Sand is any material consisting of small mineral or rock particles that has a shape ranging from

angular to spherical, and it is defined and graded by the size of these particles. For very course
sands, the range is 1 to 2 mm; for coarse sands, 0.5 to 1 mm; for medium sands, 0.25 to 0.5 mm;
for fine sands, 0.12 to 0.25 mm; and for very fine sands, 0.06 to 0.12 mm (Encyclopedia
Americana, 1997)
Geologically, sand is formed by the erosive action of running water, ocean waves, glaciers, or
wind. Silica sands are generally derived from the disintegration of igneous or other rocks, while
calcium-rich sands mostly come from the grinding up of shells, corals, or limestone beds by
wave action. Granite forms feldsphatic, or arkose sand that contains quartz and feldspar, while
basic rocks form ferromagnesian, or greywacke, sand (Encyclopedia Americana, 1997).
Sand is a natural resource which has been used to clean polluted water for ages. Sand contains
high amounts of silica and low in soluble calcium, magnesium, and iron compounds. As a
matter of fact, using sand in its natural form is endorsed as a water purification process by many
health organizations worldwide (Majunder, 2012)
A sand filter cleans water by passing through various layers of rocks and sands. Unlike any other
filters, sand filters are environmentally friendly products which can be used without adverse
health effects. Sand filters can be used in commercial water purification system for drinking or
for waste water treatment. Usually a gelatin-like biofilm called schmutzdecke forms on top of
the sand. This is where the microbiological elements thrive and helps digestion of harmful
bacteria and contaminants (Weber-Shirk. & L., 1997)
Different types of sand filters are now being used throughout the world, some are commonly
used by municipal water treatment plants and ground water intended for drinking. The space
required for the filtration unit depends on what type of sand filter it is, some should be on a large
land that takes too much space, while others can be done using household tools like drums and
containers.
There are few basic designs and operating principles common to all types of sand filter system.
First, the waste water must be pre-treated to remove solid suspensions and scum. Typically,
screening comes before the sand filtration itself to make sure that there will be no solid present in
the sand that may clog the system. The filter medium should be clean and free of small soil
particles to allow the waste water flow correctly through it because it may fill up the spaces in
between the larger sand grains, thus, it will pose hydraulic failures. Oxygen supply is also
regulated in this system because it is critical to all biological and chemical treatment taking place
inside the filter. This is done by having intervals in waste water applications to give time for the
medium to drain before the next application. It is also important that the waste water is evenly
distributed in the mediums surface to assure uniformity of the treated water.
The sand used for sand filters must have a fine texture and a diameter ranging from 0.2 to 1.6
millimetres to ensure their filtering efficiency. The screens should not exceed 1.6 millimetres
mesh size to avoid grains of sand wider than the accepted range to pass through. Usually, sand
filters are combined with different filtering mediums such as charcoal, gravel, and others to
produce an acceptable quality of potable or drinking water. Some methods used to remove

chemicals do not necessarily also remove pathogen, so combination of filtration medium is

