityis an
Corresponding author: Bruno Ruscello, PhD, Via dei Della Bitta 41,
00148 Rome, Italy. E-mail: bruno.ruscello@uniroma2.it
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1TorVergataUniversityofRome
FacultyofMedicineandSurgery
SchoolofSportandExerciseScience, Rome, Italy
2FacultyofMotorSciences
SanRaffaeleUniversitTelematica, Rome, Italy
extraordinarypreventive toolfor manyageing-related problems.1-5 and severalinterventionsthat tend to

engage in organized and continuous forms of adaptedphysical activity larger sections of theelderly population have been already implemented(Activefor
Life United Kingdom, Shape Up, United States
of America, Healthy Living, Canada, Paseo, European Union). One of the biggest obstacles to the
promotion andthe retentionof more active life-styles
in the elderlyisrepresented by a pronounced subjective perceptionof fatigue, especially in persistently
sedentary subjects,which oftenopposestrong resistancesto the movementbecause of thefear of notbeing able towithstandloads 6.
Amongthe possible means ofmanageingthe issue
mentioned above we can consider listening to music during physical work,7-9 since numerousstudies
have shown that this practice leads to many benefits.10-12 Karageorghis and Priest 13 highlighted at
least fivemain effects which listening to musicmight
causeon physical performance:the dissociation,the
regulation of the arousal, the synchronization, the
acquisition of motor skills and the achievement of
the flow.
During physical exercising, music can narrow attention, diverting the mind from sensations of fatigue. This diversionary technique, known as dissociation, may lower perceptions of effort.
THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS
August 2014
Materials and Methods

Participants
RUSCELLO
The sample was then non-randomly split (convenience sampling) into two equal groups (control group,
Cg, N.=10; age=775.03 years and experimental
group, Eg, N.=10; age=74.63.06 years) for practical reasons, involving the structurewhich hostedthe
study: the groups were already formed, consequently
we decided to administer the music treatment only
to one of these existing groups, whose capacities
were tested (Table I). The initial conditions referring
to the investigated physical performance (walking:
total distance covered, TD), the heart rate, (HR, preand postexercise) and the rate of perceived exertion
(RPE) were preliminarly tested, in order to verify
the similarity of those initial conditions and to limit,
partially at least, the influence of the sampling procedure adopted. Participants were first subjected to a
medical check to exclude disabling diseases such as:
acute or chronic debilitating osteoarticulardiseases;
cardiopulmonary or neurological contraindications to physical activity, ranging from light to
moderate intensity.
Written informed consent was obtained from
each participant after the aims of the study were explained. After approval by the University of Rome
Tor Vergata Ethical Committee, the study was conducted in June-July 2011 at a nursing home situated
near Rome, Italy, in accordance with the principles
laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki. Before
undergoing the training and test procedures, all participants were requested to provide a certificate of
medical fitness.
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Music alters emotional and physiological arousal and can therefore be used prior to competition
or training as a stimulant, or as a sedative to calm
up or anxious feelings.14 Research has consistently
shown that the synchronization of music with repetitive exercise is associated with increased levels of
work output. This applies to such activities as rowing, cycling, cross-country skiing, and running. Musical tempo can regulate movement and thus prolong
performance. Synchronizing movements with music
also enables athletes to perform more efficiently,
again resulting in greater endurance. Music can also
impact positively on the acquisition of motor skills.13
The type of music, synchronous or asynchronous 15-17andthe tempo, expressed inbeat per minute
(bpm),16, 10, 18 might have different effects on the performers, as several studies already proved.
The purpose of this research was to verify
how listening to instrumental asyncronous music,
withatempoof 90-100bpm,can affectthe physical
performancein elderly women,engagedin acontinuous and constant exercising, predominantly aerobic, consisting ofwalking routines.
Twenty adult women (N.=20, age=75.84.2

years), volunteered for this study and underwent a
six-week period of physical exercising. All women
were sedentary, as they had not trained systematically within the last 5 years.
In a first phase a series of meetings with counseling were provided in order to make available all
the details of the trial and motivate participants to
undergo physical exercise, a practice not in keeping
with their previous habits.
THE INFLUENCE OF MUSIC ON EXERCISE IN A GROUP OF SEDENTARY ELDERLY WOMEN
Exercising, testing procedures and instrumentation
All the tests and exercising sessions were performed indoors, in the climatized gym of the nursing-home, with an average temperature of 22 C.
Each group trained five days per week for six
Table I.Total distances covered (meters) during the tests (6MWT).

