Basic Features of Euclidean Space

Chapter 1
Basic Features of Euclidean

Space, Rn
This chapter is foundational. The reader who is familiar with this material can go on to Chapter 2. Those who are not can either go over
the chapter before going on, or can begin with the latter chapters and
return to the parts of Chapter 1 as needed. Here we review basic features of Euclidean space Rn and prove results concerning orthogonality,
convergence, completeness and compactness.
1.1
Real numbers
In this section we briefly give a review of the basic properties of real

numbers. There are a number of ways to deal with the real numbers,
all more or less equivalent. The way we shall do it (and perhaps the
most efficient way) is by means of the least upper bound axiom . The
integers are denoted by Z = {..., 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, ...} and the positive
integres by Z+ = {1, 2, 3, ...}. The set Z+ is also called the set
of natural numbers and is sometimes denoted by N. The principle
of mathematical induction states that: If a subset S N satisfies
(i) 1 S (ii) n S (n + 1) S, then S = N. The set of rational numbers is denote by Q = m
n :m, n Z, n 6= 0 . It was known
since the times of Pythagoras that 2
/ Q. Such numbers can not
be written as fractions and are called irrational numbers. As we shall
1
FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL REAL VARIABLES
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Chapter 1 Basic Features of Euclidean Space, Rn
see shortly, there are infinitely many irrational numbers. The set of
rationals together with set of irrationals form the set of real numbers
R. That is, R = Q Qc . We shall assume the standard arithmetic
operations and their properties with respect to the real numbers. We
shall also assume the ordering of real numbers (<, , > and ).
Definition 1.1.1. Let S be a nonempty subset of R.
1. A real number M is called an upper bound of S if x M for all
x S. In this case S is said to be bounded above.
2. A real number m is called a lower bound of S if m x for all
x S. In this case S is said to be bounded below.
3. The set S is said to be bounded if it is both bounded above and
bounded below. Thus S is bounded if there exist real numbers m
and M such that S [m, M ].
4. A set which is not bounded is called unbounded.
5. if M S we call M the maximal element of S. If m S we call
m the minimal element of S.
Definition 1.1.2. Let S be a nonempty bounded subset of R.
1. If S has a least upper bound, then we call it the supremum of S,
denoted by sup(S) (or sometimes lub(S)).
2. If S has a greatest lower bound, then we call it the infimum of S,
denoted by inf(S) (or sometimes glb(S)).1
The Completeness Axiom. Every nonempty subset S of R which
is bounded above has a least upper bound. That is, there exists a real
number, sup(S).
If S is a set of real numbers which is bouned below, then by considering the set S = {x : x S} we may state the completeness axiom
in the alternative form as:2 Every nonempty set of real numbers which
is bounded below has an infimum in R.
1
2
lub, means least upper bound and glb, means greatest lower bound.
Changing sign reverses the order in R.

1.1
Real numbers
Observe that if S is bounded above, then M = sup(S) is the unique

number with the following two properties:
(i) x M for all x S, and (ii) for every > 0, there exists x S with
x > M .
In other words, (i) tells us that M is an upper bound, whereas (ii) tells
us that there is no smaller upper bound. Similarly, if S is bounded
bellow, then m = inf(S) is the unique number such that
(i) m x for all x S and (ii) for every > 0, ther exist x S with
x < m + .
Note that sup(S) = inf(S) and inf(S) = sup(S). If S has no
upper bound we shall define sup(S) = +, and if S has no lower bound,
we shall define inf(S) = .
As the following example shows the sup(S) may or may not belong
to S itself. However, we shall see in Section 1.5 (Corollary 1.5.8), it
always belongs to the closure of S. Similarly for inf(S).
Example 1.1.3.
1. Let S = n1 : n = 1, 2, ... . Then the sup(S) = 1
and is the maximal element of S. On the other hand the inf(S) = 0
and 0
/ S.
2. Let a, b R with a < b. Then
sup[a, b] = sup[a, b) = sup(a, b] = sup(a, b) = b
and
inf[a, b] = inf[a, b) = inf(a, b] = inf(a, b) = a.
Theorem 1.1.4. (Archimedean property). Let a, b R with a > 0 and
b > 0. Then there exists a positive integer n such that na > b.
Proof. Suppose the statement is false. That is, there exist a > 0 and
b > 0 such that na b for all n Z+ . Then, the set S = {na : n Z+ }
is a nonempty subset of R bounded above by b. By the completeness
axiom S has a supremum. Let M = sup(S). Hence, na M for all
n Z+ . Therefore (n + 1)a M , or na M a for all n Z+ . Thus,
M a is also an upper bound of S. But M a < M . This contradicts
that M = sup(S). This contradiction proves the theorem.
Corollary 1.1.5. For any positive real number b there exists n Z+
such that n > b. In particular, for every > 0 there exists n Z+ such
that n1 < .

Proof. Taking a = 1 in Theorem 1.1.4, we get n = n1 > b. Setting

b = 1 yields n1 < .
Corollary 1.1.6. For any positive real number x there exists a (unique)
m Z+ such that m 1 x < m.
Proof. By Corollary 1.1.5, there exists a positive integer n such that
x < n. Let m be the least such positive integer (and so unique). Then
m 1 x < m.
Theorem 1.1.7. (Denseness of Q). Let a, b R with a < b. Then
there exists a rational number r Q such that a < r < b.
Proof. It is enough to prove the theorem for 0 < a < b. Since b a > 0,
it follows from the Archimedean property that there exist n Z+ such
that n(b a) > 1. That is, nb > na + 1. By Corollary 1.1.6, there exists
m Z+ such that m1 na < m. Now we have na < m na+1 < nb.
Hence, na < m < nb. Therefore, a < m
n < b.
The following proposition tells us that there are infinitely many irrationals. In fact, there are so many that, as we prove in the next theorem,
they are densely distributed on the real line.
Proposition 1.1.8. Let n Z+ with n not a perfect square. Then
n
/ Q.
Proof. Suppose that n were rational. Then it can be written as n =

a
b with a, b Z+ and a + b be smallest possible. Let k be the unique
2
positive integer such that k < n < k + 1. Then n = ab2 implies that
a2 kab = nb2 kab or ab = nbka
akb . Since nb ka < a and a kb < b. It
follows that (nb ka) + (a kb) < a + b which contadicts our hypothesis
and proves that n

/ Q.
Some other examples of irrational numbers are e, and e . In
Chapter 3 (Proposition 3.6.13), we shall prove the irrationality of e. In
general it is not too easy to establish the irrationality of certain particular numbers, for example there is no simple proof of the irrationality
of or e .
Theorem 1.1.9. (Denseness of Qc ). Let a, b R with a < b. Then
there exists an irrational number Qc such that a < < b.
1.1
Real numbers
Proof. Since b a > 0 and 2 > 0,by the Archimedean property, there
exist n Z+ such that n(b a) > 2. Therefore,
2
2
>a+
> a.
b>a+
n
2n

Since a + n2 a + 2n2 = n2
/ Q, it follows that at least one of
the numbers 1 = a +
2
n
or 2 = a +
2
2n
is irrational.
Definition 1.1.10. The absolute value of a real number x is defined by

x
when x 0,
|x| =
x when x < 0.
Note that |x|2 = x2 and |x| =
x2 .
For x, y R the absolute value has the following properties.

1. |x| 0 and |x| = 0 if and only if x = 0.
2. |xy| = |x| |y|
3. |x + y| |x| + |y| (triangle inequality).
Moreover,
| |x| |y| | |x y|.
We remark that |x + y| = |x| + |y| if and only if xy 0, and |x + y| <
|x| + |y| if and only if xy < 0. The reader is invited to verify these
properties in Exercise 12.
Definition 1.1.11. Let S R and a R (not necessarily in S). The
point a is called an accumulation point or limit point of S if every open
interval around a contains at least one point x S distinct from a, that
is, for every r > 0 we have
((a r, a + r) {a}) S 6= .
It is worthwhile remarking


1. A finite set S = {s1 , ..., sm } has no limit points. To see this take
r = min {|si sj | : i, j = 1, .., m}, then ((si r, si + r) {si })
S = .
2. If a is a limit point of S, then every open interval (a r, a + r)
around a contains infinitely many points of S; for if (a r, a +
r) contained a finite number of points s1 , ..., sk of S distinct
from a, then the open interval around a with radius r0 =
min {|a sj | : j = 1, ..., k} contains no point of S distinct from
a, which is impossible.
The following important result characterizes the sets in R which

have limit points. In the next section we shall extend it to Rn .
Theorem 1.1.12. (Bolzano-Weierstrass)3 Every bounded infinite set
in R has at least one limit point.
Proof. Let S be a bounded infinite set in R. Since S is bounded there
is a closed interval [a, b] containing S. Hence, both m = inf(S) and
M = sup(S) exist. Consider the set
A = {x R : (, x) S is at most finite} .
Since m A it follows that A 6= . At the same time A is bounded
above by M . In fact, if x0 R with M < x0 , then x < M < x0
for all x S. Since S is infinite, this implies that x0
/ A. Hence,
x M for all x A. It follows that A has a least upper bound, call
it y = sup(A). We show that y is a limit point of S. Let > 0 be
any positive number. Then (y + )
/ A and so (, y + ) S is
infinite. Since y = sup(A) there exists x1 A such that y < x1 y.
Therefore (, y ) S (, x1 ) S and so (, y ) S is at
most finite. Hence, (y , y + ) contains an infinite number of points
of S. Thus y is a limit point of S.
3
B. Bolzano (1781-1848). Mathematician, logician and philosopher.
K. Weierstrass (1815-1897). Mathematician who made many contribution in mathematical analysis and devoted a great deal of attention to the rigorous foundation of
analysis.

1.1
Real numbers
7
EXERCISES
1. Show that if r is a nonzero rational number and x is irrational,

then x r, r x, rx, xr and xr are all irrational.
2. Show the least upper bound of a bounded set is unique.
3. If 6= A B R and B is bounded, show that
inf(B) inf(A) sup(A) sup(B).
4. Let A and B be two nonempty bounded sets of real numbers and
c R. If A + B = {a + b : a A, b B} and cA = {ca : a A}.
Show that
(a) sup(A + B) = sup(A) + sup(B) and inf(A + B) = inf(A) +
inf(B).
(b) When c 0, then sup(cA) = c sup(A) and inf(cA) =
c inf(A).
When c < 0, then sup(cA) = c inf(A) and inf(cA) =
c sup(A).

5. Let S = x + x1 : x > 0 . Show that sup(S) = and inf(S) = 2.
n
o
m
6. Let S = m+n
: m, n N . Show that sup(S) = 1 and inf(S) =
0.
Hint. Fix m = 1 (resp. n = 1).

7. Let S = x Q+ : x2 < 2 . Show that sup(S)
/ Q. Thus, Q is
not (order) complete.
8. Let x R and S = {r Q : r < x}. Show that sup(S) = x
9. Let a, b R. Show that |ab| 12 (a2 + b2 ). Deduce that if a 0
and b 0, then ab 21 (a + b).

p
10. Show that if 0 a b c and b > 0, then 2 ac ab + bc 1 + ac .
11. (Bernoullis inequality). For any x R and k Z+ , show that
(1 + x)k 1 + kx.
12. Let x, y R. Show that

(a) |xy| = |x| |y|.
(b) |x y| |x| + |y|.
(c) ||x| |y|| |x y|.

max {x, y} =
x+y+|yx|
,
2
min {x, y} =
14. Let x, y R with x 6= y. Show that
|x|
|x+y|
x+y|yx|
.
2
|y|
|xy|
1.

|x + y|
|x|
|y|
+
.
1 + |x + y|
1 + |x| 1 + |y|
1.1.1
Convergence of sequences of real numbers
If for every k Z+ there is an associated real number ak , the ordered

list {a1 , a2 , ...}, briefly written as {ak }
k=1 , is called a sequence. Given a
real sequence {ak }
,
the
major
question
that one might ask about the
k=1
sequence is how its terms behave for k arbitrarily large, i.e, as k .
Definition 1.1.13. Let {ak }
k=1 be a sequences of real numbers. The
sequence is said to converge to a R, if for every > 0 there exists
a positive integer N (depending on ) such that |ak a| < whenever
k N . We write limk ak = a or ak a as k .
Equivalently, limk ak = a if for every > 0 there exists a positive
integer N such that ak (a , a + ) for all k N . If a sequence does
not converge (has no limit), we say that the sequence diverges.
Proposition 1.1.14. If a sequence converges, then its limit is unique.
Proof. Suppose a convergent sequence {ak } had two limits, say ak a
and ak b with a 6= b. Then for = |ab|
> 0 there exist positive
2
integers N1 and N2 such that |ak a| < 2 for all k N1 and |ak b| < 2
for all k N2 . But, then for all k N3 = max {N1 , N2 } we have
|a b| = |a ak + ak b| |ak a| + |ak b| < 2 + 2 = = |ab|
2 , that
1
is, 1 < 2 which is impossible.

1.1
Real numbers
Example 1.1.15.
9
1. Let ak =
1
kp
with p > 0. Then limk
1
kp
= 0.
2. Let x R with |x| < 1. Then limk xk = 0.

