Course Title

IEQ-05 Earthquake Geology and Geoinformatics

(Dept. of Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee)

Earthquake Characteristics
Deformation of an earthquake source can be represented by slip on a fault plane
leads us to look for evidence for that fault plane in the earthquake signal. We are able to
do this because the seismograph can distinguish between a wave where the first motion is
rarefaction or dilatation.

Fault block diagram and terminology

Focal Mechanism Solutions

Also called beachball diagrams fault plane solutions

Tell us the geometry and mechanism of the fault in a simple diagram

Fault plane solutions of the Himalayan region

Strike slip fault as an example

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P-wave first motions focal mechanisms

P-waves will radiate in all directions away from a fault.
In some directions the first motion of the P-waves will initially be compressional (C)
(the earthquake pushes the ground in the direction of motion).
In other directions the P-waves will be dilatational (D) (the earthquake pulls the
ground away from the direction of wave motion.
The dilatational and compressional first motions are divided into quadrants. This
pattern of first motions can be used to infer the orientation of the fault.

= Earthquake
= Seismic

Dilatational
(downward)
first motion

Auxiliary Plane

Fault Plane

Compressional
(Upward) first
motion

Consider a case of north-striking right lateral strike-slip fault. If the seismograph

station is located in the southeast or northwest quadrant with respect to the source, the
first motion of P wave would be a compression in which the recorded signal would be an
upward displacement. However, if the station were in the northeast or southwest
quadrant, the first motion would be a dilatation, and the recorded signal would be a
downward displacement.
If the recording station is located along the strike-slip fault, that is, north or south
of the earthquake focus, P waves moving towards the station would be nearly cancelled
out by P waves moving away. If the locations of stations are east or west of the
earthquake, perpendicular to the direction of fault movement, P waves would not
propagate in those directions, and so the signal would be of low amplitude.
If we now consider the P waves from an earthquake rupturing an east-striking
left-lateral fault, we find that the radiation pattern is exactly the same as that from the
north-striking right-lateral fault. First motions of P waves are, therefore, unable to
discriminate between these two fault orientations and senses of slip. This is the doublecouple assumption; the possible fault orientations are limited to two planes perpendicular
to one another. The planes are bisected by the P axis and the T axis. These axes are
defined kinematically by fault slip. Thus, they are principal strain axes and not principal
stress directions.
At the instant of rupture, rocks in the quadrants including the P axis as rupture,
rock in the quadrants including the P axis as a bisector moves towards the earthquake
source, which would cause rock to move away from the seismograph, producing a
dilatation. At the same time, rock in the quadrants including the T axis as a bisector move
away from the source and toward the seismograph, producing a compression.

As shown in figure, the location of the station on a stereonet is based on the path
of the wave (curved because it is refracted by rock that transmits seismic waves at
differing speeds) to the station from the source. First motions from a large number of
seismographs at different azimuths and distances from the focus can locate the two
possible fault planes on a stereonet, based on the distribution by quadrants of
compressional and dilatational first arrivals.

Take-off angle = The angle (from vertical) that the ray leaves the earthquake

A common use of earthquake focal mechanisms is to infer stress orientations in

o
the earth. A simple model predicts that the faulting occurs on planes 45 from the
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maximum and minimum compressive stresses. Equivalently, these stress directions are
halfway between the nodal planes. Thus the maximum compressive (P) and minimum
compressive stress (T) axes can be found by bisecting the dilatational and compressional
quadrants, respectively. Although T is called the tension axis, it is actually the
minimum compression occurs at depth in the earth. The intermediate stress axis, known
as the B or null axis, is perpendicular to both the T and the P axes. This direction is also
perpendicular to both the slip and the normal vectors, and is the intersection of the two
nodal planes.

1) The stereographic projection

2) The geometry of first motions and how this is used to define fault motion.

Stereographic projection

A method of projecting half a sphere onto a circle.

e.g. planes cutting vertically through the sphere plot as straight lines

Stereonets
A template called a stereonet is used to plot data.
Example plotting planes (e.g. faults)

Figure shows compressional and dilatational field in case of normal faulting.

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