Group
Test n. 1
Test n. 2
Test n.3
Vol. 54 - No. 4
Experimental group
Control group
Experimental group
Control group
Experimental group
Control group
Mean
(m)
Standard Deviation
N.
206.00
202.00
271.50
255.00
315.50
284.50
21.19
42.37
46.67
29.81
48.33
35.15
10
10
10
10
10
10
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miliar than the one based on a 6-20 point scoring

system previously adopted in similar studies. Please
note that the Italian education system has a long tradition of school performance evaluation based on a
0-10 scale.
No verbal encouragements were provided during
testing, always performed under supervision.
Type of music
Experimental group (Eg) performed all the exercising sessions and the testing while listening to
asyncronous music,13, 15, 16 through Mp3 players
(Philips SA018302 Gogear Clip 2 Gb and Philips
earphones, SHN2500/00).
The music type was prepared according to the personal tastes of the participants, chosen in a list provided by the authors. These tracks had a music tempo
of 90 bpm,10, 18 recommended for light to moderate
physical activities. The tracks were only instrumental, with no lyrics.12 Control group did exactly the
same kind of work performed by the Experimental
group (exercising and Testing), without music.
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weeks. After a warm-up routine of 15 minutes, walking for 20 minutes on a level treadmill (0 slope) was
considered the core part of each exercising session.
In the first stage of the study, (one week, five exercising sessions) participants were gradually familiarized with treadmill exercising (Panatta Sport, model
BORA, Macerata, Italy) and had the opportunity
to practice walking sessions set at their own pace.
They were also instructed to set the pace individually so to walk as far as you can in six minutes.19
To accomplish this task, participants were instructed
to volitionally increase or decrease the speed of the
treadmill, acting on the relevant control unit. This
was considered a sufficient learning period to avoid
a learning curve,19-21 influencing the validity of the
ongoing study.
In order to measure and compare changes in different aspects of the physical load sustained by the
participants over time (Total Distance reached, Heart
Rates, and RPE) the six minute walk test (6MWT)
performed on a treadmill was used.19, 22, 23, 25
The 6MWT evaluates the general and integrated
responses of the entire body during physical exercise, including the cardiovascular and pulmonary
systems, systemic and peripheral blood circulation,
neuromuscular units, and muscular metabolism.26, 27
The 6MWT is easily managed and well tolerated,
and it reflects activities of daily living better than
other walking tests do; this also applies to patients
with moderate to severe diseases.24
The tests were performed at the beginning of the
exercising period, after the first week of familiarization, after two weeks (intermediate stage), and after
six weeks (final stage).
The treadmill leveled at a 0 slope was used during all testing procedures. The total distance covered
(in meters) and the average speed (km/h) were automatically provided by the treadmill control unit, for
each individual participating.
The Heart Rate (HR) before and after the 6MWT
were recorded using portable cardio-frequency meters (Polar Electro Oy, RS 100, Kempele, Finland).
The Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) was measured using the Borg CR-10 Scale 28-33 administered
within thirty minutes from the end of each testing
procedure. A score of ten represented the highest intensity, and a score of zero was the lowest intensity.
We used a scale ranging from zero to ten because
the participants found this notation system more fa-
RUSCELLO
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Statistical analysis
Data are presented as mean and standard deviation (MSD) and 95% Interval of Confidence
(IC95%). The assumption of normality was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Parametric and
nonparametric statistics were used when appropriate. Student t-test was performed to find significant
differences between groups.
The variables measured in the control
group(Cg)andExperimental Group(Eg) in performing the6MWTwere:the total distancereached (TD),
the heart rate(HR)recordedbefore andafter thetests
and the rate of perceived exertion (RPE) measuredbya BorgCR-10 scale.
A 2x3 mixed factorial analysis of variancewas performed [Cg,Eg;Between] x [Repeated 6MWT;Within]. After performingthe Mauclhy Testof sphericity,
theGreenhouse-Geissere, was usedwhen appropriate.
The corresponding P values are provided for
each analysis. The value of statistical significance
was acceptedwith P0.05.
All data were statistically processed using SPSS
15.0 software (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).
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Results
The twogroupsdiffer inmean age (74.63.06 vs.
77.05.03 years, EGandCG respectively), butthis
difference is not statisticallysignificant (t14.8=-1.288;
P=0.214; IC 95%=-6.37-1.57; ES=0.57).
Total distances covered
Trends inheart rate:pre-test

