Yakshagana

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Actors' headwear. Large PagaDe (orKetaki Mundhale)
and Kireeta are worn by male characters while females wear
small PagaDe.

The southern (Thenkuthittu) form showcasing an authenticShiva (left)

and Veerabhadra (right) at a performance in Moodabidri,
depicting Roudra Rasa

Yakshagana (Kannada: ), (yakagna, [jkan])

is a theater form that combines dance, music, dialogue,
costume, make-up, and stage techniques with a unique style
and form. This theater style, resembling Western opera, is mainly found in the coastal districts and
the Malenadu region of Karnataka, India. Yakshagana is traditionally presented from dusk to dawn.
Contents
[hide]

1 Etymology

2 Music genre

3 History
o

3.1 Origins

3.2 Early poets

4 Evolution
4.1 Parallel forms

4.1.1 Yakshaganamu in Andhra Pradesh

5 Variations and subgenres

5.1 Badagutittu

5.2 Tenkutittu

5.3 Puppetry variant

5.3.1 Background of puppetry

5.4 Ballet variant

6 Important components

6.1 Raga

6.2 Tala

6.3 Prasanga and literature

6.4 Costumes and ornaments

7 Instruments
o

7.1 Maddale

7.2 Taala (Bells)

7.3 Chande

8 Artists

9 Training and research

10 Outside India

11 Mela or troupes

12 Notes

13 References

14 Further reading

15 External links

Etymology[edit]
Yakshagana literally means the song (gana) of the yaksha, (nature spirits).[1] Yakshagana is the
scholastic name (used for the last 200 years) for art forms formerly known as kike,
a, bayala, and davatra (Kannada: ). It is believed to have evolved from pre-classical

music and theater during the period of the Bhakti movement.[2] It is sometimes simply called "the
play" () in both Kannada and Tulu.[3]

Music genre[edit]

Yakshagana performance in progress

Yakshagana is a separate genre of music, independent of Karnataka Sangeetha and the Hindustani
music of India. It is believed to have survived as an indigenous phenomenon only in parts
of Karnataka and Kerala.[4]
A typical Yakshagana performance consists of background music played by a group of musicians
(known as the himmela); and a dance and dialog group (known as themummela), who together
enact poetic epics onstage. The himmela is made up of a lead singer (bhagawata)who also directs
the productionand is referred to as the "first actor" (modalane vesha). Additional himmela
members are players of traditional musical instruments, such as the maddale (hand drum),
the pungi (pipe), the harmonium(organ), and the chande (loud drums). The music is based on ragas,
which are characterized by rhythmic patterns called mattu and tala (or musical meter in Western
music). Yakshagana talas are believed to be based on patterns which later evolved into the Carnatic
talas.[citation needed]
A Yakshagana performance typically begins in the twilight hours, with an initial beating of the drums
of several fixed compositions, called abbara or peetike. This may last for up to an hour before the
actors finally arrive on the stage. The actors wear resplendent costumes, head-dresses, and face
paints.[5]
A performance usually depicts a story from the "Kavya" (epic poems) and the "Puranas"
(ancient Hindu texts). It consists of a story teller (the bhagvatha) who narrates the story by singing
(which includes prepared character dialogues) as the actors dance to the music, portraying elements
of the story as it is being narrated. All components of Yakshaganaincluding the music, the dance,
and the dialogare improvised. Depending on the ability and scholarship of the actors, there will be
variations in dances as well as the amount of dialog. It is not uncommon for actors to get into
philosophical debates or arguments without falling out of character. The acting in Yakshagana can
be best categorized as method acting.[citation needed] The performances have drawn comparison to the
Western tradition of opera. Traditionally, Yakshagana will run all night.
Yakshagana is popular in the districts of Uttara Kannada, Udupi, Dakshina
Kannada, Shimoga and Kasaragod.[6]Yakshagana has become popular in Bangalore in recent years,
particularly in the rainy season, when there are few other forms of entertainment possible in the
coastal districts.[3]

History[edit]
Main article: List of Yakshagana plays in the Kannada language

Origins[edit]

Rakshasa (the demon) as depicted in Yakshagana performances, is

called Bannada Vesha

The Stree Vesha, or female roles, are performed by male actors in traditional Yakshagana. Uloopi Mantapa