always a great option.
The simplicity of sand filtration process caught the attention of different countries because of its
effectiveness and low production cost. Materials needed to make them are not hard to find, and
the construction of the unit itself is not that difficult. Sand filtration also is a flexible process; it
can be done on a large or small scale. For household uses, they can be constructed using small
containers or drums. For industrial or commercial uses, sand filters are within steel tanks.
A study of filtration properties of sand was done in Nigeria. Particle size distribution, specific
gravity, solubility, porosity and permeability, and filterability are the parameters used in
investigating the properties of sand. By using complete set of sieves, shaking machine and
weighing balance, the particle size distribution was found out that to be sixty nine (69) percent.
This result states that the sand is too fine and uniformly graded therefore careful screening and
sufficient grading must be employed for the sand to function effectively. For specific gravity,
measuring cylinder and weighing machine were used. It yielded two point fifty seven (2.57)
gram per cubic centimetres which means that it is safe for backwashing. Then, for the solubility
of the sand, the crucible dishes, weighing balance and dilute sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid
were used. It resulted to point sixty eight (0.68) percent in sulphuric acid while point twenty
eight (0.28) percent in hydrochloric acid. From this, it clearly states that the sand contain no
impurities. On the other hand, permeability apparatus, glass beaker and measuring cylinder, stop
watch, sieves number twenty (20) and thirty (30) and weighing balance were used for the
determination of porosity and permeability. The porosity recorded is point forty eight (0.48)
while for permeability is 2.10 x 10-2 centimeter per second. These findings are still within the
acceptable range of porosity and permeability for sand. Lastly, is the filterability, which uses
filterability apparatus, glass beakers, thermometer, stop clock, and one hundred (100) millimetres
funnel. Results of this revealed that the percentage removal of the turbidity and E. coli were
twenty one (21) and forty one (41) [79]. Pebbles on the other hand is added to intensify the
filtering capacity of sand.
2.7.2.2 Activated Carbon
Long time before today, carbon in the form of charcoal has beed used since 450 BC by
the Hindu for water treatment. (Cecen, 2011) In water and wastewater treatment systems,
activated carbon is almost always used as a filter medium in an independent treatment operation.
In some cases, powdered activated carbon (PAC) is added to the actual wastewater stream to
adsorb contaminants, then removed later from the stream and discarded. Because PAC has a
faster adsorption rate, it was often used in the past, but disposal and handling concerns have
made granular activated carbon (GAC) a more popular alternative for most applications. GAC is
used in the filtration process in water treatment, then regenerated when it becomes less effective
due to saturation with chemicals. GAC is also usually much easier to handle and transport than
PAC.
The use of a system of this nature allows flow through the filter to be maintained with no
interruptions. Ideally, a horizontal front of adsorbing solute is maintained in the tank, and the
carbon that reaches the bottom of the tank contains the highest concentration of solute. It is

continuously removed of and either regenerated or discarded. The system never has to be shut
down for carbon replenishment.
Benefits of Activated Carbon Filtration (Mazille, 2015)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Highly effective at removing non-polar organic chemicals from water.

Applicable to a wide variety of organic compounds
Very effective at removing colors from waste streams.
Effective at removing low levels (ppb range) of inorganic pollutants.
Thermal regeneration of the carbon destroys the adsorbed waste solute.
Very flexible system allows rapid start-up and shut down as needed.
System can be designed so that it is portable, to be taken to waste sites.

Limitations of Activated Carbon Treatment (Mazille, 2015)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Limited to wastes with low organic concentrations (< 5%).

Limited to wastes with very low inorganic concentrations (< 1%).
Unable to remove highly soluble organics, or those with low molecular weights.
Systems cannot tolerate suspended solids in the influent stream (due to clogging).
High operating costs due to carbon costs system requirements.
Disposal of contaminated carbon can be problematic if it is not regenerated.

Activated carbon is often used as pre-treatment to protect other water treatment units
such as reverse and ion exchange resins from possible damage due to oxidation or organic
fouling. The combination of ozonation with activated carbon is a very efficient technique for
eliminating organic matter including micropollutants. Besides, the lifetime of activated carbon
filters is extended drastically when used in combination with ozone, deceasing operation costs
substantially. (Aeppli & P., 1996)
Adsorption capacity is a necessary characteristic of an adsorbent. For this matter activated
carbon is a unique material because it has an immense capacity for adsorption from gas and
liquid phases. Producing a clean environment involving separations and water purification in the
chemical and associated industries as well as water purification, activated carbon occupies its
place in a special way. In these roles, it exhibits a remarkable efficiency as the international
production is a lit tie more than half a million tonnes per year, with perhaps 2 million tonnes
being in continuous use and this is equivalent to the allocation of 200 mg per person of the world
population to be compared with the world use of fossil fuels of 2 tonnes per person of the world
population (Marsh & Reinoso, 2006)
Activated carbon is filled with holes (voids, spaces, sites, pores) which is the same size of a
molecule making it a unique material. These holes possess intense van der Waals forces from the
near proximity of carbon atoms which is responsible for the adsorption process even though they
are spaces of zero electron density (Marsh & Reinoso, 2006).
2.7.2.2.1 History