Solution.
1. Let > 0 be any positive number. Then | k1p 0| =
1
p
only if k p > 1 or k > ( 1 ) . Hence, taking N >

| k1p 0| < for all k N .
1
k p < if and
1
( 1 ) p , we have
2. If x = 0 this is trivial. Assume x 6= 0 and let > 0. Then

|xk | = |x|k <
if and only if
If 0 < < 1, take N >
log()
log |x| .
k log |x| < log() or k >
log()
log |x| .
Then |xk | < for all k N .
Proposition 1.1.16. Let {ak }

k=1 be a sequence. If ak a, then |ak |
|a|. In particular, ak 0 if and only if |ak | 0.
Proof. The first assertion follows from the inequality ||ak ||a|| |aka|.
In the particular case where a = 0, the converse is also true, for if
|ak | |0| = 0, then for any > 0, there is N such that | |ak | 0| <
for all k N , that is, |ak | < for all k N , or ak 0.
k=1 be a sequence of real numbers.
1. The sequence {ak }
k=1 is called increasing (resp. decreasing) if
ak ak+1 (resp. ak ak+1 ) for all k = 1, 2, .... When these
inequalities are strict, we say the sequence {ak }
k=1 is strictly
increasing (resp. strictly decreasing). A sequence that is either (strictly) increasing or (strictly) decreasing is called (strictly)
monotone.
2. The sequence {ak }
k=1 is called bounded if there exists M > 0 with
|ak | M for all k = 1, 2, .... A sequence which is not bounded is
called unbounded.
Proposition 1.1.18. Every convergent sequence is bounded.

10
Proof. Suppose ak a. Then for = 1 there exists positive integer N

such that |ak x| < 1 for all k N . So, for all k N we have
|ak | = |(ak a) + a| |ak a| + |a| < 1 + |a|.
Taking M = max {|a1 |, ..., |aN |, 1 + |a|}, we have |ak | M for all k =
1, 2, ...; That is, {ak }
k=1 is bounded.
Corollary 1.1.19. An unbounded sequence diverges.
The following result is fundamental.
Theorem 1.1.20. Every bounded monotone sequence in R is convergent. More precisely, the limit of an increasing (resp. decreasing) sequence is the supremum (resp., infimum) of its set of values.
Proof. Suppose {ak }
Then the set
k=1 is increasing and bounded.
{ak : k = 1, 2, ...} (the range) of the sequence is bounded above. It follows from the completeness axiom that this set has a supremum, call it
L. Since L is an upper bound, we have ak L for all k. Moreover, since
L is the least upper bound, for any > 0 there is some N for which
aN > L . Since {ak }
k=1 is increasing, for all k N we also have
ak aN > L . Therefore, L < ak L < L + for all k N and
this shows that ak L.
Similarly, a decreasing sequence bounded from below converges to
the infimum of the set of its values.
k
Example 1.1.21. Let ak = xk! for x R, where k! = 1 2 (k 1) k.

Then ak 0 as k (that is, k! grows faster than exponentially as
k ).
Solution.
To see this we consider three cases; If |x| 1, then
0
|x|k
1
1
0.
k!
k!
k
a
For x > 1, we will argue using Theorem 1.1.20. Note that k+1
ak =
x
0
as
k
.
Therefore,
for
=
1,
we
can
find
N
such
that
k+1
ak+1 < ak for all k N . Hence, {ak } is (eventually) decreasing. Moreover, since 0 < ak < max {a1 , ..., aN }, the sequence is also bounded.
1.1
Real numbers
11
It follows, from Theorem 1.1.20, that {ak } converges to a number, say

x
a 0. Now, a = limk ak+1 = limk (ak k+1
) = a 0 = 0. Thus,
limk
xk
k!
= 0 for all x 0. Finally, if x < 0, then by the above
argument |ak | =
|x|k
k!
0 as k . But then also ak 0 as k .
The following consequence of Theorem 1.1.20 is also an important

property of R.
Theorem 1.1.22. (Nested intervals property). Let In = [an , bn ] be a
sequence of closed bounded intervals in R such that In+1 In for all
n = 1, 2, ... and the length bn an of In tends to 0 as n . Then
there is exactly one point contained
in all of the intervals In . That is,
T
there exists R such that
I
n=1 n = {}.
Proof. The condition I1 I2 I3 ... means that a1 a2 a3

... and b1 b2 b3 .... So the sequence {an } is increasing and
the sequence {bn } is decreasing. Since a1 < an bn < b1 , both are
bounded. Therefore, by Theorem 1.1.20, both converge, say an
and bn . Moreover, since bn an 0, it follows that = .
Obviously is the supremum of {an : n = 1, 2, ...} and the infimum of
{bn : n = 1, 2, ...} and so an bn for all n. Thus, belongs to all
the intervals. Suppose, that 1 6= were another point common to all
the intervals In . Suppose, for example, an 1 < bn for all n.
Then bn an 1 6= 0. Letting n , this gives 1 which
contradicts the fact 1 < . Similarly, if an < 1 bn we also get a
contradiction.
Definition 1.1.23. A number R is called a limit point (or accumulation point) of a sequence {ak }
k=1 , if every open interval around
contains an infinite number of terms of the sequence.
We remark that a limit point of the range {ak : k = 1, 2, ...} of

the sequence is also a limit point of the sequence. The converse is not
true; for instance, the points 1 and 1 are limit points of the sequence
ak = (1)k . However, the range of the sequence is {1, 1} and has no
limit point.
Theorem 1.1.24. (Bolzano-Weierstrass for sequences) Every bounded
sequence in R has a limit point.

12

k=1 is bounded. Then S = {ak : k = 1, 2, ...} is a
bounded set of real numbers. There are two possiblities. Either S is
finite or S is infinite. If S is finite, then there is some R for which
ak = for an infinite number of values of k. Hence is a limit point
of {ak }
k=1 . On the other hand, if S is infinite, the Bolzano-Weierstrass
theorem, implies that S has a limit point, say . Therefore, for every
> 0 we have ak ( , + ) for infinitely many k and thus is a
limit point of {ak }
k=1 .

k=1 be a sequence and {mk }k=1 be an
increasing sequence of positive integers, that is, m1 < m2 < ... < mk <
.... The sequence {amk }

k=1 is called a subsequence of {ak }k=1 .
Exercise 1.1.26. Let {ak }

k=1 be a sequence. Consider {ap }, where p
is a prime number. Is this a subsequence?
Proposition 1.1.27. If a sequence converges to a, then every subsequence converges to a.

Proof. Suppose limk ak = a. Given any > 0 there exists N such
that |ak a| < for all k N . Since m1 < m2 < ... < mk < ..., it
follows by induction on k, that mk k. Hence, for all mk k N , we
have |amk a| < . Thus, amk a.
The converse is not true; For the sequence ak = (1)k , the subsequences a2k = 1 and a2k1 = 1 converge to 1 and 1 respectively,
but the sequence itself does not converge. However we ask the reader to
prove in Exercise 2 below, that if a2k a and a2k1 a, then ak a.
The Bolzano-Weiertsrass Theorem has the following important
corollary.
Corollary 1.1.28. Every bounded sequence in R has a convergent subsequence.
k=1 is bounded. By the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem, {ak }
has
a
limit
point, say . Then, given any > 0 the open
k=1
interval ( , + ) contains infinitely many terms of the sequence. Let
am1 , am2 , ..., amk , ... be the terms of the seuqence in ( , + ) that
correspond to the indices m1 < m2 < ... < mk < .... Then {amk }
k=1 is
a subsequence of {ak }k=1 and amk .

1.1
Real numbers
13
4
Definition 1.1.29. A sequence {ak }
k=1 is called a Cauchy sequence if
|ak aj | 0 as k, j , that is, for every > 0 there exists positive
integer N such that |ak aj | < for all k, j N .
Note that every Cauchy sequence is bounded. In fact, for = 1 there

exists N such that for k, j N we have |ak aj | < 1. Hence, for k > N
we have |ak | = |ak aN +1 + aN +1 | |ak aN +1 | + |aN +1 | < 1 + |aN +1 |.
Taking as before M = max {|a1 |, ..., |aN |, 1 + |aN +1 |}, we have |ak | M
for all k = 1, 2, ....
Proposition 1.1.30.
sequence.
1. Every convergent sequence is a Cauchy
2. A Cauchy sequence converges, if it has a convergent subsequence.

Proof.
1. Suppose ak a. Then |ak aj | |ak a| + |aj a| 0
when k, j . Thus, {ak }
k=1 is Cauchy.
2. Let > 0 be given. Since {ak } is Cauchy there exists N such that
|ak aj | < 2 for all k, j N . On the other hand suppose that the
convergent subsequence {amk } converges to a. Then we can find a
positive integer k large enough so that mk > N and |amk a| < 2 .
So, for k > N we have |ak a| |ak amk |+|amk a| < 2 + 2 = .
Thus, ak a.
The following theorem is also fundamental. This property of R is
also refered to as the completeness of R.
Theorem 1.1.31. Every Cauchy sequence in R converges.
k=1 is Cauchy. Then it is bounded. By Corollary
1.1.28 {ak }
has
a
convergent subsequence. Therefore from Proposik=1
tion 1.1.30 (2) {ak }
k=1 converges.
This concludes our preliminary work on R. In the next sections we
will extend these results to Rn .
4
A. Cauchy (1789-1857). Mathematician who made many important contributions

in real and complex analysis.

14
EXERCISES
1. Let {ak } be a sequence. Show that if ak a, then ak+m a for
any m Z+ .
2. Let {ak } be a sequence. Show that
if a2k a and a2k1 a, then ak a.
3. Let ck ak bk for all k > N . Show that, if ck a and bk a,
then ak a. (This is known as the squeezing theorem).
4. Let {ak } be a sequence. Show that
if limk
5. Let ak =
6. Let ak =
k!
.
kk
ak+1
ak
= l with 1 < l < 1, then limk ak = 0.
k. Show that limk ak = 1.

Show that limk ak = 0.
7. Let 0 < < 1 and ak = ( + k1 )k . Show that limk ak = 0.

8. Let ak = (1 + k1 )k . Show that limk ak = e (this is the definition
of the number e 2.718 called Eulers number ). Hint. Apply
Theorem 1.1.20 to the sequence bk = (1 + k1 )k+1 and note that
limk bk = limk ak .
9. Show that limk (1 k1 )k = 1e .
10. Show that limk (1
1 k
)
k2
= 1.
1 k
11. Show that limk (1 + 2k
) = e.
12. Show that limk (1 + k2 )k = e2 .
k
13. Let ak = 1 + k+1
cos( k
2 ). Show that {ak } is bounded. However,
the sequence diverges. Hint. Use subsequences.
14. Let x R with |x| < 1. Show that

lim (1 + x + x2 + ... + xk ) =
Hint. See Example 1.1.15 (2).

1
.
x1
1.2
Rn as a vector space
15
15. Show that

lim

1
+
+ ... +
= 1.
k2 + 1
k2 + 2
k2 + k
1
Hint. Use the squeezing theorem.
1.2
For n > 1, Rn will denote the set of all n-tuples (pairs, triples, quadruples,...) of real numbers, that is,
Rn = {x = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) : xi R, i = 1, 2, ..., n} .
Each element x Rn is called a vector and the numbers x1 , x2 , ..., xn
are called the first, second,..., n th component of x respectively. Any real
number will be called a scalar. In the important case (from a geometrical
point of view) when n = 2 or n = 3, we shall use the familiar notation
R2 = {(x, y) : x, y R} for the xy-plane and
R3 = {(x, y, z) : x, y, z R} for the xyz-space.
Just as the real numbers are represented by points on the number line,
similarly any x = (x1 , ..., xn ) Rn represents a point (or vector) in
Rn . For each i = 1, ..., n the real numbers xi are called the Cartesian5
coordinates of x. The point (0, ..., 0) corresponds to origin in Rn . If we
agree that all vectors have their initial point at the origin, then a point
in Rn determines a vector in Rn and vice versa. Thus we can identify
(and we do so) a point in Rn with the vector having initial point the
origin and terminal point the given point in Rn .
The set Rn has both an algebraic (vector space) structure and a
metric space structure. To give Rn its algebraic structure, we define
on Rn two operations, addition and scalar multiplication that make it
a vector space over the field of real numbers (or a real vector space).
Formally, let x, y Rn with x = (x1 , ..., xn ) and y = (y1 , ..., yn ). The
sum of x and y is defined by
5
R. Descartes (1596-1650). Philosopher, mathematician and physicist who made

fundamental contributions to scientific thought and knowledge.