Yakshagana can refer to a style of writing, as well as the written material itself. There are questions
on whether this writing system originated in Telugu literature. It was probably used for poems
enacted in bayalaata (or open theater drama), such as the ballads of Koti and Chennayya."
Yakshagana in its present form is believed to have been strongly influenced by the Vaishnava Bhakti
movement.
The first written evidence regarding Yakshagana is found on an inscription at theLakshminarayana
Temple in Kurugodu, Somasamudra, Bellary District, and dated 1556 CE, a copy of which is
available at the University of Madras.[7] The inscription mentions a land donated to the performers of
the art, so as to enable people to enjoy tala maddale programs at the temple. Another important
piece of evidence is available in the form of a poem authored by Ajapura Vishnu, the Virata Parva,
inscribed on a palm-leaf found at Ajapura (present day Brahmavara).[7] Another historic palm-leaf
manuscript, dated 1621 CE, describes Sabhalakshana.[7]
Yakshagana bears some resemblance to other members of the 'traditional theater family:' Ankhia
Nata (found in Assam); Jathra (in Bengal); Chau (Bihar, Bengal);Prahlada
Nata (Orissa); Veedhinatakam & Chindu (Andhra); Terukoothu Bhagawathamela (Tamil Nadu),
and Kathakkali (Kerala). However, some researchers have argued that Yakshagana is markedly
different from this group.[citation needed]
Experts have placed the origin of Yakshagana somewhere in the period of the 11th to 16th centuries
CE.[8] Yakshagana was an established performance art form by the time of the noted Yakshagana
poet, Parthi Subba (c. 1600).[4] His father, Venkata, is attributed by some to be the author of the great
Hindu epic, Ramayana, although historian Shivarama Karantha counters these claims (made most
notably by historians Muliya Thimmappa and Govinda Pai)[9] and argues that it is Subba, who was in
fact its author.[4] Venkata is the probable founder of the tenkuthittu (southern) style of the art. [citation needed]
Troupe centers, such as Koodlu and Kumbala in the Kasaragod District, andAmritheshwari, Kota
near Kundapura, claim to have had troupes three to four centuries ago, indicating that the art form
almost certainly had begun to take shape by circa 1500.

The Yakshagana form of today is the result of a slow evolution, drawing its elements from ritual
theater, temple arts, secular arts (such as Bahurupi), royal courts of the past, and the artists'
imaginationsall interwoven over a period of several hundred years.[8]

Early poets[edit]
Early Yakshagana poets included Ajapura Vishnu, Purandaradasa, Parthi Subba, and Nagire
Subba. King Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II (17041714) authored 14 Yakshaganas in various
languages in the Kannada script.[10][a] Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar (17941868) also wrote several
Yakshagana prasanga, including Sougandhika Parinaya.[10][b] Noted poet, Muddana, composed
several Yakshagana prasangasa, including the very popular Rathnavathi Kalyana.

Evolution[edit]

Yakshagana is more a form of theater, rather than dance

In the 19th century, Yakshagana began to move away from the strict traditional forms. Practitioners
of the day produced a number of new compositions. Also, a large number of troupes arose across
coastal Karnataka.
The early 20th century saw the birth of 'tent' troupes, giving performances to audiences made up of
common people who were admitted by ticket. These troupes were responsible for the
commercialization of Yakshagana. The genre saw major changes in form and organization. Electrical
lights replaced the gas lights; seating arrangements improved; the inclusion of folk epics, Sanskrit
dramas, and fictional stories formed the modern thematic base of the discipline. Popular
entertainment became the criterion, replacing the historic classical presentations. Tulu, the language
of the southern part of the D.K. district was introduced; increasing popularity with the common
people.
At this time, writer Kota Shivaram Karanth, experimented with the dance form by introducing
Western musical instrumentation. He reduced the time of a Yakshagana performances from 12
hours to under three hours, incorporated movie plot lines, and added Shakespearean themes.
[11]
Today, female artists perform in Yakshagana shows.