The family of carbons ranging from carbon blacks to nuclear graphites, from carbon fibres and
composites to electrode graphites, and many more is where activated carbon belongs. These
carbons came from organic parent sources but with different carbonization and manufacturing
processes therefore as a family these carbon artifacts are related to each other (Marsh & Reinoso,
2006).
Mechanisms of carbonization are different, so creating the need to study the family of carbons in
its completeness is necessary. Coal substances exhibit porosities ranging from micro porosity to
macro porosity, and the close similarities between porous carbons and coals are identified to
have an advantage (Marsh & Reinoso, 2006).
With the wide range of carbon artifacts which is available, they have a common ancestry and it is
single crystal graphite. All carbon forms except for a diamond mineral are related to the graphite
lattice in such a way with each form of carbon representing one of an infinite number of
assembled defective grapheme layers, and some very defective which is really known (Marsh &
Reinoso, 2006).
In the solid, liquid and gas phase carbons are prepared from parent organic material via
carbonizations. Mechanisms involved are significantly different. A solid-phase carbonization
always proceeds within the solid phase with all structural changes involving atom removal and
replacement within a solid lattice that remains essentially rigid throughout the process. No bulk
movement of material occurs within the solid. Liquid phase carbonizations are very different
indeed. It is not a case of the liquid at some stage solidifying to give a structure as disorganized
as the preceding liquid. In fact the opposite is true. The solids which emerge from a carbonizing
liquid such as coal-tar and petroleum pitches are extremely well organized and constitute the
graphitizable carbons also called as anisotropic carbons. These are carbons which on heating to
beyond 2000 C are capable of producing three-dimensional X-ray diffraction lines (hkl) of the
graphite lattice (Marsh & Reinoso, 2006).
A very important aspect within carbon materials and in particular an activated carbon is its
structure or the arrangements of carbon atoms in space. Most of these originate from non-fusing
parent materials and hence fall into the category of non-graphitizable carbons which exhibit
considerable structural disorder, but are never amorphous. As we describe or to describe in any
correct, meaningful, and accurate way the structure within a disordered material that still persists
for non-graphitizable carbon materials is the challenge. This very nature of disorder creates the
porosity upon which the properties of activated carbon will depend. This disorder is central,
totally, to what we need to know about activated carbon, and is therefore most critically assessed
and debated. This debate therefore has to enter the controversy over the existence of the carbon
crystallite, which was often reported as being graphitic, and being an integral part of carbon
structure (Marsh & Reinoso, 2006).
2.7.2.2.2 Production
In the production of activated carbon, it is produced from nearly all carbon-containing organic
materials, mainly wood, sawdust, nutshells, fruit stones, peat, lignite, coal, petroleum coke, etc.
The use of a suitable precursor or approach is mainly conditioned by its availability and cost,

although it also depends on the type of installation available and the main applications of the
manufactured carbon. It is shown in the figure below.
Controlled Gastification
Carbonization
Char

Activated Carbon

Carbon dioxide, steam etc.

Precursor

(a) Impregnation (H3 PO4, ZnCl2 etc.

Activated Carbon

(b) Heat treatment/washing

Figure 2: Activated carbon manufacturing
(Source: Reinoso, F., 2002. Activated carbon. Great Britain: Elsevier Ltd.)
For further explanation activated carbon is a non-graphitizable carbon, meaning that it cannot be
transformed into graphite by just using high heat treatment. In this type of carbon the structure of
the precursor remains during carbonization, because fusion cannot take place because most
graphitizable carbons pass through a fluid stage during carbonization, thus facilitating the
formation of a graphitic structure.
Just like mentioned already, most organic materials rich in carbon, that does not fuse when
carbonized, produce a porous carbon that is called a char sometime. For the selection of the
parent material of activated carbon production, however, was based mainly on the following
criteria. First is low in inorganic matter, second is the availability and cost, third is low
degradation upon storage, and fourth and last is the ease of activation because a material like
calcite coke is a difficult material while wood char is easily activated. Other data for typical
precursors used in the manufacture of activated carbon are listed in the table above, this table
including information on typical precursor properties and the type of activated carbon expected
for each precursor. Cellulose-type materials such as wood, sawdust, nutshells, and fruit stones
are mainly used for chemical activation. Although some of these precursors or approach
especially nutshells and fruit stones are also used for thermal activation, the general tendency is
to use peat, lignite and several types of coal mainly sub bituminous and bituminous, according to
its cost and availability the specified area (Marsh & Reinoso, 2006). Further description is shown
in the table below.