16
v
u+v
u
Figure 1.1: Sum of vectors

x + y = (x1 + y1 , ..., xn + yn ),
that is, by adding corresponding components. Since addition in R is
associative and commutative with identity element the number 0, it is
evident that addition in Rn is also associative and commutative and the
zero vector 0 = (0, ..., 0) is the identity element for vector addition.
Figure 1.1 in the plane shows that this addition is exactly the parallelogram law for adding vectors in Physics. Note that even in Rn the space
determined by x and y is a plane, so this picture is valid in general.
The second operation is multiplication of a vector x Rn by a scalar
c R called scalar multiplication and is defined as follows;
cx = (cx1 , ...cxn ).
This gives a vector pointing in the same direction as x, but of a different
magnitude. Here as is easily checked, for x, y Rn and c, d R we have
c(x + y) = cx + cy, (c + d)x = cx + dx,c(dx) = d(cx) = (cd)x and
1x = x. When all these properties are satisfied we say Rn is a real
vector space. In general, if Rn above is replaced by any set V on which
an addition and a scalar multiplication can be defined so that all the
above properties hold V is called a real vector space.
Definition 1.2.1. Let V be a real vector
P space. Given v1 , v2 , ..., vk in V
and scalars c1 , c2 , ...ck R the sum kj=1 cj vj = c1 v1 + c2 v2 + ... + ck vk
is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , v2 , ..., vk . Moreover, the
set of vectors which are linear combinations of v1 , v2 , ..., vk is called the
linear span of {v1 , v2 , ..., vk } and we denote it by span {v1 , v2 , ..., vk }.
1.2
17
Definition 1.2.2. A set of nonzero vectors

Pm {v1 , v2 , ..., vm } in V is said to
be linearly independent if the relation j=1 cj vj = 0 implies all cj = 0.
In general a set S of vectors in V is said to be linearly independent if
each finite subset of S is linearly independent.
Clearly, any subset of a linearly independent set is linearly independent. A set of vectors {w1 , w2 , ..., wm } which is not linearly independent is called linearly dependent, that is, {w1 , w2 , ..., wm } is linearly
dependent
if there exists scalars c1 , ..., cm with at least one cj 6= 0 with
Pm
j=1 cj wj = 0.
Definition 1.2.3. A set of vectors B in a vector space V is called a

basis for V if B is linearly independent and span(B) = V . The space
V is said to be finite dimensional if it has a finite basis. The number
of vectors in the basis is called the dimension of V and is denoted by
dim(V ).
We remark that any finite dimensional vector space has a finite basis
and any two bases have the same number of elements. This number is
the dimension of the vector space. Since we wont need this level of
detail we leave this fact as an exercise (Exercise 1.8.20).6
Example 1.2.4. In Rn the set of vectors
B = {e1 = (1, 0, 0, ..., 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0, ..., 0), ..., en = (0, 0, 0, ..., 0, 1)}
is a basis for Rn , called the standard basis of Rn . Indeed, suppose
c1 e1 + c2 e2 + ... + cn en = 0. Then (c1 , 0, 0, ..., 0) + (0, c2 , 0, ..., 0) + ... +
(0, 0, ..., 0, cn ) = (0, 0, ..., 0), that is, (c1 , c2 , ..., cn ) = (0, 0, ..., 0). Hence
c1 = c2 = ... = cn = 0 and so B is linearly independent. At the same
time for any x = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) Rn we have x = x1 e1 +x2 e2 +...+xn en .
That is, span(B) = Rn . Thus, B is a basis and dim(Rn ) = n.
Proposition 1.2.5. A set of vectors B = {v1 , ..., vn } is a basis of V if
and only if every v V can be expressed as a unique linear combination
of the vj (j = 1, ...n).
6
For a detailed account of vector spaces, see [14].

18
Proof. Suppose {v1 , ..., vn } is a basis of V . Then any v V is a linear

combination
of theP
vj . If this can beP
done in more than one way, say
Pn
n
n
c
v
=
v
=
d
v
.
Then
j=1 j j
j=1 j j
j=1 (cj dj )vj = 0. Since the
vj are linearly independent, it follows that cj dj = 0 or cj = dj .
Conversely, suppose that every v V can be expressed as a unique
linear combination of the vj . This is in particular true for the zero
vector. Hence the vj are linearly independent and so form a basis.
The unique scalars c1 , c2 , ..., cn R used to express v V as a
linear combination of the basis elements B = {v1 , ..., vn } are called
the coordinates of v relative to the (ordered) basis B and the vector
[v] = (c1 , c2 , ..., cn ) Rn is called the coordinate vector of v V . Note
that when V = Rn , the coordinates of v V relative to the standard
basis are just the components of v, that is v = [v].
Definition 1.2.6. Let V be a vector space. A linear subspace of V is
a subset W of V which is itself a vector space with the operations of
addition and scalar multiplication on V .
Equivalently, a non-empty subset W of V is a linear subspace of
V if and only if for each u, v W and each scalar c R the vector
u + cv W. That is, W is closed under the operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
In any vector space V the subset {0} is clearly a linear subspace
called the trivial subspace of V . The largest linear subspace of V is
V itself and the smallest is {0}. Note that linear subspaces are closed
under taking linear combinations. In a vector space V the span(S), of
any subset S V is a linear subspace called the subspace generated by
S.
From Example 1.2.4, the dimension of Rn is n. The dimension of
the trivial subspace is taken to be 0 and the dimension of any other
proper linear subspace of Rn is an integer strictly between 0 and n. In
particular, in R2 and R3 the one-dimensional subspaces are lines passing
from the origin. In R3 the two-dimensional subspaces are planes passing
from the origin. In fact, any two linearly independent vectors u, v R3
generate the plane {su + tv : s, t R}.

1.3
Rn as an inner product space
1.3
1.3.1
19

The inner product and norm in Rn
Definition 1.3.1. Let V be a real vector space. An inner product on V

is an operation denoted by h , i which associates to each pair of vectors
x, y V a real number hx, yi and for all x, y, z V and c R satisfies
the following properties;
1. hx, xi 0 and hx, xi = 0 if and only if x = 0
2. hx, yi = hy, xi
3. hx + y, zi = hx, zi + hy, zi
4. hcx, yi = chx, yi
In this case, V is called an inner product space.
In Rn the usual inner product of two vectors x = (x1 , ..., xn ) and
y = (y1 , ..., yn ) is defined by
hx, yi =
n
X
xi y i .
i=1
That this is an inner product can be readily verified by the reader. It

is often called the dot product of the vectors x, y and is denoted by
x y = hx, yi.
Definition 1.3.2. Let V be a vector space. A norm on V is a function
||.|| : V R satisfying for all x, y V and c R the following properties
1. ||x|| 0 and ||x|| = 0 if and only if x = 0
2. ||cx|| = |c| ||x||
3. ||x + y|| ||x|| + ||y|| (triangle inequality).
The space V equipped with a norm is called a normed linear space.
Definition 1.3.3. The Euclidean norm on Rn is
!1
n
2
X
p
||x|| = hx, xi =
x2i
.
i=1

20
The Euclidean norm on Rn clearly satisfies the conditions (1) and

(2) of a norm. The triangle inequality will follow from the important Cauchy-Schwarz-Bunyakovsky7 inequality which is valid in any inner
product space and we prove it below. The reader should be aware that
there are other norms in Rn which do not come from an inner product. In Theorem 1.3.7 we characterize the norms on a normed linear
space that come from an inner product. The importance of the Euclidean norm resides exactly in the fact that it comes from the usual
inner product.
Theorem 1.3.4. (Cauchy-Schwarz inequality) Let (V, h , i) be an inner
product space. Then for all x, y V ,
|hx, yi| ||x|| ||y||.
Moreover, equality occurs if and only if one of these vectors is a scalar
multiple of the other.
Proof. If x = 0, then both sides are zero and the inequality is true as
equality. For x 6= 0, let t R. Then
0 ||tx + y||2 = htx + y, tx + yi = hx, xit2 + 2hx, yit + hy, yi
= ||x||2 t2 + 2hx, yit + ||y||2 .
This expression is a quadratic polynomial in t of the form (t) = at2 +

bt + c, with a = ||x||2 , b = 2hx, yi and c = ||y||2 . Since (t) 0
for all t R, its discriminant b2 4ac must be non positive, that is,
hx, yi2 ||x||2 ||y||2 . Therefore |hx, yi| ||x|| ||y||. Finally, note that
equality occurs if and only if b2 4ac = 0. But this means that the
b
quadratic polynomial has a double (real) root t0 = 2a
. That is, 0 =
2
(t0 ) = ||x + t0 y|| . It follows that x + t0 y = 0 and so x = cy (with
c = t0 ).
Now it is easy to prove the triangle inequality. In fact, we have
||x + y||2 = ||x||2 + 2hx, yi + ||y||2
7
H. Schwarz (1843-1921). A student of Gauss and Kummer. Professor at the University of G
ottingen, he is known for his work in complex analysis. V. Bunyakovsky
(1804-1889). Mathematician, member of the Petersburg Academy of Science. He is
credited of discovering the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality in 1859.

1.3
21
||x||2 + 2|hx, yi| + ||y||2 ||x||2 + 2||x|| ||y|| + ||y||2

= (||x|| + ||y||)2 using the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality.
Therefore,
||x + y|| ||x|| + ||y||.
Thus we see that Rn with the Euclidean norm is a normed linear

space.
Corollary 1.3.5. Let V be any normed linear space. Then for x, y V
|||x|| ||y||| ||x y||.
Proof. We have ||x|| = ||(x y) + y|| ||x y|| + ||y||. Therefore
||x|| ||y|| ||x y||.
Similarly
||y|| ||x|| ||x y||
and thus the conclusion.
Proposition 1.3.6. (The parallelogram law). Let V be an inner product
space and x, y V . Then
||x + y||2 + ||x y||2 = 2||x||2 + 2||y||2 .
Proof. A direct computation gives
||x+y||2 +||xy||2 = hx+y, x+yi+hxy, xyi = ||x||2 +2hx, yi+||y||2
+||x||2 2hx, yi + ||y||2 = 2||x||2 + 2||y||2 .
Even for V = Rn everything takes place in a plane! In fact, Figure
1.1 in R2 tells us that in a parallelogram the sum of the squares of the
lengths of the diagonals is the sum of the squares of the sides.
The interest of the parallelogram law is that it characterizes the
norms that are derived from an inner product.

22
Theorem 1.3.7. Let V be a normed linear space with norm || .|| satisfying the parallelogram law. Then there is a unique inner product h , i
1
on V such that h ,i 2 coincides with the given norm on V .

Proof. For x, y V , define hx, yi = 41 ||x + y||2 ||x y||2 . Then
1
hx, xi = 14 ||2x||2 = ||x||2 . So hx, xi 2 = ||x||. To show that h , i is an
inner product on V , we need show that h , i satisfies the properties (1),
(2), (3), (4) of the Definition 1.3.1 Properties (1) and (2) are obvious.
To show (3) we have
hx, zi + hy, zi =

1
||x + z||2 + ||y + z||2 (||x z||2 + ||y z||2 ) .
4
Setting x = u + w and y = u w, we get

1
||(u+z)+w||2 +||(u+z)w||2 (||(uz)+w||2 +||(uz)w||2 ) .
4
By the parallelogram law (applied twice) this is equal to

1

2||u + z||2 + 2||w||2 2||w z||2 2||w||2 =
||w + z||2 ||u z||2
2
= 2hu, zi = 2h
x+y
, zi = hx + y, zi.
2
Finally, for c R we have

hcx, yi =
1
1
||cx + y||2 ||cx y||2 = [4chx, yi] = chx, yi.
4
4
To see the uniqueness of this inner product, suppose that h , i1 is another

inner product such that hx, xi1 = ||x||2 . Then hx, xi = hx, xi1 for all
x V . In particular, for all x, y V we have hx+y, x+yi = hx+y, x+yi1
and so hx, yi = hx, yi1
Besides the Euclidean norm on Rn , there are other norms on Rn of
which the following two are the most common.
Definition 1.3.8. For x = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) Rn , we define
P
||x|| = max {|x1 |, |x2 |, ..., |xn |} and ||x||1 = ni=1 |xi |.
1.3
23
It is easy to see that both || || and || ||1 are norms in Rn . We ask

the reader to show this in Exercise 4 below.
Example 1.3.9. For any x Rn , ||x|| ||x|| n||x|| .

Solution. For each i = 1, ..., n we have
q
q
|xi | = x2i x21 + ... + x2n = ||x||.
Hence, ||x|| ||x||. On the other hand, |xi | ||x|| . Therefore,

2
||x|| =
n
X
i=1
x2i n||x||2 .
EXERCISES
1. Let x, y R3 , where x = (1, 0, 2) and y = (3, 1, 1).
(a) Find x + y, x y, ||x||, ||y||, ||x + y||, ||x y||, hx, yi.
(b) Verify, the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, the triangle inequality

and the parallelogram law.
(c) Find ||x|| , and verify ||x|| ||x|| 3||x|| .
(d) Find ||x||1 , and verify ||x||1 3||x|| 3||x||1 .
(e) Is the paralellogram law valid using the norms || || and

|| ||1 ?
2. For x, y Rn show that ||x + y|| = ||x|| + ||y|| if and only if x = cy

for some c > 0.
3. For x, y Rn show that
||x + y|| ||x y|| ||x||2 + ||y||2
with equality if and only if hx, yi = 0.
4. Show that
(a) || || and || ||1 are norms on Rn . Do they satisfy the
parallelogram law?

24
n||x|| n||x||1 .