Parallel forms[edit]

Panar Vesha, an imitation of Yakshagana (photo taken at Vandar Kambla, Udupi district)

Yakshagana is related to other performance art forms prevalent in other parts of Karnataka and the
neighboring states of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu andMaharastra.[12] Yakshagana defies
simple classification into categories such as folk, classical, or rural. It can be included in each or all
of these, depending upon the rules used for classification. It is more varied and dynamic than most
dance forms. Yakshagana can, however, be classified as one of many traditional dance forms. While
it prevails primarily in the coastal areas of Karnataka, other dance forms (such as Doddata) are
today often called by the same name. Several forms of traditional theater Mudalpaya (of southern
Karnataka); Doddata (of northern Karnataka); Kelike (on the border with Andhra Pradesh);
and Ghattadakore (of Kollegalin the Chamarajnagar District), may be included in this category.
Among them, the Ghattadakore is a direct branch of the coastal form of Yakshagana,
while Mudalapaya is the most closely connected form.[citation needed]
Yakshaganamu in Andhra Pradesh[edit]
There is a form called Yakshaganamu in Andhra Pradesh, which exhibits some resemblance to the
Yakshagana forms of the Karnataka plateau region[13] and is less sophisticated as a visual art.[14]

Variations and subgenres[edit]

Scholars have classified Yakshagana broadly into several types:

Moodalopaya Yakshagana; includes eastern areas of Karnataka (such as Channarayapattna

and Arsikere Taluks of the Hassan District), Nagamangala Taluk of the Mandya District,
Turuvekere Taluk of the Tumkur District, Hiriyuru, Challakere of Chitradurga District and North
Karnataka.[15]

Paduvlopaya Yakshagana comprises the western parts of extended Karnataka (including

Kasaragod Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and Uttara Kannada).

Tenkutittu ( includes areas Kasaragod (Kerala), Mangalore District, Udupi, Sampaaje,

Sulliya, Puttur, Bantwala, Belthangady, Karkala, etc.)

Badagutittu (Udupi to Kundapura area, Uttara Kannada district)

Badabadagutittu/Uttara Kannadatittu (extreme north parts of Uttara Kannada) [15]

Badagutittu[edit]

The Badagutitt style of Yakshagana Costume

The Badagutittu style is prevalent in the northern parts of South

Canara (from Padubidri to Byndoor and the north Kanara District).
The Badagutittu school of Yakshagana places more emphasis on
facial expressions, matugarike (dailogues), and dances
appropriate for the character depicted in the episode. It makes use
of a typical Karnataka chande.[16]
The Badagutittu style was popularized by Shivram Karanth's,
"Yakshagana Mandira," presented at Saligrama Village
in Dakshina Kannada as a shortermore modernform of
Yakshagana.[16] Keremane Shivarama Hegde, the founder of the
Yakshagana troupe, Idagunji Mahaganapathi Yakshagana
Mandali, is an exponent of the Badagutittu style of Yakshagana.
He is also the first Yakshagana artist to receive theRashtrapati
Award from the president of India.

Tenkutittu[edit]

The Tenkutitt style of Yakshagana Costume

One of the traditional variations, the tenkutittu style, is prevalent in Dakshina Kannada, Kasaragod
District, western parts of Coorg (Sampaje), and few areas of Udupi district. The influence of Karnatic
Music is apparent in tenkutittu, as evidenced by the type of maddale used and in bhaagavathike.
Yakshagana is influenced more by folk art blended with classical dance aspects. In tenkutittu, three
iconic set of colors are used: theRaajabanna, the Kaatbanna, and the Sthreebanna.
The himmela in the tenkutittu style is more cohesive to the entire production. Rhythms of the chande
and maddale coupled with the chakrataala and jaagate of the bhaagavatha create an excellent
symphonic sound. The dance form in tenkutittu strikes the attention of the audience by 'Dheengina'
or 'Guttu'. Performers often do dhiginas (jumping spins in the air) and will continuously spin
(sometimes) hundreds of times. Tenkutittu is noted for its incredible dance steps; its high flying
dance moves; and its extravagant rakshasas(demons).
Tenkutittu has remained a popular form and has its own audience outside the coastal areas. The
dharmasthala and kateelu durgaparameshwari melas (the two most popular melas) have helped to
popularize this form. Several creative tenkutittu plays have been composed by noted scholars, such
as Amritha Someshwara.[17]