Table 3: Properties of materials used in the manufacture of activated carbons

(Source: Bansal et al. 1988)

Raw Material

Carbon
(wt. %)

Volatiles
(wt. %)

Density
(cm^g~i)

Ash
(wt %)

Texture of
Activated
Carbon

Soft wood

40 - 50

55 60

0.4 - 0.5

0.3 1.1

Soft,
large
pore volume

Hard wood

40 - 42

55- 60

0.55 - 0.8

0.3 1.2

Soft,
large
pore volume

Lignin

35 - 40

58 60

0.3 0.4

Soft,
large
pore volume
Hard,
large
micropore
volume

Nutshells

30 -45

55- 60

1.4

Lignite

55- 70

25 - 40

1.0 1.35

5- 15

Soft coal

65 - 80

20 - 30

1.25 1.50

5 - 12

Petroleum
Coke

70 - 85

15 - 20

1.35

0.5 0.7

Hard coal

70 - 75

10 - 15

1.45

5 - 15

Hard,
large
pore volume

Anthracite

85 - 95

5 - 10

1.5 1.8

2 - 15

Hard,
large
pore volume

Hard, small
pore volume
Medium hard,
Medium pore
volume
Medium hard,
Medium pore
volume

2.7.2.2.3 Application
Various modifications in activated charcoal were used all around the world. These modifications
help to improve and relay into different applications not only in industries but also in
medications and preventions of unwanted foreign objects that leads to infections causing death.
In industries, activated carbon is categorized into granular activated carbon (GAC) and the
powdered activated carbon (PAC). Between a powdered and granular activated carbon, the
powdered activated carbon has a much higher surface area per unit mass and thus a higher
removal capacity than the granular. With this the PAC is better than the GAC but the problem
lies after using it because it is difficult for bio-sand filters to effectively separate the PAC from

the treated water thus the GAC is much preferred by others like the local folks due to lack of
equipments (Cobb, Warms, Maurer, & Chiesa, 2012)
Studies have been conducted all around the world and the most common category of activated
carbon used is the GAC. In a pilot - plant experiments for the removal of trihalomethanes
(THMs), halo acetic acids (HAAs), and dissolved organic carbons (DOC) it is proven that the
removal of THMs and the most part of the removal DOC must be attributed to adsorption by
GAC, while that of a smaller part of DOC may be attributed to microbial degradation in the filter
bed, where chlorine had been totally removed by the catalytic action of the activated carbon
surface. Also, the GAC filter efficiency in turbidity removal was higher than that of the sand
filter operating in parallel (Babi, 2003)
Another study conducted regarding the use of activated carbon is the pesticide removal by
combined ozonation and granular activated carbon filtration. This study concludes that the
preloading of background organic matter (BOM) from the pre-treated Rhine River speeds up the
breakthrough of atrazine in the GAC. For longer preloading times, ozonation deduces the
adverse effect and proves to have a better effect together with GAC after ozonated the water
samples (Orlandini, 1999) For further improvement of water quality, the use of membrane is
employed.
2.7.2.3 Zeolite
The use of natural zeolites in wastewater treatment is one of the oldest and the most perspective
areas of their application. The presence of heavy metals (Zn, Cr, Pb, Cd, Cu, Mn, Fe, etc.) in
wastewater is a serious environmental problem and their removal by natural zeolites have been
extensively studied along with other technologies, including chemical precipitation, ion
exchange, adsorption, membrane filtration, coagulation flocculation, flotation and
electrochemical methods (Jose & Cruz, 1999). Recent investigations of natural zeolites as
adsorbents in water and wastewater treatment, their properties and possible modification of
natural zeolites have been a subject of many studies. Various natural zeolites around the world
have shown good ion-exchange capacities for cations, such as ammonium and heavy metal ions.
Modification of natural zeolites can be performed by several methods, such as acid treatment, ion
exchange, and surfactant functionalization. The modified zeolites can show high adsorption
capacity also for organic matter and anions.
The applicability of natural zeolites for the simultaneous removal of ammonia and humic acid,
two of the most encountered current contaminants, from the surface waters was also investigated.
Their removal depends on pH value, initial concentrations of humic acid and ammonia,
temperature and contact time. The obtained results indicated that zeolite showed best
performance for simultaneous removal of ammonia and humic acid at the pH close to that of
natural waters (World Bank, 2012). The use of natural and modified zeolites has been further
investigated for the simultaneous removal of Fe and Mn ions from underground water samples.
In particular, Fe and Mn removal levels are between 22-90% and 61-100% for natural zeolite clinoptilolite (World Bank, 2012). The development of new and cost effective methods to
remove As from ground waterand drinking water also becomes one of the research priorities. The
occurrence of arsenic in natural ground waters is due to geological composition of soil.