2
(c) Let
v R2 : ||v|| = 1 ,
v =2 (x, y) R . Sketch the sets
v R : ||v|| = 1 and v R2 : ||v||1 = 1 in R2 and extend to Rn .
(b) For x Rn , show that ||x||1
5. Let V be a vector space. Show that any intersection of linear subspaces is again a linear subspace. Is the union of linear subspaces
a subspace?
6. Let S V . Show that span(S) is the smallest linear subspace
containing the set S.
1.3.2
Orthogonality
Let V be an inner product space. In view of the Cauchy-Schwarz inhx,yi

equality since 1 ||x||
||y|| 1, we can define the angle between any
two nonzero vectors x, y V by

hx,yi
hx,yi
1
cos = ||x||
or
=
cos
||y||
||x|| ||y|| , [0, ].
Hence the following definition is a natural consequence.
Definition 1.3.10. Let V be an inner product space and x, y V .

The vectors x and y are called orthogonal (or perpendicular ), denoted
by xy, when hx, yi = 0.
The zero vector is orthogonal to every vector x V , since h0, xi =
h00, xi = 0h0, xi = 0. Moreover, 0 is the only vector with this property.
For if there were another vector v V with hv, xi = 0 for all x V ,
then in particular ||v||2 = hv, vi = 0, and so v = 0.
More generally, we say that two linear subspaces U and W of V are

orthogonal if every vector in U is orthogonal to every vector in W . We
write U W . For a subset S of V , the orthogonal complement S of S
is defined to be
S = {y V : yx, f or all x S} .
Clearly V = {0} and {0} = V . Note that S = xS {x} . Also if
xS, then x span(S). We denote by S = (S ) .

1.3
25
Proposition 1.3.11. Let S be a subset of V . Then

(a) S is a linear subspace of V .
(b) S S
(c) If S1 S2 V , then S2 S1
(d) S = (span(S))
Proof.
(a) Let x, y V . If x and y are orthogonal to every vector of S, then
so is any linear combination of x and y. Therefore S is a linear
subspace of V .
(b) If x S, then for every y S we have xy. Hence x (S )
(c) S1 S2 and xS2 , then also xS1 .
(d) Since S span(S), it follows from (3) that (span(S)) S .
The reverse inclusion is trivial.
Definition 1.3.12. We say that a set of nonzero vectors {v1 , ..., vk ) of

V is orthogonal if hvi , vj i = 0 for i 6= j. If in addition, ||vj || = 1 for all
j = 1, ..., k, we say {v1 , ..., vk ) is an orthonormal
set of vectors.

1 when i = j,
Thus, orthonormality means hvi , vj i = ij =
, where
0 when i 6= j
the symbol ij is the so-called Kroneckers delta.
Proposition 1.3.13. (The law of cosines). Let x, y be two nonzero
vectors in Rn . Then
||x y||2 = ||x||2 + ||y||2 2||x|| ||y|| cos(),
where is the angle between x, y.
Proof. We have
||x y||2 = hx y, x yi = ||x||2 + ||y||2 2hx, yi
= ||x||2 + ||y||2 2||x|| ||y|| cos().

26
Corollary 1.3.14. (Pythagorean8 theorem and converse). Let x, y be

two nonzero vectors in Rn . Then x is orthogonal to y if and only if
||x + y||2 = ||x||2 + ||y||2 .
Proof. From the law of cosines we have
||x + y||2 = ||x (y)||2 = ||x||2 + ||y||2 2||x|| ||y|| cos( )
= ||x||2 + ||y||2 + 2||x|| ||y|| cos().
Hence, ||x + y||2 = ||x||2 + ||y||2 iff cos() = 0 iff =
iff hx, yi = 0.
By induction we get,
Corollary 1.3.15. If {v1 , ..., vk } is an orthogonal set of vectors of V ,
then
k
k
X
X
2
||
vj || =
||vj ||2 .
j=1
j=1
Geometry and algebra cooperate admirably in the following

proposition.
Proposition 1.3.16. An orthogonal set of nonzero vectors is linearly
independent.
P
Proof. Suppose kj=1 cj vj = 0. Then
k
k
X
X
0=h
cj vj , vi i =
cj hvj , vi i = ci ||vi ||2 .
j=1
j=1
Since ||vi ||2 > 0 for all i, it follows that ci = 0 for all i = 1, ...k.
Corollary 1.3.17. An orthonormal set of vectors B = {v1 , ..., vn } of V
which spans V is a basis.
8
Pythagoras, a famous mathematician and philoshoper of the 6th century B.C.

He established the Pythagorean school first in the Greek island of Samos and then
in south Italy.

1.3
27
Observe that the standard basis B = {e1 , ..., en } of Rn is an orthonormal basis of Rn with the usual inner product.
We now introduce the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process 9
which assures us that any subspace of V has an orthonormal basis,
in fact many.
Theorem 1.3.18. (Gram-Schmidt) Let {v1 , ..., vm } be a linearly independent set in V . Then there is an orthonormal set {w1 , ..., wm } such
that
span {v1 , v2 , ..., vj } = span {w1 , w2 , ..., wj }, for each j = 1, ..., m.
Proof. The proof is by direct construction of the vectors wi and the procedure is useful enough to have a name: The Gram-Schmidt process. To
begin the construction, we observe that v1 6= 0 (since the vi are linearly
independent) and we define w1 = ||vv11 || . Clearly span {w1 } = span {v1 }.
The other vectors are then given inductively as follows: Suppose
w1 , w2 , ..., wk have been constructed so that they form an orthonormal
set and for 1 j k, span {w1 , ..., wj } = span {v1 , ..., vj }. To construct
the next vector wk+1 , let
uk+1 = vk+1
k
X
hvk+1 , wj iwj .
j=1
Then uk+1 6= 0, for otherwise vk+1 span {w1 , ..., wk } = span {v1 , ..., vk }
which contradicts the linear independence of {v1 , ..., vk+1 }. At the same
time, for 1 i k we have
k
X
huk+1 , wi i = hvk+1 , wi i hvk+1 , wj ihwj , wi i = hvk+1 , wj ihvk+1 , wj i = 0.
j=1
Therefore, uk+1 wi for all i = 1, ...., k. Moreover,

span {v1 , ..., vk+1 } = span {w1 , ..., wk , uk+1 } .
9
J. Gram (1850-1916). Actuary and mathematician. He is also know for the Gram
matrix or Gramian. E. Schmidt (1876-1959). A student of Hilbert at the University
of G
ottingen. Together with Hilbert he made important contributions to functional
analysis. The Gram-Schmidt process was first published in 1883.

28
Pk
To see this, set zk+1 =
j=1 hvk+1 , wj iwj span {w1 , ..., wk },
so that vk+1 = uk+1 + zk+1 span {w1 , ..., wk , uk+1 }.
But
also zk+1 span {v1 , ..., vk }.
Hence uk+1 = vk+1 zk+1
uk+1
span {v1 , ..., vk+1 } . Finally, choose wk+1 = ||uk+1
|| . Then ||wk+1 || = 1
and span {w1 , ..., wk , uk+1 } = span {w1 , ..., wk , wk+1 }.
This completes the induction and the proof.
Since every subspace of Rn has a basis we see that,
Corollary 1.3.19. Any subspace of Rn has an orthonormal basis.
Orthonormal sets have substantial computational advantages. For
if {v1 , ..., vn } is a basis for V , then any vector v V is a unique linear
combination of the vectors v1 , ..., vm . But actually finding this linear
combination can be laborius since it involves solving simultaneous linear
equations i.e., a linear system. Working with an orthonormal basis
makes the task much easier. Some of these advantages are illustrated
in the next theorem.
Theorem 1.3.20. Let B = {v1 , v2 , ..., vn } be an orthonormal set in V .
The following are equivalent.
1. Let x V . If xvj for all j = 1, ..., n, then x = 0.
2. B = {v1 , v2 , ..., vn } is an orthonormal basis of V .
P
3. Each x V can be written as x = nj=1 cj vj , where cj = hx, vj i.
The numbers cj = hx, vj i are called the Fourier10 coefficients of x
with respect to the orthonormal basis B
P
4. For all x, y V , hx, yi = nj=1 hx, vj ihy, vj i.
Pn
Pn
2
2
5. For x V , ||x||2 =
j=1 |hx, vj i| =
j=1 |cj | (Parsevals
11
identity)
Proof. We will show that (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (1).
(1) (2): If B = {v1 , ..., vn } were not an orthonormal basis, then
there is an orthonormal set A containing B. Let x A B c . Then
10
J. Fourier (1768-1830). Mathematician and physicist best known for initiating

the study of Fourier series and their applications to problems of heat transfer.
11
M. Parseval (1755-1836), most famous for what is known as Parsevals equality.

1.3
29
x 6= 0 and xvj for all j = 1, ..., n, contradicting the assumption.

(2) (3): P
Since B is a basis of V , each x V can be uniquely
written as x = nj=1 cj vj . Then
n
n
X
X
hx, vi i = h
cj vj , vi i =
cj hvj , vi i = ci .
j=1
j=1
(3) (4): Let y V . So that y =

Then
hx, yi = hx,
n
X
j=1
dj vj i =
n
X
j=1
Pn
j=1 dj vj ,
dj hx, vj i =
n
X
j=1
where dj = hy, vj i.
hy, vj ihx, vj i.
(4) (5): Taking x = y in (4) we get

2
||x|| = hx, xi =
n
X
j=1
(hx, vj i) =
n
X
c2j .
j=1
(5) (1): Clearly, if xvj , that is, if hx, vj i = 0 for all j = 1, ..., n,
then ||x||2 = 0 and so x = 0.
Remark 1.3.21. Note that Parsevals identity in the form
||
k
X
j=1
cj vj ||2 =
k
X
c2j
j=1
is a generalization of the Pythagorean theorem.

The following theorem is of considerable geometric interest.
Theorem 1.3.22. (Projection Theorem). Let V be an inner product
space and W a linear subspace of V . Then V = W W , that is, any
x V , can be written uniquely as x = y + z with y W and z W .
Moreover, W = W .

30
Proof. Let dim(V ) = n. First observe W W = {0}. Suppose

(W ) = k with 0 k n. Choose an orthonormal basis {w1 , ..., wk } of
W and extend it to a basis for V . Use the Gram-Schmidt process to
obtain an orthonormal basis {w1 , ..., wk , wk+1 , ..., wn } of V . Note that
wk+1 , ..., wn W .
Given x V ,
n
k
n
X
X
X
hx, wj iwj =
hx, wj iwj +
hx, wj iwj = y + z,
x=
j=1
j=1
j=k+1
with y W and
Pn z W . If x W , then hx, wj i = 0 for all j = 1, ..., k,
and so x = j=k+1 hx, wj iwj . Hence {wk+1 , ..., wn } is an orthonormal
basis of W and dim(W ) + dim(W ) = dim(V ).
To show that this decomposition is unique, suppose x = y1 +z1 , with
y1 W and z1 W . Then yy1 W and zz1 W . It follows that
z1 z = xy1 (xy) = yy1 , that is, yy1 = zz1 W W = {0}.
Therefore, y = y1 and z = z1 .
Finally we show that W = W . We know that W W . To get
the reverse inclusion, let x W . Then x = y + z with y W W
and z W . So z = x y W W = {0}. Hence, z = 0 and so
x = y W.
Corollary 1.3.23. Let S be a subset of V . Then S = span(S).

Proof. From Proposition 1.3.11, S = (span(S)) . Therefore S =
(span(S)) . Since span(S) is a subspace, by the Projection theorem
(span(S)) = span(S). Hence, S = span(S).
Corollary 1.3.24. If W is a proper subspace of V , then there exists
z0 6= 0 such that z0 W .
Proof. Let x0 V \W . Then x0 = y0 + z0 with y0 W and z0 W
and z0 6= 0, for if z0 = 0, then x0 = y0 W which is impossible.
Definition 1.3.25. Let V = W W and v = w + u with w W and
u W as in the Projection theorem. The map PW : V V given by
PW (v) = w is called the orthogonal projection onto W . Similarly, the
map PW : V V given by PW (v) = u is the orthogonal projection
onto W . Observe that PW + PW = I.

1.3
31
Clearly,
R3 = R2 R.
and the corresponding projections are P (x, y, z) = (x, y, 0), P (x, y, z) =
(0, 0, z). More generally for k < n
Rn = Rk Rnk .
Note that the proof of the Projection theorem tells us a way to
compute the projection P = PW . In fact, when
P {w1 , w2 , ..., wk } is an
orthonormal basis for W , then P (v) = w = kj=1 hv, wj iwj . Note also
that for any v V , we have P 2 (v) = P (P (v)) = P (w) = w = P (v).
That is, P 2 = P .
Example 1.3.26. Let V = R3 and W = span{v1 = (1, 1, 0),
v2 = (0, 1, 1)}. Find W , the projections PW onto W and the projection PW onto W .
Solution. Note that W is the plane generated
by the vectors v1 , v 2 .