Puppetry variant[edit]
There were more than 30 string-puppet troupes in the undivided Dakshina Kannada district during
the period 19101915 in places such as Basrur, Barkur, Kokkarne, Mudabidri. [18] The presentation of
the puppetry in Yakshagana style is highly stylized and adheres strictly to the norms and standards
of Yakshagana. The puppets (generally 18 inches high) wear costumes similar to those worn by live
actors of Yakshagana, and have the same elaborate make-up, colorful headgear, and heavy
jewelery.[19] The puppeteer is known as the Suthradhara. The content in the Yakshagana puppetry, is
also mainly drawn from the ancient epics.[18][19]
Background of puppetry[edit]
Yakshagana puppetry has existed for centuries. The modern form of the art, however, was largely
molded by the brothers Laxman, Narasimha, and Manjappa Kamath; who hailed
from Uppinakudru village, Kundapur taluk. Devanna Padmanabha Kamath, the grandson of Laxman
Kamath infused new life into the art and performed shows all over India. Later, Kogga Devanna
Kamath improved this subgenre even further, being recognized with the Tulsi Samman and Sangeet
Natak Akademi Awards. His son, Bhaskar Kogga Kamath, is currently performing shows while
training others in the art of Yakshagana puppetry.[20] K. V. Ramesh is a leading puppeteer from
Kasaragod. He leads the Yakshagana puppet troupe Shri Gopalakrishna Yakshagana Gombeyata
Sangha.[citation needed]

Ballet variant[edit]
The second half of the 20th century saw experiments and adoptions of this art into other venues.
One notable effort was that of Shivarama Karantha, who produced and exhibited Yakshagana ballet,
using and training local artists.[21][22] Some of the changes brought about by Karanth, however,
attracted criticism.[23] One legal decision even banned any public performance of his experimental
ballets being billed as "Yakshagana."[citation needed]

Important components[edit]
Raga[edit]
Main article: Yakshagana Raga
Yakshagana Rga refers to melodic framework used in Yakshagana. It is based on pre-classical
melodic forms that comprise a series of five or more musical notes upon which a melody is founded.
Ragas in Yakshagana are closely associated with a set of melodic forms called mattu. In the
Yakshagana tradition, rgas are associated with different times of the night throughout which the
Yakshagana is performed.

Tala[edit]
Main article: Yakshagana Tala
Yakshagana Tala (Sanskrit tla) are frameworks for rhythms in Yakshagana that are determined by a
poetry style calledYakshagana Padya. Tala also decide how a composition is to be enacted by the
dancers. It is similar to tala in other forms of Indian music, but differs from them structurally. Each
composition is set to one or more talas, rendered by the himmela percussion artists play.[2][17]

Prasanga and literature[edit]

Main article: Yakshagana poetry
Yakshagana poetry (Yakshagana Padya or Yakshagana Prasanga) is a collection of poems written
to form a music drama. The poems are composed in well known Kannada metres, using a frame
work of ragas and talas. Yakshagana also has its own metre (or prosody). The collection of
Yakshagana poems forming a musical drama is called a Prasanga. The oldest surviving parasanga
books are believed to have been composed in the 15th century.[24] But many compositions have been

lost to time. There is evidence showing that oral compositions were in use before the 15th century.
The narratives of the surviving historic Yakshagana Prasangas are now often printed in paperback. [14]

Costumes and ornaments[edit]

A kings costume (raja vesha) with kireeta(or headgear); the mace is used as an abstract depiction of a weapon

Yakshagna costumes are rich in color. The costumes (or vesha) in Kannadadepend on characters
depicted in the play (prasanga). It also depends on the Yakshagana style (tittu).
Traditionally, Badagutittu Yakshagana ornaments are made out of light wood, pieces of mirror, and
colored stones.[25] Lighter materials, such as thermocol, are sometimes used today, although
ornaments are still predominantly made of woodwork.
Yakshagana costumes consist of headgear (Kirita or Pagade), Kavacha that decorates the chest,
Buja Keerthi (armlets) that decorate the shoulders, and belts (Dabu)all made up of light wood and
covered with golden foil. Mirror work on these ornaments helps to reflect light during shows and add
more color to the costumes. Armaments are worn on a vest and cover the upper half of the body.
The lower half is covered with kachche, which come in unique combinations of red, yellow, and
orange checks. Bulky pads are used under the kachche, making the actors' proportions different in
size from normal.
The character, Bannada Vesha, is used to depict monsters. This often involves detailed facial
makeup taking three to four hours to complete. Males play the female roles in traditional
Yakshagana. However, more recently, yakshagana has seen female artists, who perform in both
male and female roles.
The character of Stree Vesha makes use of sari and other decorative ornaments.