The descriptive statistics (MSD) concerning
theHeart Rate (expressed asbpm) recorded before
the three tests are reported (Table II). We noticed
agradualdecreasein heart ratepre-test(Test1-Test
3) in both groups (within), with values of -7.8%
and -4.69%, in experimental group and in control group, respectively. This decrease is statistically significant (mixed factorial analysis of variance 2x3: F2, 18=11.430, P=0.000, partial h2=0.388,
power=0.989 with a=0.05). No significant differenceswere observedbetween the groups before the
tests (F1,18=0.077; P=0.784 partial h2=0.004, power=0.058 with a=0.05, Figure 3).
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The descriptive statistics (MSD) for the distance covered in the three tests performed by the
twogroups arereported(Table I). Mean valuesand
standard errorsof the tests performed are also provided (Figure 1).There is a clearimprovement inphysical performance in both groups over time (within),
with increases of34% (Experimental Group-listening tomusic)and 28% (control group - not listening
tomusic).
This improvement was statistically significant (mixed factorial analysis of variance 2x3:
F1.439,18=44.42; P0.001; partial h2=0.71; power
1.000 with a=0.05 with adjustment GreenhouseGeisser e). Differences between groups on total
distance covered during the tests were found (with
a percentage of difference of 1.94%, 6.08% and
9.83%at the first,second andthird test respectively)
but they were not statistically significant (F1,18=1.89;
P=0.118; partial h2=0.095; power=0.257 with
a=0.05) (Figure 2).
RUSCELLO
Trends inheart rate:post-test
The descriptive statistics(MSD)concerning theHR

(expressed as bpm) recorded immediately after the
threetests arereported(Table III). We noticed agradualdecreasein heart ratepost-test(test1-test 3)in both
groups(within), with valuesof -3.71% and-2.27%, in
experimental group and in control group, respectively.
This decreaseisstatisticallysignificant (Mixedfactorial analysis of variance 2x3: F2,18=4,241, P=0.022,
partial h2=0.191; power=0.706 with a=0.05). Nosignificantdifferenceswere observedbetween the groups
after the tests (F1.18=1.38; P=0.255; partial h2=0.071;
power=0.199 with a=0.05, Figure 4).
Figure 1.Total distance (TD) covered during 6MW Test (Mean and Standard Error).
Differences in % (Eg-Cg) are reported.
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Figure 2.Total distances covered during the three tests. Estimated marginal means (Mixed Factorial Anova) in Eg and in Cg. Note
the different trends between the groups, with a clear improvement in Eg.
Table II.Heart rates (bpm) recorded before the tests (6MWT).
H.R. before Test n. 1

RUSCELLO
Groups
Mean
Std. Deviation
Diff. %
(Eg-Cg)
Experimental group
Control group
Experimental group
Control group
Experimental group
Control group
82.90
81.00
80.90
80.60
76.70
77.20
5.24
5.03
4.51
5.19
5.81
6.20
10
10
10
10
10
10
-2.35%
Rate of perceived exertion
The descriptive statistics(MSD)concerning the

scores recorded trough the CR-10 Borg Scale after the three tests are reported (Table IV). We noticed amarked decreasein the scores (Test1 Test
3) in both groups (within), with values of -68.49%
and -34.18%, in experimental group and in control group respectively. This decrease is statistically significant (Mixed factorial analysis of variance 2x3: F2.18=213.85; P=0.000; partial h2=0,922;
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-0.37%
0.65%
power=1000 with a=0.05). Significant differences