By the linearity of the inner product W = u R3 : uv1 and uv2 .
Let u = (x, y, z). We have, uv1 if and only if hu, v1 i = 0, that is,
x y = 0. Similarly, uv2 , implies y + z = 0. Solving the system of
these two equations we get u = t(1, 1, 1) where, t R. Thus,
W = span {u1 = (1, 1, 1)}
which is a line through the origin. To apply the Projection theorem and
find the projection PW , we need to construct an orthonormal basis for
W . Note that {v1 , v2 } is a linear independent set, and so a basis for
W . Let us apply Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process to obtainan
orthonormal basis {w1 , w2 } of W . Take w1 = ||vv1i || , where ||v1 || = 2.
That is, w1 = ( 12 , 12 , 0). To construct the next vector, let
1
1 1
u2 = v2 hv2 , w1 iw1 = v2 w1 = ( , , 0).
2 2
2
Now, ||u2 || = 26 and normalizing u2 we get w2 = ( 16 , 16 , 26 ).

Since orthogonal vectors are linearly independent, taking w3 = ||uu11|| =
32
( 13 , 13 , 13 ), we obtain an orthonormal basis {w1 , w2 , w3 } of V = R3 .

Now, let v R3 . By the projection theorem, we have v = w + u with
w W and u W . Hence
2
X
PW (v) = w =
hv, wj iwj = hv, w1 iw1 + hv, w2 iw2 .
j=1
Therefore for v = (x, y, z), we have

xy 1
1
x y + 2z
1
1 2
PW (x, y, z) = ( , , 0) +
( , , )
2
2
2
6
6
6 6
1
= (2x y z, x + 2y z, x y + 2z),
3
and PW (x, y, z) = 31 (x+y +z, x+y +z, x+y +z), since PW +PW = I.
1.3.3
The cross product in R3
An important concept that distinguishes R3 from Euclidean spaces of

other dimensions is that of the cross product or vector product. In
Chapter 6, we will make extensive use of the cross product in the study
of surface integrals. Here, the usual notation for the elements of the
standard basis is i = e1 = (1, 0, 0), j = e2 = (0, 1, 0), k = e3 = (0, 0, 1).
Thus, any vector a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) R3 can be written as a = a1 i + a2 j +
a3 k
Definition 1.3.27. Let a, b R3 . The cross product of a = (a1 , a2 , a3 )
and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) is defined by
i j k
a b = det a1 a2 a3 = (a2 b3 a3 b2 )i + (a3 b1 a1 b3 )j + (a1 b2 a2 b1 )k.
b1 b2 b3
Note that
i j = k, j k = i, k i = j and
j i = k, k j = i, i k = j.
The following proposition gives the basic properties of the cross product.

1.3
33
ab
Figure 1.2: Cross product

Proposition 1.3.28. Let a, b, u R3 and , R. Then
1. a a = 0.
2. b a = (a b).
3. a b = (a b).
4. a (b + u) = (a b) + (a u) and (a + b) u = (a u) + (b u).
5. (a b)a and (a b)b.
6. ||a b||2 = ||a||2 ||b||2 ha, bi2 .
Proof. All these properties follow easily from the definition. We prove
property (6).
||a||2 ||b||2 ha, bi2 = (a21 + a22 + a23 )(b21 + b22 + b23 ) (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 )2 .
Multiplying out and rearranging the terms we get
(a2 b3 a3 b2 )2 + (a3 b1 a1 b3 )2 + (a1 b2 a2 b1 )2 = ||a b||2 .
Property 5 is illustrated in Figure 1.2.

Example 1.3.29. Find two unit vectors perpendicular to both a =
(2, 1, 3) and b = (4, 3, 5).
34
Solution. Since a b is perpendicular to both a and b, we compute
i j k
a b = det 2 1 3 = 4i 2j + 2k.
4 3 5
The lenght (norm) of the vector is ||a b|| = 16 + 4 + 4 = 2 6. The

desired unit vector is
1
n = [2i j + k] .
6
If we had taken b a instead, we would have obtained the negative of
this vector. Thus the two vectors are
1
n = [2i j + k] .
6
Corollary 1.3.30. Let a, b R3 and [0, ] the angle between a and
b. Then
||a b|| = ||a|| ||b|| sin .
In particular, ||a b|| equals the area of the parallelogram with adjacent
sides a, b.
Proof. We know that ha, bi = ||a|| ||b|| cos . Hence from (6) we get
||a b||2 = ||a||2 ||b||2 (1 cos2 ).
Thus, ||ab|| = ||a||||b|| sin . Furthermore, if a, b represent the adjacent
sides of a parallelogram and we take b to be the base, then ||a|| sin is
the height. Hence the area of the parallelogram is equal to ||ab||.
Note that ab = 0 if and only if ||ab|| = 0 if and only if sin = 0 if
and only if = 0 or = , viz, a, b are colinear. Equivalently, a b 6= 0
if and only if a and b are linearly independent.
Example 1.3.31. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are
A = (2, 1, 3) and B = (1, 2, 4), and C = (3, 1, 1).
Solution. Two sides of the triangle are represented by the vectors
a = AB = (1 2)i + (2 + 1)j + (4 3)k = i + 3j + k,
1.3
35
b = AC = (3 2)i + (1 + 1)j(1 3)k = i + 2j 2k.
The area of the triangle is clearly half of the erea of the parallelogram
with adjacent sides the vectors a and b. Hence the area of the triangle
is 12 ||a b||. We compute
i j k
a b = det 1 3 1 = 8i j 5k.
1 2 2
Since ||a b|| = 3 10, the area is 32 10.

Example 1.3.32. Find the equation of the plane passing from the point
a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and perpendicular to n = (n1 , n2 , n3 ). (The vector n is
called the normal vector to the plane).
Solution. Let x = (x, y, z) be any other point on the plane. Then
the vector x a lies on the plane and is perpendicular to n. Therefore
hn, x ai = 0
is the vector equation of the plane under consideration. In terms of the
coordinates the equation is
n1 (x a1 ) + n2 (y a2 ) + n3 (z a3 ) = 0.
Example 1.3.33. Find the equation of the plane passing from the
points A = (2, 1, 3) and B = (1, 2, 4), and C = (3, 1, 1).
Solution. This is the plane containing the triangle of Example 1.3.31.
The normal vector to this plane is n = (AB)(AC) = 8ij5k. The
problem now is reduced to find the equation of the plane passing from
a = (2, 1, 3) and perpendicular to n = (8, 1, 5). So the equation
is 8(x 2) (y + 1) 5(z 3) = 0 or 8x + y + 5z = 30.
Definition 1.3.34. Let a, b, c R3 . The triple scalar product of a, b
and c is defined to be
ha, (b c)i = a1 (b2 c3 b3 c2 ) + a2 (b3 c1 b1 c3 ) + a3 (b1 c2 b2 c1 )
a1 a2 a3
= det b1 b2 b3 .
c1 c2 c3
36
The following proposition gives a geometric interpretation of the

triple scalar product. We invite the reader here to draw a figure in R3 .
Proposition 1.3.35. Let a, b, c R3 . The volume V of the parallelepiped with adjacent sides a, b and c is |ha, (b c)i|. In particular, the
vectors a, b and c are coplanar if and only if ha, (b c)i = 0.
Proof. We know, from Corollary 1.3.30, that ||b c|| is the area of the
parallelogram with adjacent sides b and c. Moreover |ha, (b c)i| =
||a|| ||b c|| cos , where is the acute angle that a makes with b c
(the normal vector to the plane spanned by b and c). The parallelepiped
with adjacent sides a, b and c has height
h = ||a|| cos =
|ha,(bc)i|
||bc|| .
From elementary geometry the volume of the parallelepiped is the product of the area of the base times the height. Hence, V = |ha, (bc)i|.
EXERCISES
1. Let a = 3i j + 2k and b = i + j + 4k. Find a b, ||a b||, ha, bi
and verify properties (5) and (6).
2. Find the equation of the plane generated by the vectors a =
(3, 1, 1) and b = (1, 2, 1).
3. Find the equation of the plane determined by the points a =
(2, 0, 1), b = (1, 1, 3) and c = (4, 7, 2).
4. Find a unit vector in the plane generated by the vectors a = i + 2j
and b = j + 2k, perpendicular to the vector v = 2i + j + 2k
5. Find the equation the line passing through (1, 1, 1) and perpendicular to the plane 3x y + 2z 5 = 0.
6. Find the equation of the plane passing through (3, 2, 1) and
(1, 1, 2) and parallel to the line l(t) = (1, 1, 0) + t(3, 2, 2).
7. Find the equation of the plane passing through (3, 4, 1) parallel
to the vectors a = i 3k and b = 2i + j + k.
1.3
37
8. Find the shortest distance from the point(3, 4, 5) to the line

through the origin parallel to the vector 2i j + 2k.
9. Find the volume of the tetrahedron determined by the points P1 =
(2, 1, 4), P2 = (1, 0, 3), P3 = (4, 3, 1) and P4 = (3, 5, 0).
Hint. The volume of the tetrahedron is one sixth the volume of
the parallelepiped with adjacent sides P1 P2 , P1 P3 and P1 P4 .
10. Let a, b, v R3 with v 6= 0. Show that
(a) If ha, bi = 0 and a b = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0.
(b) If ha, vi = hb, vi and a v = b v, then a = b.
11. Let a, b, c R3 . Show that the area of the triangle with vertices
a, b and c is given by 21 ||(a c) (b c)||. Find the area of the
triangle with vertices the points a, b and c of Exercise 3.
12. Let a, b, c R3 . Show that a(bc) = (ha, ci)b(ha, bi)c. Deduce
that
a (b c) + b (c a) + c (a b) = 0
(the Jacobi identity).
13. Let a, b R3 be nonzero vectors. Show that the vector v =
||a||b + ||b||a bisects the angle between a and b.
14. Let S = {x = (1, 0, 2), y = (3, 1, 1)}
(a) Find the angle between the vectors x and y.
(b) Find an orthonormal basis for W = span(S).
(c) Find the orthogonal complement, W of W .
(d) Find the projections PW and PW .
Answers to selected Exercises
2. x 4y 7z = 0. 3. 17x y + 9z = 43. 4. 255 [5i + 6j 8k].

5. l(t)
1)+t(3, 1, 2). 6. y z +1 = 0. 7. 3x7y +z +20 = 0.
= (1, 1,101
8. 34. 9. 6 .

38
1.4
Rn as a metric space
Definition 1.4.1. A metric space is a pair (X, d) where X is a set and

d is a function from X X into R, called a distance or metric satisfying
the following conditions for x, y and z in X:
1. d(x, y) 0 and d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y
2. d(x, y) = d(y, x) (symmetry)
3. d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) (triangle inequality)
Since we have a norm in Rn it is natural to consider the distance
between points (vectors) x, y Rn to be
d(x, y) = ||x y||.
The reader should draw a picture to see that this is really the distance
between points of Rn . One easily verifies properties (1), (2) and (3) of
the distance d : Rn Rn R. For instance, for (3) we have
d(x, z) = ||xz|| = ||(xy)+(yz)|| ||xy||+||yz|| = d(x, y)+d(y, z).
Thus, Rn equiped with the distance d is an example of a metric space.
This would apply to any of the norms on Rn that we considered in Definition 1.3.8. However, we will be chiefly concerned with the Euclidean
norm and the Euclidean distance
!1
n
2
X
.
d(x, y) = ||x y|| =
(xi yi )2
i=1
Definition 1.4.2. Let a Rn and r R with r > 0. The open ball

around the point a is defined to be the set
Br (a) = {x Rn : d(a, x) < r} = {x Rn : ||a x|| < r}
Br (a) is also called an r-neighborhood of a.
For instance, when n = 2 and a = (, ) R2 the open ball around

a with radius r > 0 is the open disk
n
o
p
Br (a) = (x, y) R2 : ( x)2 + ( y)2 < r ,
1.4
39
and when n = 1 and a R it is a (symmetric) open interval around a

Br (a) = {x R : |a x| < r} = (a r, a + r).
We denote by
B r (a) = {x Rn : ||a x|| r} .
The set B r (a) is called the closed ball around a. The reason for the
name closed will become clear shortly.
Definition 1.4.3. Let Rn . The set is called an open set in Rn if
each of its points has a sufficiently small open ball around it completely
contained in , that is, for each x there exists > 0 (which in
general may depend on x) such that B (x) .
The whole space Rn and the empty set are evidently open.
Example 1.4.4. Any open ball Br (a) in Rn is an open set. To see this,
let x Br (a). We have to find > 0 so that B (x) Br (a).
Take = r||ax|| > 0. Then for any y B (x) the triangle inequality
implies
||a y|| = ||a x + x y|| ||a x|| + ||x y|| ||a x|| + = r,
that is, ||a y|| r. Hence, y Br (a).
Definition 1.4.5. The boundary of a set Rn , denoted by , is
the set of points x Rn such that every open ball around x intersects
and its complement c . That is, for every > 0
= {x Rn : B (x) 6= , B (x) c 6= } .
Clearly = (c ).
Example 1.4.6. The boundary of Br (a) is the sphere Sr (a) centered
at a = (a1 , ..., an ) with radius r > 0,
Sr (a) = (Br (a)) = {x Rn : ||a x|| = r}

= (x1 , .., xn ) Rn : (a1 x1 )2 + ... + (an xn )2 = r 2 .
40
Figure 1.3: Unit sphere in R3 : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1

Exercise 1.4.7. Show that an open set can not contain any of its
boundary points.
Definition 1.4.8. Let Rn . A point a is called an interior
point of if there exists > 0 such that B (a) . The set of all
interior points of is called the interior of and is denoted by .
Note that, and = if and only if is open.
Definition 1.4.9. A set S in Rn is said to be closed if and only if its
complement S c in Rn is open.
The reader should be aware that this is not the same as not open!
Note that Rn and are closed.
Proposition 1.4.10. A set S is closed in Rn if and only if S S,
that is, it contains its boundary.
Proof. Suppose S is closed. Then S c is open. So, S c S = . Hence
S S. Conversely, let x S c . Since S S, it follows that x is not a
boundary point of S. Therefore, from the definition of boundary point,
there exists an r > 0 such that Br (x) S = , that is, Br (x) S c and
so S c is open.
Definition 1.4.11. Let S Rn . We define the closure of S, denoted
by S, to be the set
S = S S.
1.4
41
Thus, Proposition 1.4.10, tells us that a set S is closed if and only if

S = S. For example, B r (a) = Br (a) Sr (a), and thus we use the name
closed ball.
Remark 1.4.12. A set need be neither open nor closed. For example,
in R the set S = {x R : 0 x < 1} = [0, 1), whose boundary is S =
{0, 1}, is not open in R as it contains the boundary point 0 nor is
it closed since it does not contain its boundary. Its closure is S =
{x R : 0 x 1} = [0, 1] and its interior S = {x R : 0 < x < 1} =
(0, 1).