Instruments[edit]
Maddale[edit]
Main article: Maddale
The maddale is a percussion instrument and, along with the chande, is the primary rhythmic
accompaniment in the Yakshagana ensemble.

Taala (Bells)[edit]
Yakshagana bells or cymbals, are a pair of finger bells made of a special alloy (traditionally five
metal). They are made to fit the tone of the bhagawatha's voice. Singers carry more than one set, as
finger bells are available in different keys, thus enabling them to sing in different pitches. They help
create and guide the background music in Yakshagana.

Chande[edit]
Main article: Chande

The Chande is a drum and, along with the maddale, is an important rhythmic accompaniment in the
Yakshagana ensemble.

Artists[edit]
Main article: List of Yakshagana artists
Over the centuries, hundreds of artists performed Yakshagana and some of them like Chittani
Ramachandra Hegde,Keremane Shambhu Hegde Naranappa Uppoor, Kalinga Navada gained star
value.

Training and research[edit]

As most troupes are associated with temples, training in the art has been confined to temple
premises. The Govinda Pai Research Institute, located at MGM College, runs a Yakshagana
Kalakendra in Udupi trains youngsters in this ancient dance form. It also does research work on
language, rituals, and dance art forms.[26] Srimaya Yakshagana Training Center also trains
Yakshagana students which was founded by Shri Keremane Shambhu Hegde.

Outside India[edit]

"Bhasmasura Mohini" played at California in 2011

Yakshagana is finding new popularity outside India. Amateur troupes have emerged in California,
USA and Ontario, Canada. Yakshamitra in Canada, Yakshagana Kalavrinda, Yaksharanga in the
U.S. are a few examples of these international troupes.
Yakshamitra performs in Toronto, Canada, and was the first to use local live music himmela for their
performances. The other troupes usually use a recorded background himmela for their shows.
Yakshagana Kalavrinda performs on the east coast of the U.S.
Yaksharanga in the USA started after the visit of Yakshagana artist, Sri Chittani Ramachandra
Hegde. His performance at the age of 74 was so inspiring that art lovers decided to continue his art
thousands of miles away from its home. Sri Kidayuru Ganesh, who accompanied Sri Chittani, stayed
back for a couple of months to train a new generation of Yakshagana artists. The initial result was a
performance of Yakshagana Sudanvarjuna Kalaga. Hegde won the Padmashri Award in 2012 for
his lifetime contribution to the art. Yaksharanga has since performed many shows around California.
A Yakshagana Troupe, "Shri Idagunji Mahaganapati Yakshagana Mandali, Keremane," headed by
Shri Keremane Shambhu Hegde and Shri Keremane Shivanand Hegde, toured the U.S., and
performed more than 22 programs throughout North America. The troupe visited 12 countries.

Mela or troupes[edit]

There are about 30 full-fledged professional troupes, and about 200 amateur troupes in Yakshagana.
Professional troupes go on tour between November to May, giving about 180-200 shows. There are
about one thousand professional artists and many more amateurs. Further there are off season
shows during the wet season, the anniversary shows, school and college students Yakshagana and
of course the Talamaddale performances. Yakshagana commercial shows witness 12,000
performances per year in Karnataka generating a turnover of Rs. Six crore. [27][28]

Town/Villag
e

Kumble

Date
Started

Date of
closure
(if any)

Main sponsor

19th
century[citation

Thenkuthittu
(T) or
Badaguthittu
(B)

Free or
Ticket

Donation

needed]

Karki Hasyagara
Mela

1850s[7]

Soukooru Mela

Kamalashile
Mela[7]

still
performing

Sri Braahmi
Durgaparameshwari
Temple

Donation

Halady temple

Free/donation

Ticket

Ticket

Devotees'

Halady

1980s

Still
performing

Saligrama

1980s

Still
performing

Amrutheswari

Early 20th
Still
century[citation performing Amrutheswari temple
needed]

Makkala Mela[7]

1973

Saligrama

Dharmasthala
Mela

19th
century[citation

still

Sri Kshetra

Town/Villag
e

Date
Started

needed]

Date of
closure
(if any)

performing

Main sponsor

Thenkuthittu
(T) or
Badaguthittu
(B)

Dharmasthala

Free or
Ticket

donation

Kudlu Kutyala
Mela

Suratkal Mela

Ranjadakate
mela

From Shimoga
Dist.