were observedalso between the groups (F1.18=24.11;
P=0.000; partial h2=0.573; power=0.996 with
a=0.05, Figures 5, 6).
Discussion
In relation to the total distance covered in the
three tests, one may notice a clear improvement in
both groups(within) as a resultof theproposedtrain-
August 2014
Figure 3.Heart rates (bpm) recorded before tests (M and SD).
Table III.Heart rates (bpm) recorded after the tests (6MWT).
Groups
H.R. after Test n.1
H.R. after Test n.2
H.R. after Test n.3
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Experimental group
Control group
Experimental group
Control group
Experimental group
Control group
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Mean
Std. Deviation
N.
Diff. %
(Eg-Cg)
105.00
101.20
101.60
98.20
101.10
98.90
5.64
6.73
6.70
5.71
5.65
9.46
10
10
10
10
10
10
3.62%
3.35%
2.18%
Figure 4.Heart rates (bpm) recorded after tests (M and SD).
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Table IV.RPE: Borg Cr-10 scores, recorded after the three Tests (MSD).
Borg CR10 Test n. 1

Borg CR10 Test n. 2
Groups
Mean
Std. Deviation
Diff. %
(Eg Cg)
Experimental group
Control group
Experimental group
Control group
Experimental group
Control group
7.30
7.90
4.80
6.10
2.30
5.20
0.82
1.20
1.03
0.88
0.48
0.63
10
10
10
10
10
10
7.59%
21.31%
55.77%
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Borg CR10 Test n. 3
Figure 5.RPE scores (CR-10 Borg scale). Differences (%) between groups (Eg-Cg) observed over time.
ing load (Table I). Improvementshave beencontinuous and progressiveover time,during allthe testsfor
both groups (P0.001). Different factors might have
been contributing to these final results, among them
we suggestthe following:
a global learning effect in participants about
walking on a treadmill (better motor coordination);
improvement of fitness, stimulated by the exercising load over time, especially considering the
declared sedentary habits of the participants.
Although no statistically significant differences
were found between groups in term of performance, however we underline the emerging trend, on
the third test the most, where the difference between
groups reached its maximal spread (9.83%). This
difference, although not statistically significant in
this study (F1.18=2.69; P=0.118), seems to strongly
support the idea that listening to music while exercising might be of a positive effect on performance,
as already reported in different populations and
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through different experimental designs.10-13, 15-17, 34

Inrelation to the HR recorded before the threetests,
the significant decreases observed (P0.001) in both
groups (within) are probably to relate to the overall
effect induced by the training, as already observed
in different studies,3, 5, 26 and they may be considered
as an indicator of the improved physical fitness. The
same phenomena were observed in the HR recorded
just after the completion of the tests. We observed
no differences between groups on these issues, therefore we would exclude any particular influence of
listening to this type of music on heart rates (90 bpm,
asyncrhronous).
The rates of perceived exertion recorded in all
participants through the Borg Scale CR-10 after the
completion of the tests, seem to confirm the beneficial effect that listening to a certain type of music
might have on those who perform physical exercise
(Table IV). The evident different perception of fatigue in experimental group (P0.001) may be ex-
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Figure 6.RPE. Estimated marginal means (Mixed Factorial Anova) in Eg and in Cg. Note the different trends between the groups,
with a clear decrease in Eg, in third test the most.
plained according to Karageorghis and Priest 13 by

the five key ways in wich music can influence physical exercise. In a situation like this Bishop, Karageorghis and Loizou 14 suggested that probably the
main factor in these reducted perceptions is to attribute to the dissociation phenomena: during submaximal exercise, music can narrow attention, in
turn diverting the mind from sensation of fatigue.
This diversionary technique, known to psychologists
as dissociation, lowers the perceptions of effort. Our
results may confirm what has been already observed
in other age populations, that is dissociation could
occur for low and moderate exercise intensities only.
These researches showed that the dissociation effects results in a 10% reduction in perceived exertion
during treadmill running at moderate intensity.35-37
In our study the difference between groups at the
end of the experiment period is quite evident, (about
55%, P0.001), proving that music effectively influenced the experimental group in perceiving exertion.
Vol. 54 - No. 4
Conclusions
This studyhasconfirmedthe influence of listening