Similarly, in R2 the set = (x, y) R2 : 0 x 1, 0 < y < 1 a
square, is neither open nor closed in R2 . Here

= (x, y) R2 : 0 x 1, 0 y 1 = [0, 1] [0, 1]
and = (0, 1) (0, 1).
Example 1.4.13.
1. Consider the set Z R. We have Z = and
Z = Z = Z. So Z is closed.
2. Consider the set Q R. Theorems 1.1.7, 1.1.9 tell us that Q =
and Q = R = Q. Notice that Q is neither open nor closed and
thus, Qc is also neither open nor closed (why?).
Exactly as in R, replacing | | by || ||, we have
Definition 1.4.14. Let Rn and a Rn (not necessarily in ).
We call a an accumulation point or limit point of if every open ball
around a contains at least one point x distinct from a, that is, for
every r > 0 we have (Br (a) {a}) 6= .
A point a which is not an accumulation point of is called an
isolated point of . Hence, a is an isolated point of if there is an open
ball Br0 (a) such that Br0 (a) = {a}, for some r0 > 0. We remark
that as in R, any finite set = {v1 , ..., vm } in Rn has no limit points.
In fact, each point of is an isolated point. Note also that () =
and so any finite set is closed.
The next proposition provides a useful characterization of closedness.

42
Proposition 1.4.15. A set S in Rn is closed if and only if S contains

all its limit points.
Proof. Suppose S is closed and let a be a limit point of S. If a
/ S,
then a S c which is open. Therefore, there exists > 0 such that
B (a) S c . It follows that B (a) S = . Since a is a limit point of
A this is impossible. Conversely, suppose S contains all its limit points.
We show that S c is open (and so S will be closed). Let x S c . By
hypothesis x is not a limit point of S and consequently there exists r > 0
such that Br (x) S = . Hence, Br (x) S c and so S c is open.
EXERCISES
1. Show that if 1 and 2 are open in Rn , then 1 2 and 1 2
are also open. Generalize to any finite number of open sets.
2. Show that if A1 and A2 are closed in Rn , then A1 A2 and A1 A2
are also closed. Generalize to any finite number of closed sets.
3. Give an example of a set S in Rn such that S = and S = Rn .
4. Show that S = S \ S.
5. Let x, y Rn with x 6= y. Show that there exist open sets U and
V such that x U , y V and U V = .12
6. Let S1 and S2 be sets in Rn . Show that
(S1 S2 ) = S1 S2 and S1 S2 (S1 S2 )
7. Show that S1 S2 S1 S2 and S1 S2 = S1 S2 .
8. Show that (S1 S2 ) S1 S2 and (S1 S2 ) S1 S2 .
9. Let S Rn . Show that S = S S c . Deduce that S is a closed
set.
10. Let S Rn . Show that (S )c = S c . Deduce that S = S \ S .
11. Let S Rn . Show that
12
A topological space with this property is called a Hausdorff space. In particular,

R is a Hausdorff space.
n

1.5
Convergence of sequences in Rn
43
(a) (S ) S.
(b) (S) S.
12. Let S = Rn (such a set is called dense in Rn ). Show that if is
open, then S = . Is this true if is not open?

1
m
,
sin
)
:
m
N
13. Find the
limit points of the sets: A = (1
+
m
2

1
and B = ([1 + m
] cos(m), 21m ) : m N
14. Prove that the set of all limit points of any set is always closed.
1.5
The significance of the metric d is that it enables us to talk about

limiting processes. This involves replacing | | by || ||. Here we study
the convergence of sequences in Rn .
We reserve the letter n for the dimension and use letters such as
i, j, k for the index on a sequence, that is, we denote by {xk }
k=1 a
n
sequence of vectors in R and the components of the vector xk will be
xk = (xk1 , xk2 , ..., xkn ). We now define the limit of a sequence in Rn
n
Definition 1.5.1. Let {xk }
k=1 be a sequence of vectors in R and
x Rn . We say that {xk }k=1 converges to a limit x if d(xk , x) =

||xk x|| 0 in R as k . We write xk x.
Thus xk x if for every > 0 there exists a positive integer N such

that ||xk x|| < whenever k N . If a sequence does not converge,
we say that the sequence diverges. We shall denote a sequence {xk }
k=1
simply by {xk } and we shall omit writing k whenever this is clear
from the context. We remark that xk x if and only if ||xk x||2 0.
As in R, the limit of a convergent sequence is unique.
n
o
1
Example 1.5.2. The sequence {xk } = (3 k+1
, 1k ) in R2 converges
to x = (3, 0). Indeed, letting k we have
2
||xk x|| =
2
2
k
1
1
1
1
3
3 +
0 =
+
0.
k
2
k+1
(k + 1)
2

44
Just as in R, a sequence {xk } in Rn is said to be bounded if there

exists M > 0 with ||xk || M for all k = 1, 2, ..., and a sequence which
is not bounded is called unbounded. In addition, every convergent sequence is bounded, and any unbounded sequence diverges.
The following theorem lists the basic properties of convergent
sequences in Rn .
Theorem 1.5.3. Let {xk } and {yk } be two sequences in Rn with xk x
and yk y, where x, y Rn . Then
1. For a, b R, axk + byk ax + by
2. ||xk || ||x||
3. hxk , yk i hx, yi
4. xk x if and only if xki xi for each i = 1, ...n
Proof.
1. By hypothesis and the triangle inequality we have

0 ||(axk + byk ) (ax + by)|| = ||a(xk x) + b(yk y)||
|a| ||xk x|| + |b| ||yk y|| 0.
Therefore, axk + byk ax + by
2. From Corollary 1.3.5, | ||xk || ||x|| | ||xk x|| 0.

Hence, ||xk || ||x||
3. First note that
|hxk , yk i hx, yi| = |hxk , yk i hx, yk i + hx, yk i hx, yi|
= |hxk x, yk i + hx, yk yi| |hxk x, yk i| + |hx, yk yi| .
Using the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality we obtain
|hxk , yk i hx, yi| ||xk x|| ||yk || + ||x|| ||yk y||.

Since {yk } converges, it is bounded. So there exists M > 0 such
that ||yk || M . Now, we have
|hxk , yk i hx, yi| ||xk x|| M + ||x|| ||yk y|| 0.
Thus, hxk , yk i hx, yi.
1.5
45
4. Suppose xk x. Then
|xki xi | =
v
u n
uX
2
(xki xi ) t (xki xi )2 = ||xk x|| 0.
i=1
Conversely, if xki xi for all i = 1, ..., n, then for every > 0 there
are positive integers Ni such that |xki xi | < n for all k Ni .
Letting N = max {Ni : i = 1, 2, ..., n}, we have |xki xi | < n for
all k N . Now,
v
v
u n
u n
uX
uX 2
2
t
||xk x|| =
(xki xi ) < t
= .
n
i=1
i=1
Therefore, ||xk x|| < for all k N .
By property (4) of the above proposition, we see that to study the

covergence of a sequence in Rn it suffices to study the convergence of
its component sequences in R.
Next, we would like to restate the definition of a Cauchy sequence
for a sequence in Rn , or more generally in a metric space.
Definition 1.5.4. Let (X, d) be a metric space.
1. A sequence {xk } of points in X is called a Cauchy sequence if
d(xk , xj ) 0 as k, j , that is, for every > 0 there exists
positive integer N such that d(xk , xj ) < for all k, j N .
2. X is called a complete metric space if every Cauchy sequence in
X converges to a point in X.
As in R, every Cauchy sequence is bounded. Moreover, the definition
of subsequence of a given sequence in R, as well as, Propositions 1.1.27,
1.1.30 extend with identical proofs for sequences in Rn (all that is needed
is to replace | | by || ||). Thus, for any {xk } in Rn we have
Proposition 1.5.5.
1. If xk x, then every subsequence xkm x.
2. Every convergent sequence is a Cauchy sequence.

46
3. A Cauchy sequence converges, if it has a convergent subsequence.

Next we prove the completeness of Rn .
Theorem 1.5.6. Rn is complete.
Proof. Since {xk } is Cauchy, for each i = 1, ..., n we have
|xki xji | ||xk xj || 0
as k, j . Hence each component sequence {xki } is Cauchy in R.
Since R is complete, there exist xi R such that xki xi for each i =
1, ..., n. Taking x = (x1 , ..., xn ) Rn , Theorem 1.5.3 yields xk x.
The importance of completeness is that it enables us to prove that
a sequence converges without a priori knowledge of the limit. It can
therefore be used to prove existence of the limit which would enable
us to prove important existence theorems in the theory of differential
equations and elsewhere.
Sequential convergence can be used to characterize the closure of a
set.
Proposition 1.5.7. Let S be a subset of Rn and x Rn . Then x S
if and only if there exists a sequence of points in S that converges to x.
Proof. Suppose x S. If x is in S iteslf, let xk = x for all k = 1.2.... If
x
/ S, then x S. Therefore, for each k the open ball B 1 (x) contains
k
points of S. So, for each k we can select a point xk S such that
||xk x|| < k1 . Thus, in either case, xk S and xk x. Conversely,
suppose {xk } is a sequence in S such that xk x. Then every open
ball around x contains elements of S. In fact, it contains all xk for
sufficiently large k. Hence, x S or x S. That is, x S.
Of particular interest in R is the following
Corollary 1.5.8. Let =
6 S R bounded from above. Suppose M =
sup(S). Then M S. Hence M S if S is closed. Similarly, for
m = inf(S).

1.5
47
Proof. Since M = sup(S), for each k = 1, 2, ... there exists xk S such

that M k1 < xk M . Hence, xk M . Thus, M S.
Definition 1.5.9. Let S Rn . The diameter d(S) of S is
d(S) = sup {||x y|| : x, y S} .
Definition 1.5.10. A set S in Rn is called bounded if there exists R > 0
such that S BR (0). Equivalently, if its diameter is finite.
We conclude this section by generalizing the Bolzano-Weiestrass theorem to Rn .
Theorem 1.5.11. (Bolzano-Weiertsrass theorem in Rn )
1. Every bounded sequence in Rn has a convergent subsequence.
2. Every bounded infinite set in Rn has a limit point.
Proof.
1. Suppose ||xk || M for all k. Since |xki | ||xk || for all i =
1, ..., n, it follows that the sequences {xki }
k=1 of the components
are all bounded. Hence, from Corollary 1.1.28, we can extract
a convergent subsequence from each component sequence. The
trouble is that the indices on these subsequences might all be
different, so we can not put them together. (For example, we
might have chosen the even-numbered terms for i = 1 and the oddnumbered terms for i = 2). To construct the desired subsequence,
we have to proceed step by step. First we choose a subsequence
{xmk } such that the first components converge. This subsequence
is bounded. Hence it has a subsequence for which the second
components converge. This new subsequence has the property
that the first and the second components converge. Continuing
this way, after a finite number of steps we find a subsequence
whose components all converge.
2. Let S be an infinite bounded set in Rn . For k = 1, 2, ..., we
can select xk S with xk 6= xj for k 6= j. Then {xk }
k=1 is a
bounded sequence in Rn of distinct elements of S. By part (1),
{xk } has a subsequence which converges, say, to a. Hence, every
48
neighborhood of a contains infinitely many points of S and thus

a is a limit point of S.
1.6
Compactness
The concept of compactness is of fundamental importance in analysis

and in mathematics in general. Although there are several possible definitions of compactness, these all coincide in Rn .
In this section I will denote any (infinite) index set.
Definition 1.6.1. By an open cover of a set S S
in Rn we mean a coln
lection {Vi }iI of open set of R such that S iI Vi . A subcover is
a subcollection which also covers S.
Lemma 1.6.2. (Lebesgue covering lemma)13 Let S be a closed and
bounded subset of Rn and {Vi }iI an open cover of S. Then for each
x S, there exists some > 0 such that B (x) Vi for at least one
i I. (Such a number > 0 is called a Lebesgue number of S for the
open cover {Vi }iI .)
Proof. Suppose that such a > 0 does not exist. Then for each k =
1, 2, ..., there exists some xk S such that B 1 (xk ) Vic 6= for all i I.
k
Since S is bounded, {xk } is bounded and by the Bolzano-Weiretsrass
theorem it has a convergent subsequence,
S say, xmk x. Then x S =
S, by the closedness of S. Since S iI Vi , it follows that x Vj
for some j I. Moreover, since Vj is open there exists r > 0 with
Br (x) Vj . Now select some mk sufficiently large so that m1k < 2r and
k xmk x k< 2r . It follows that B 1 (xmk ) Br (x) Vj . That is,
B
mk
1
mk
(xmk ) Vjc = contradicting the choice of xk .
Definition 1.6.3. A subset S of Rn is said to be compact if from every

open cover of S we can extract a finite subcover.
13
H. Lebesgue (1875-1941). A student of Borel. He made pioneering contributions

in analysis and developed what is now called the theory of Lebesgue integration.