Koti Chennaya Garadi

Sasthana

Kateel Shri
Durgaparameshwari
Temple

Goli Garadi[7]

Kateel Mela

1867[29]

still
performing

Idugunji Mela[7]

1934

still
performing

still
performing

Sri
still
Anathapadhmanaabha
performing
Temple

Ticket

Ticket

Donation,

Hosanagara
Mela

Perduru Mela[7]

19831984

Kondadakuli
Mela

Maranakatte
mela[7]

still
performing

Sri
Brahmalingeshwara

Donation/Ticket
s

Town/Villag
e

Date of
closure
(if any)

Date
Started

Main sponsor

Thenkuthittu
(T) or
Badaguthittu
(B)

Temple

Mandarthi
Mela[7]

still
performing

1950s

Durgaparameswari
Temple

Keremane Mela

Devotee

Bappanadu
Durgaparameshwari
Temple, Mulki

Bappanadu Mela

Characters found in Yakshagana

Kondadakuli

Madana Vesha

Free or
Ticket

Devotees'
donation

Thulu Yakshagana

Bhima in Yakshagana

Bhima

Krishna - Keremane Shivanand Hegde

Gajamukhadavage Ganapage

Sharanu Bande Guruve

Bannada Vesha

Yakshagana player in costume

Poothini

Veerabhadra (Thenkuthittu)

Yakshagana related photos

Pundu Vesha withPagade or Kedige Mundale (Kambalashwa photo)

Akrura vesha

Akrura

Bannada Vesha

Badaguthittu vesha

Chowki, the greenroom of Yakshagana, where artists get themselves ready

Parvathi artist

Full Pagade vesha in Yakshagana

Hanumantha

Hanumantha on last leg of Makeup.

A performance artist troupe of theYaksharanga variant

Notes[edit]
1.

Jump up^ This King of Mysore was deaf and dumb, but knew several languages.

2.

Jump up^ Mysore kings often gave patronage to various forms of performance artists

References[edit]
1.

Jump up^ "yaksha". Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved2007-09-06.

2.

^ Jump up to:a b Prof. Sridhara Uppura; 1998; Yakshagana and Nataka Diganta; publications.

3.

^ Jump up to:a b "The changing face of Yakshagana". Online webpage of The Hindu (Chennai,
India: The Hindu). Retrieved 2007-09-06.

4.

^ Jump up to:a b c Dr. Shivarama Karantha; Yakshagana Bayalaata; Harsha Publications; 1963;
Puttur, South Canara, India.

5.

Jump up^ Yakshagana; accessed November 2, 2013

6.

Jump up^ "Yakshagana".

7.

^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k Martha Bush Ashton, Bruce Christie (1977). Yakshagana, a Dance
Drama of India. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. p. 21,22. Retrieved August 8,2012.

8.

^ Jump up to:a b "The Hindu- Focus on rural art". Chennai, India: The Hindu. 2005-12-23.
Retrieved 2007-09-06.

9.

Jump up^ Note: This due to what Karantha describes as procedural lapses in their research
and conclusions. Karantha bases his claim on the fact that Venkata was reported to be a bhagawatha
(singer) himself, and is believed to have founded his own troupe.

10.

^ Jump up to:a b Pranesh, Meera Rajaram (2003) [2003]. Musical Composers during Wodeyar
Dynasty (16381947 A.D.). Bangalore: Vee Emm. pp. 37, 38.

11.

Jump up^ Hapgood, Robert; 1983; Macbeth Distilled: AYakshagana Production in Delhi];
"Shakespeare Quarterly;" Vol. 31; No. 3; Autumn, 1980; pp. 439-440.

12.

Jump up^ Growing with Tradition; 14 October 2005 article;Hindu.com; accessed November
2013

13.

Jump up^ "3-day festival to celebrate Karanth's birth centenary". The Times of India. 200212-20. Retrieved 2007-09-06.

14.

^ Jump up to:a b Brandon, James R. (ed.). The Cambridge guide to Asian Theatre (1997 (2nd
reprint) ed.). Cambridge,UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 115, 116.ISBN 9780521588225.

15.

^ Jump up to:a b Dr. Achar, Palthady Ramakrishna; 2004; Janapada Parisara; Puttur; "Supriya
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16.

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