to music (asynchronous with a tempo of 90 bpm, no
lyrics) in a group of sedentary elderly women, engaged
in a low to moderate physical exercising, based on
walking routines performed on a treadmill, on some of
the observed parameters (Total Distance covered in a
six minutes walk Test, heart rates pre and post exercise
and RPE). The decreased rate of perceived exertion,
measured through a CR-10 Borg Scale, was particularly clear in the experimental group (Eg), confirming
that music may be considered an important tool in
supporting elderly people involved in physical exercising, probably diverting their attention from the sensations of fatigue, increasing over time while performing physical efforts. This finding is quite important
as in Italy it is quite common for the elderly people,
especially when not accustomed to systematic physical exercising, tend to avoid physical exertion because
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of the fear of excessive fatigue. Therefore we encourage those practitioners involved in the elderly health/
fitness care to use music as a powerful tool in order
to promote physical activity as a regular habit of life.
The limited sampleof this studyplaces thisresearch
as apilot study forfuture investigations, nevertheless
the findings we reported in our study seem to substantially agree with similar findings reported in different
studies investigating different ages and populations.
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RUSCELLO
544
Conflicts of interest.The authors certify that there is no conflict of

interest with any financial organization regarding the material discussed
in the manuscript.
Acknowledgements.The authors wish to thank very much indeed all
the participants to the study.
Received on February 26, 2014.
Accepted for publication on February 26, 2014.
August 2014

The Influence of Music On Exercise in A Group of Sedentary Elderly Women - An Important Tool To Help The Elderly To Stay Active.

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ORIGINAL ARTICLES

J SPORTS MED PHYS FITNESS 2014;54:536-44

The influence of music on exercise

B. RUSCELLO 1, 2, S. DOTTAVIO 1, 2, E. PADUA 1, 2, C. TONELLI 1, L. PANTANELLA 1

extraordinarypreventive toolfor manyageing-related problems.1-5 and severalinterventionsthat tend to

THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS

Materials and Methods

Twenty adult women (N.=20, age=75.84.2

Exercising, testing procedures and instrumentation

Table I.Total distances covered (meters) during the tests (6MWT).

THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS

THE INFLUENCE OF MUSIC ON EXERCISE IN A GROUP OF SEDENTARY ELDERLY WOMEN

miliar than the one based on a 6-20 point scoring

THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS

Trends inheart rate:pre-test

Trends inheart rate:post-test

The descriptive statistics(MSD)concerning theHR

THE INFLUENCE OF MUSIC ON EXERCISE IN A GROUP OF SEDENTARY ELDERLY WOMEN

THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS

THE INFLUENCE OF MUSIC ON EXERCISE IN A GROUP OF SEDENTARY ELDERLY WOMEN

H.R. before Test n. 1

Rate of perceived exertion

The descriptive statistics(MSD)concerning the

power=1000 with a=0.05). Significant differences

THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS

Figure 3.Heart rates (bpm) recorded before tests (M and SD).

Table III.Heart rates (bpm) recorded after the tests (6MWT).

H.R. after Test n.1

H.R. after Test n.2

H.R. after Test n.3

THE INFLUENCE OF MUSIC ON EXERCISE IN A GROUP OF SEDENTARY ELDERLY WOMEN

THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS

Figure 4.Heart rates (bpm) recorded after tests (M and SD).

THE INFLUENCE OF MUSIC ON EXERCISE IN A GROUP OF SEDENTARY ELDERLY WOMEN

Borg CR10 Test n. 1

Borg CR10 Test n. 3

through different experimental designs.10-13, 15-17, 34

THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS

plained according to Karageorghis and Priest 13 by

THE INFLUENCE OF MUSIC ON EXERCISE IN A GROUP OF SEDENTARY ELDERLY WOMEN

This studyhasconfirmedthe influence of listening

THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS

THE INFLUENCE OF MUSIC ON EXERCISE IN A GROUP OF SEDENTARY ELDERLY WOMEN

nous music on treadmill running among elite triathletes. J Sci Med

1. Blankevoort CG, van Heuvelen MJ, Boersma F, Luning H, de Jong J,

Conflicts of interest.The authors certify that there is no conflict of

THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS

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