1.6
Compactness
49
Definition 1.6.4. A subset S of Rn is said to be sequentially compact

if every sequence of points of S has a subsequence which converges to a
point of S.
The fundamental result is the following theorem and gives a simple characterization of compact sets in Rn : they are the closed and
bounded sets. The implication (1) (3) is known as the Heine-Borel
theorem 14 . It tells us, for example that closed and bounded sets are
compact.
Theorem 1.6.5. Let S be a subset of Rn . Then the following are
equivalent:
1. S is closed and bounded.
2. S is sequentially compact.
3. S is compact.
Proof. First we prove (1) (2). Suppose S is closed and bounded.
Let {xk } be a sequence of points in S. Since S is bounded, {xk } is
bounded. By the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem {xk } has a convergent
subsequence, say xmk x. Since S is closed, x S.
Conversely, suppose S is sequentially compact. Let x be a limit point
of S. Then there is a sequence {xk } of points of S with xk x. By
the sequential compactness of S the sequence {xk } has a subsequence
which converges to a point of S. However, since every subsequence of a
convergent sequence converges to the same limit as the sequence, it follows that x S. Hence, from Proposition 1.4.15, S is closed. If S were
not bounded, then for each positive integer k there is a point xk S
with k xk k> k. By the sequential compactness, the sequence {xk } has
a convergent subsequence, say {xmk }. However, since any convergent
sequence is bounded, there is some M > 0 with k xmk k M for all mk .
This contradicts k xmk k> mk .
14
E. Heine (1821-1881). He is known for results on special functions (spherical harmonics, Legendre functions) and in real analysis. E. Borel (1871-1956). Mathematician and politician in Paris. A student of Darboux, he made important contributions
in analysis.

50
Next we prove (3) (1). Let S be compact. First we show that

S is bounded. An open cover of S is given by the open balls Bk (0),
k = 1, 2, ....
SmSince S is compact, a finite number of these balls covers S,
say, S k=1 Bk (0). Since B1 (0) B2 (0) ... Bm (0), it follows S
Bm (0) and so S is bounded. Now we show that S is closed by showing
that S c is open. Let y S c . For each x S, let rx = 21 k x y k> 0.
Then the open balls {Brx (x)}xS cover S. Since S is compact,
there is
S
a finite number of points x1 , ..., xm S such that S m
B
j=1 rxj (xj ).

Take r = min rxj : j = 1, ..., m . Then Br (y) S = . Hence, Br (y)
S c , so that S c is open.
S
Conversely, suppose S is closed and bounded. Let S iI Vi be an
open cover of S. We claim that for each r > 0, there exist x1 , ..., xm S
such that
S
m
[
Br (xj )
j=1
For suppose not; let r > 0 and fix some x1 S. Then choose
x2 (S Br (x1 )). Continuing this way, using induction, choose xk+1
(S\kj=1 Br (xj )). Then, k xk xm k r for k 6= m. This implies that the
sequence {xk } of points in S can not have any convergent subsequence.
Since S is bounded, {xk } is also bounded and the Bolzano-Weierstrass
theorem implies that {xk } has a convergent subsequence. This contradiction proves our claim. Now, by Lemma 1.6.2, let > 0 be a Lebesgue
number of S
S for the open cover {Vi }iI and choose x1 , ..., xm S such
that S m
j=1 B (xj ). For each
Sm some ij I such
Smj = 1, ..., m pick
that B (xj ) Vij . Then S j=1 Br (xj ) j=1 Vij . Hence, S is
compact.
Note that every finite subset of Rn is obviously bounded and being
closed it is therefore compact. As the following exercise shows, both
the boundedness and the closedness of the subset S in Rn are needed
to guarantee the compactness of S.
Exercise 1.6.6.
1. Let S = (0, 1] in R. Note that S is bounded but
not closed. Take Vk = ( k1 , 2). Show that {Vk }kZ+ is an open
cover of S but contains no finite subcover of S.

1.6
Compactness
51
2. Let S = [0, ) in R. Then S is closed but not bounded. Take

Vk = (k 2, k). Show that {Vk }kZ+ is an open cover of S but
contains no finite subcover.
Remark 1.6.7. The proof of (3) (1) given above is valid in any
metric space. Thus, in any metric space, a compact set is closed and
bounded. However, the converse, that is, the Heine-Borel theorem does
not necessarily hold in any metric space. For example, let X be an
infinite set and d the discrete distance on X (that is, d(x, y) = 1 if
x 6= y and d(x, y) = 0 if x = y.) The set X is bounded since the
distance between any two of its points is at most 1. In addition, X
being the whole space is closed.
Let r = 12 . For each x X, note
S
that Br (x) = {x} and X = xX Br (x). But this open cover has no
finite subcover. Hence X is not compact. What goes wrong here is
the fact that no infinite subset of X (with the discrete distance) has a
limit point (in other words, no sequence of distinct points can converge).
This means that the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem is not valid in this
case. However, if the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem were valid in some
metric space, then (as in the above proof of (1) (3)) the Heine-Borel
theorem would also be valid. Further nontrivial examples will follow
from Exercise 1.8.22.
Proposition 1.6.8. A closed subset A of a compact set S is itself
compact.
Proof.
Let {V

i }iI be an open cover of A. Then the collection
{Vi }iI , Ac is an open cover of S. Since S is compact we can extract a finite subcover of S. As A Ac = , it follows that the open
cover {Vi }iI of A contains a finite subcover of A.
Corollary 1.6.9. If A is closed and S is compact, then AS is compact.
Next we consider the relationship of completeness to compactness.
Notice that in a complete space we dont know anything about the
limit of the Cauchy sequence, just that there is one. So completeness is
considerably weaker than compactness. For this reason when working
with completeness we are not at all restricted to Rn (although from our
arguments it may seem we are).

52
Proposition 1.6.10. A closed subspace Y of a complete metric space

X is complete.
Proof. Let {yn } be a Cauchy sequence in Y . Since the metric on Y is
the restriction of the one on X, {yn } is a Cauchy sequence in X. By
completeness it converges to a point x X. But since Y is closed,
xY.
Definition 1.6.11. A locally compact metric space is a space in which
each neighborhood of a point contains a compact neighborhood (of that
point).
Compact spaces are (obviously and trivially) locally compact. Every
infinite set with the discrete metric is locally compact, but as we saw in
Remark 1.6.7, it is not compact. Since closed balls are compact in Rn ,
Rn is locally compact.
We end this section with a proposition which is a special case of the
celebrated Tychonoff Theorem. This important result states that the
product of an arbitrary collection of compact spaces is compact. Here
we require only the following,
Proposition 1.6.12. If X and Y are compact metric spaces, then so
is X Y .
Proof. A metric on X Y is given for instance as
d((x, y), (a, b)) = max(dX (x, a), dY (y, b)).
The reader should check that this is a metric and restricted to X or Y
gives the original one. The rest is then a simple exercise in sequential
compactness and is left to the reader.
1.7
Equivalent norms (*)
In Definition 1.3.8 we saw that || || and || ||1 are also norms on Rn .

It can be shown that for 1 p <
!1
n
p
X
p
||x||p =
|xi |
i=1

1.7
Equivalent norms (*)
53
is a norm on Rn called the p-norm (see Exercise 1.8.21). Of course, for

p = 2 the 2-norm is just the Euclidean norm. In Example 1.3.9 we saw
that for each Rn , ||x|| ||x|| n||x|| . When such an estimate

holds the norms || || and || || on Rn are called equivalent. More
generally we have
Definition 1.7.1. Given two norms || ||1 and || ||2 in Rn (or in any
normed linear space), the norms are called equivalent if there exist > 0
and > 0 such that, for all x Rn ,
||x||1 ||x||2 ||x||1 .
Note that if a sequence converges (or is Cauchy or is bounded) with
respect to one norm it also converges (is Cauchy or is bounded) with
respect to any other equivalent norm. However, it may happen that a
sequence converges with respect to one norm and diverges with respect
to another. Fortunaltely, in Rn we do not have such worries. As we
see in the following theorem all norms in Rn are equivalent. In fact,
we prove that all norms in a finite-dimensional normed linear space are
equivalent.
Furthermore note that equivalent norms give equivalent metrics and
so a set which is open with respect to one metric is also open with
respect to the other and vice versa.15
Theorem 1.7.2. Let V be a finite dimensional normed linear space.
Then all norms on V are equivalent. In particular, this holds on Rn .
Proof. Let B = {v1 , ..., vn } be a basis of V and x V . Then x can be
written uniquely as x = a1 v1 + ... + an vn . Let
||x||1 =
n
X
i=1
|ai |.
This is easily seen to be a norm on V . Now let || || be any other norm

on V . We will show that || || is equivalent to || ||1 . We have
!
n
X
||x|| = ||a1 v1+...an vn || |a1 |||v1 ||+...+|an |||vn || max ||vi ||
|ai | .
i=1,...n
15
i=1
In the language of topology this means the norms give rise to the same topology.

54
That is, ||x|| ||x||1 where = maxi=1,...n ||vi ||

To find > 0 such that ||x||
claim that there exists
P1n ||x||, we P
c > 0 such that ||x||1 c||x|| or i=1 |ai | c|| ni=1 ai vi ||. Then with
= 1c it will follow that ||x||1 ||x||.
P
Thus, it remains to prove our claim. First note that if ni=1 |ai | 6= 1,
then taking bi = Pnai |ai | for i = 1, ...n, we see, it is enough to show
i=1
P
P
that for x = ni=1 bi vi with ni=1 |bi | = 1 there exists c > 0 such that
1 c||
n
X
i=1
bi vi || = c||x||.
Suppose that such a c > 0 doesnt exist. Then for all c > 0 we have 1 >
obtain a sequence
c||x|| orP||x|| < 1c . In particular, for c = k = 1, 2, ... weP
{xk = ni=1 bki vi } of vectors in V satisfying ||xk ||1 = ni=1 |bki | = 1 and
||xk || < k1 0. Then the sequence {[yk ] = (bk1 , ..., bkn )} of the coordinate vectors of the sequence {xk } relative to the basis B is bounded
(with bound 1) in Rn . Therefore from the Bolzano-Weierstass theorem,
the sequence {(bk1 , ..., bkn )} in Rn contains a convergent subsequence,
say, {dk = (dk1 , ..., dkn )} converging to d = (d1 , ..., dn ).
Pn
Pn
Pn
PnNow, let x = i=1 di vi . Then 1 = i=1 |dki | i=1 |di |, that is
i=1 |di | = 1, while
||xk || = ||
n
X
i=1
dki vi || ||
n
X
i=1
di vi ||.
P
P
Since ||xk || 0, it follows that || ni=1 di vi || = 0 and so ni=1 di vi = 0
which is impossible since {v1 , ..., vn } are linearly independent.
1.8
Solved problems for Chapter 1
Exercise 1.8.1. (*) Let V be a normed linear space and x, y V nonzero

vectors. Show the following improvement of the triangle inequality.16
16
These norm inequalities are due to L. Maligranda, see [22].

1.8
55

x
y

||x + y|| ||x|| + ||y|| 2
+
||x|| ||y|| min(||x||, ||y||).
Solution.
To see this note that without loss of generality we may assume that ||x|| =
min(||x||, ||y||). Then by the triangle inequality,

||x||

||x||
||x||

||x + y|| =
x+
y + 1
y

||x||
||y||
||y||

x
y
+ ||y|| ||x||

+
||x||
||x|| ||y||

x
y

= ||y|| +
+
1 ||x||
||x|| ||y||

x
y

= ||x|| + ||y|| +
2 ||x||.
+
||x|| ||y||
A similar computation gives

x
y

||x + y|| ||x|| + ||y|| 2
+
||x|| ||y|| max(||x||, ||y||)
Furthermore, note that if either ||x|| = ||y|| = 1 or x = cy with c > 0, then

equality holds in both inequalities.
Exercise 1.8.2. Let {v1 , ..., vk } be an orthonormal set in V . Then
1. For every x V , there exists y span {v1 , ..., vk } such that
||x y|| = min {||x z|| : z} span {v1 , ..., vk } .
In fact, y =
2. For x V ,
Pk
j=1 hx, vj ivj
Pk
j=1
|hx, vj i|2 ||x||2 (Bessels inequality)17
Moreover, equality holds if and only if x span {v1 , ..., vk }

17
F. Bessel (1784-1846). Mathematician and astronomer. A contemporary of

Gauss. He systematized the so-called Bessel functions (discovered by D. Bernoulli).