Long time before today, carbon in the form of charcoal has beed used since 450 BC by
the Hindu for water treatment. (Cecen, 2011) In water and wastewater treatment systems,
activated carbon is almost always used as a filter medium in an independent treatment operation.
In some cases, powdered activated carbon (PAC) is added to the actual wastewater stream to
adsorb contaminants, then removed later from the stream and discarded. Because PAC has a
faster adsorption rate, it was often used in the past, but disposal and handling concerns have
made granular activated carbon (GAC) a more popular alternative for most applications. GAC is
used in the filtration process in water treatment, then regenerated when it becomes less effective
due to saturation with chemicals. GAC is also usually much easier to handle and transport than
PAC.
The use of a system of this nature allows flow through the filter to be maintained with no
interruptions. Ideally, a horizontal front of adsorbing solute is maintained in the tank, and the
carbon that reaches the bottom of the tank contains the highest concentration of solute. It is
continuously removed of and either regenerated or discarded. The system never has to be shut
down for carbon replenishment.
Benefits of Activated Carbon Filtration (Mazille, 2015)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Highly effective at removing non-polar organic chemicals from water.

Applicable to a wide variety of organic compounds
Very effective at removing colors from waste streams.
Effective at removing low levels (ppb range) of inorganic pollutants.
Thermal regeneration of the carbon destroys the adsorbed waste solute.
Very flexible system allows rapid start-up and shut down as needed.
System can be designed so that it is portable, to be taken to waste sites.

Limitations of Activated Carbon Treatment (Mazille, 2015)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Limited to wastes with low organic concentrations (< 5%).

Limited to wastes with very low inorganic concentrations (< 1%).
Unable to remove highly soluble organics, or those with low molecular weights.
Systems cannot tolerate suspended solids in the influent stream (due to clogging).
High operating costs due to carbon costs system requirements.
Disposal of contaminated carbon can be problematic if it is not regenerated.

Activated carbon is often used as pre-treatment to protect other water treatment units
such as reverse and ion exchange resins from possible damage due to oxidation or organic
fouling. The combination of ozonation with activated carbon is a very efficient technique for
eliminating organic matter including micropollutants. Besides, the lifetime of activated carbon
filters is extended drastically when used in combination with ozone, deceasing operation costs
substantially. (Aeppli & P., 1996)
Zeolites can occur naturally from volcanic rocks and ash layers that react with alkaline
groundwater. They are rarely pure and are contaminated to varying degrees by other minerals,
metals, quartz, or other zeolites. They usually used open pit mining system to harvest natural

zeolites. Zeolites are also produced synthetically, which involves heating aqueous solutions of
alumina and silica with sodium hydroxide. Zeolites are preferred as adsorbents in the chemical
process industry because they are inorganic, non-flammable, and can withstand very high
temperatures (Vaughn, 1988). Generally, they are porous aluminasilicates, which may occur
naturally but also can be synthesized (Blocki, 1993).

Synthetic Zeolite

Zeolite

The use of natural zeolites in wastewatertreatment is one of the oldest and the most
perspective areas of their application. It has a multi-purpose ability to capture most contaminants
found in water system. It improves process effectiveness and waste discharge from activated
sludge treatment plant.
Zeolites are hard and durable which enables them to perform a series of filter functions to
generate improved water quality more efficiently than usual slow and rapid sand filter methods.
The crystalline framework of zeolite produces an electric field that attracts and binds several
cations and, after modification, anions. They are low cost ion-exchangers for the removal and
recovery of heavy metals cations (Pb, Cu, Cd, Zn, Co, Cr, Mn and Fe; Pb, Cu as high as 97%)
from drinking and waste-waters.