56
Solution.
1. Let x V and cj = hx, vj i. For any z span {v1 , ..., vk },

Pk
say z = j=1 aj vj , we then have
||xz||2 = ||x
= ||x||2 2
k
X
j=1
k
X
j=1
aj vj ||2 = hx
aj hx, vj i +
k
X
j=1
= ||x||2 +
k
X
aj vj , x
j=1
j=1
a2j = ||x||2 2
k
X
j=1
k
X
k
X
aj vj i
aj cj +
j=1
(aj cj )2
k
X
k
X
a2j
j=1
c2j .
j=1
The choice aj = cj for all j = 1, ..., k, minimizes the quantity ||x z||.
Therefore, the best approximation to x by elements of span {v1 , ..., vk }
Pk
is y = j=1 hx, vj ivj .
2. This choice aj = cj = hx, vj i also gives

0 ||x
k
X
j=1
hx, vj ivj ||2 = ||x||2
k
X
j=1
hx, vj i2 .
Hence,
k
X
j=1
|hx, vj i|2 ||x||2 .
Exercise 1.8.3. For x and y as in the above exercise, show that x y

(span {v1 , .., vk }) .
Solution.
This is so because (x y)vi for all i = 1, ..., k. Indeed,
hx y, vi i = hx
k
X
j=1
cj vj , vi i = hx, vi i
k
X
j=1
cj hvj , vi i = ci ci = 0.
Exercise 1.8.4. Let X be a metric space. Show that

1. Any union of open sets is open

1.8
57
2. Any intersection of closed sets is closed

Solution.
S
1. Let {Vi }iI be any family of open subsets of X and let x iI Vi .
Then x Vi for some i I. Since Vi is open there exists r > 0 such
S
S
that Br (x) Vi iI Vi , that is, iI Vi is open.
T
2. Let {Si }iI be any family of closed subsets of X. Let S = iI Si . Then
by the De-Morgan law
!c
\
[
c
S =
Si
=
Sic
iI
iI
which is open as a union of open sets. Hence S is closed.

Exercise 1.8.5. Let S be an open subset of a metric space X. Show that
(S) = .
Solution. Suppose (S) 6= . Let x (S) . Then there exists an open ball
Br (x) such that
Br (x) (S) S = S S c = S S c S c .
Therefore Br (x) S = which is a contradiction.
Remark. A subset A of X is said nowhere dense if (A) = . Note that since
S is closed, we have shown that the boundary of any open set is nowhere
dense.
Exercise 1.8.6. (Nested sets property in Rn ). Let {Sk : k = 1, 2, ...} be a sequence of closed sets in Rn such that Sk+1 Sk for every k and d(Sk ) 0 as
T
k . Then k=1 Sk = {x}.
Solution. For each k = 1, 2, ..., let xk Sk . We prove that {xk } is a Cauchy

sequence. Let > 0. Since d(Sk ) 0 as k , there exists N such that
d(SN ) < . At the same time, since Sk+1 Sk , xk , xj SN for k, j N .
Hence ||xk xj || d(SN ) < , and so {xk } is Cauchy. Since Rn is complete, it
follows that {xk } converges to some point, say x, in Rn . For every m, xk Sm
T
for k m, and so x Sm since each Sm is closed. That is, x m=1 Sm . Finally, if y were any other point such that y Sk for all k, then ||x y|| d(Sk )
for all k. Since d(Sk ) 0 as k , this implies ||x y|| = 0, or x = y.
58
Remark. If we drop the condition that d(Sk ) 0 as k and assume

instead that Sk are bounded, viz, Sk are compact, the intersection is nonempty
(but need no longer be a singleton). Indeed The sequence {xk } with xk Sk is
now bounded and by the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem (Theorem 1.5.11) has
a convergent subsequence {xmk }. Say xmk x as k . Since xmk Sj
for all mk j, and each Sj is closed, it follows that x Sj for all j. Hence
T
x j=1 Sj . Of course now,
the intersection need
no longer be a singleton. Take for example, Sk = x Rn : ||x|| 1 + k1 , then the intersection is
{x Rn : ||x|| 1}, the closed unit ball.
Next we give an alternative proof of the Heine-Borel theorem.
Exercise 1.8.7. (Heine-Borel theorem). Let S be a closed and bounded subset
of Rn . Then S is compact.
Qn
Proof. Since S is bounded its contained in a cube C = i=1 [ai , bi ]. If we can
show that C is compact then so is S since it is closed (see Proposition 1.6.8).
Thus we may assume S = C. Let Uj be an open covering of C. Suppose it
has no finite subcover. By dividing each interval [ai , bi ] in half we can divide
C into 2n (congruent) parts. Therefore one of these parts say C1 cant be
covered by finitely many of the Uj , for otherwise since there are only finitely
many of these and their union is C we could get a finite subcover of C itself.
Continue in this way by applying the
to C1 we can inductively
sameQreasoning

n
construct a descending sequence, Ck = ik =1 [aik , bik ] : k = 1, 2, ... each of
half the size of its predicessor and none of which can be covered by a finite
number of the Uj . For x and y Ck , ||x y|| 12 d(C1 ). By Theorem 1.1.22
there is some point x

k=1 Ck . In particular, x C1 so x Uj for some j.
Since Uj is open there is a ball about x of radius r > 0 completely contained

in Uj . That is, if ||x x || < r, then x Uj . Choose k large enough so that
1)
1
2k d(C
r . Then 2k d(C1 ) r and so Ck Uj , a contradiction.
Exercise 1.8.8. (Riesz Lemma 18 ). Let W be a closed proper linear subspace
of a normed linear space V , and let R with 0 < < 1. Then there exists
a unit vector v V such that
||v w|| > , for all w W .
18
F. Riesz (1880-1956). He did some of the fundamental work in developing functional analysis.

1.8
59
Proof. Since W is a proper subspace of V there is some vector v1 in V not

belonging to W . Let
d = d(v1 , W ) = inf ||v1 w||.
wW
Then d > 0, for otherwise, i.e., if d = 0, then v1 W = W , which is contrary

to v1
/ W . For any 0 < < 1, since d > d, the definition of d implies that
there exists some w0 W such that ||v1 w0 || < d . Consider now
v =
v1 w0
.
||v1 w0 ||
Then ||v || = 1, and for any vector w W we have

v1 w0

1
d
=
||vw|| =
w
||v1 w0 ||
||v1 w0 || kv1 w0 (||v1 w0 ||)wk ||v1 w0 || > ,
since {w0 + (||v1 w0 ||)w} W .
Miscellaneous Exercises
Exercise 1.8.9. Let S be a bounded set in R. Prove that
sup(S) inf(S) = sup {|x y| : x, y S} .
Exercise 1.8.10. Show that the set S =
R, that is, show that S = R.
m
10n
: m Z, n Z+
is dense in

Exercise 1.8.11. Show that the set S = n + m 2 : n, m Z is dense in
R.
Exercise 1.8.12. Let {ak } be a bounded sequence in R such that 2ak
ak1 + ak+1 . Show that
lim (ak+1 ak ) = 0.
Exercise 1.8.13. Let {ak } be a sequence in R defined by

a1 = 1 and ak+1 = 12 (ak +
Show that {ak } converges and limk =

2
ak )
2.
for k = 1, 2, ....
60
Exercise 1.8.14. Let {xk } be a sequence in Rn such that ||xk xj || <

Show that {xk } converges.
1
k
+ 1j .
Exercise 1.8.15. Let {ak } be a Cauchy sequence. Using the definition of

Cauchy sequence, show that the set {ak : k = 1, 2, ...} has at most one limit
point.
Exercise 1.8.16. Let be an open subset of Rn and suppose a and
u Rn with u 6= 0. Prove that the set A = {t R : a + tu } is open in R.
Exercise 1.8.17. Let S1 , S2 be subsets of Rn . Show that (S1 \ S2 )
S1 S2 .
Exercise 1.8.18. Let S Rn be bounded. Show that S is compact.
Exercise 1.8.19. Call a set semi-closed if (S) = S . Show that the intersection of two semi-closed sets is semi-closed.
Exercise 1.8.20. (*) Show that every finite dimensional vector space has a
basis and any two bases have the same number of elements.
1
Pn
Exercise 1.8.21. (*). Let 1 p < and ||x||p = ( i=1 |xi |p ) p . Show that
||x||p is a norm (called the p-norm). The triangle inequality in this case is the
so-called Minkowskis inequality 19
! p1
! p1
! p1
n
n
n
X
X
X
p
p
p
|xi + yi |
|xi |
+
|yi |
.
i=1
i=1
i=1
Hint. Consider the function f (t) = tp + t q , where 1p + 1q = 1. Use elementary

calculus to determine the monotonicity of f on [1, ). For an alternative proof
of this inequality see Exercise 3.12.27.
Exercise 1.8.22. (*) For a normed linear space X the following are equivalent.
1. The Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem holds.
2. The closed unit ball B1 (0) in X is compact.
3. dim(X) < .
Hint. If dim(X) = , use Exercise 1.8.8 (Riesz lemma) to construct a sequence
of unit vectors {xn } in X such that ||xn xm || > 12 for all n 6= m.
19
H. Minkowski (1864-1909). He used geometrical methods to solve difficult problems in number theory, mathematical physics and the theorey of relativity. He held
positions at G
ottingen and Zurich and was the thesis advisor of C. Caratheodory.


Basic Features of Euclidean Space

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Basic Features of Euclidean Space

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Chapter 1

Basic Features of Euclidean

In this section we briefly give a review of the basic properties of real

Chapter 1 Basic Features of Euclidean Space, Rn

FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL REAL VARIABLES

Observe that if S is bounded above, then M = sup(S) is the unique

FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL REAL VARIABLES

Chapter 1 Basic Features of Euclidean Space, Rn

Proof. Taking a = 1 in Theorem 1.1.4, we get n = n1 > b. Setting

Proof. Suppose that n were rational. Then it can be written as n =

and proves that n

Definition 1.1.10. The absolute value of a real number x is defined by

For x, y R the absolute value has the following properties.

FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL REAL VARIABLES

Chapter 1 Basic Features of Euclidean Space, Rn

The following important result characterizes the sets in R which

FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL REAL VARIABLES

1. Show that if r is a nonzero rational number and x is irrational,

and b 0, then ab 21 (a + b).

Chapter 1 Basic Features of Euclidean Space, Rn

12. Let x, y R. Show that

(b) |x y| |x| + |y|.

(c) ||x| |y|| |x y|.

13. Let x, y R. Show that

14. Let x, y R with x 6= y. Show that

15. Let x, y R. Show that

Convergence of sequences of real numbers

If for every k Z+ there is an associated real number ak , the ordered

FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL REAL VARIABLES

with p > 0. Then limk

2. Let x R with |x| < 1. Then limk xk = 0.

only if k p > 1 or k > ( 1 ) . Hence, taking N >

2. If x = 0 this is trivial. Assume x 6= 0 and let > 0. Then

If 0 < < 1, take N >

k log |x| < log() or k >

Then |xk | < for all k N .

Proposition 1.1.16. Let {ak }

FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL REAL VARIABLES

Chapter 1 Basic Features of Euclidean Space, Rn

Proof. Suppose ak a. Then for = 1 there exists positive integer N

Example 1.1.21. Let ak = xk! for x R, where k! = 1 2 (k 1) k.

It follows, from Theorem 1.1.20, that {ak } converges to a number, say

= 0 for all x 0. Finally, if x < 0, then by the above

0 as k . But then also ak 0 as k .

The following consequence of Theorem 1.1.20 is also an important

Proof. The condition I1 I2 I3 ... means that a1 a2 a3

We remark that a limit point of the range {ak : k = 1, 2, ...} of

FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL REAL VARIABLES

Chapter 1 Basic Features of Euclidean Space, Rn

Proof. Suppose {ak }

Definition 1.1.25. Let {ak }

.... The sequence {amk }

Exercise 1.1.26. Let {ak }

Proposition 1.1.27. If a sequence converges to a, then every subsequence converges to a.

a subsequence of {ak }k=1 and amk .

Note that every Cauchy sequence is bounded. In fact, for = 1 there

1. Every convergent sequence is a Cauchy

2. A Cauchy sequence converges, if it has a convergent subsequence.

A. Cauchy (1789-1857). Mathematician who made many important contributions

FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL REAL VARIABLES

Chapter 1 Basic Features of Euclidean Space, Rn

= l with 1 < l < 1, then limk ak = 0.

k. Show that limk ak = 1.

7. Let 0 < < 1 and ak = ( + k1 )k . Show that limk ak = 0.