Effort-Reward Imbalance and Attitude towards Unethical Work Behaviour among Police

Personnel: Emotional Intelligence as a Moderator

Oluyinka Ojedokun (Ph.D)
Department of Sociology, Psychology & Environmental Management,
Lead City University, Ibadan, Nigeria
e-mail:yinkaoje2004@yahoo.com, (234-0805-6325-953)
ABSTRACT
Emotional intelligence is a trainable skill capable of discouraging unethical work attitude among
Nigeria police personnel by imparting on the perception of effort-reward imbalance. However,
exploration of the moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship between effortreward imbalance and attitude towards unethical work behaviour has been absent from literature.
Therefore, this research examined how emotional intelligence moderates the relationship between
effort-reward imbalance and attitude towards unethical work behaviour among a sample of police
personnel in Nigeria. The study is a survey adopting an Ex-post facto research design to collect data
from two hundred and twenty-five (n=225) police personnel at Ogun State Police Command
Headquarters, Eleweran, Abeokuta. A questionnaire measuring effort-reward imbalance, emotional
intelligence, attitude towards unethical work behaviour and demographic variables was the
instrument for data collection. Hypothesis was tested using moderated hierarchical regression. Results
revealed that effort-reward imbalance and emotional intelligence were significant predictors of
attitude towards unethical work behaviour (F=18.42; P<.001, R 2=.35), explaining forty-seven percent
(35%) of the variance in attitude towards unethical work behaviour. The independent predictions
showed that effort-reward imbalance ( =.22; t= 2.21; p< .01) and emotional intelligence ( =-.29; t=
-2.10; p< .01) contributed significantly to variance in attitude towards unethical work behaviour.
Lastly, the interaction term between effort-reward imbalance and emotional intelligence on attitude
towards unethical work behaviour yielded significant equation (F=12.24; p<.001, R 2=.46;
R2change=.11). Conclusively, effort-reward imbalance and emotional intelligence measures
independently and interactively influence attitude towards unethical work behaviour among police
personnel and suggests that inclusion of emotional training modules in the training and development
of police personnel would create ethical work workplaces devoid of favourable attitude towards
unethical work behaviour.
Key words: Attitude towards unethical work behaviour, Effort-reward imbalance, Emotional
intelligence

Effort-Reward Imbalance and Attitude towards Unethical Work Behaviour among Police
Personnel: Emotional Intelligence as a Moderator
Organisation researchers often stress the pivotal roles that work attitude and behaviour of
personnel play in the well-being, acceptance and image of organizations. This is because exhibition of
negative work attitude and behaviour by employees may undermine organisational integrity, tainting
reputation, causing mistrust, and hampering organization/community relations. It may also damage the
reputations of good and hardworking members of the organisation or calling into question the
behaviour of the entire members of the organization. It may also reduce productivity or arouse feeling
of quitting among personnel who feel nauseated by negative attitude and work behaviour of their
colleagues.
In Nigeria, it would be an aberration for police personnel to exhibit work attitude and
behaviour that undermine the integrity of the police organisation. This is because they are civil
servants; who act on behalf of, and in favour of citizens using the resources provided by the
community (Lumijrvi & Vesterinen, 2006). With this implicit understanding, the Nigerian public
expected police personnel as law enforcement agents and an arm of criminal justice system to project
unfavourable disposition towards unethical work behaviour, provide services with a benevolent and
caring attitude.
This expectation informs the regulation of police personnels work attitude and behaviour
through Police Act (CAP 359) of 1943, which makes provision for the organization, discipline,
powers, and duties of the police, the special constabulary and the traffic wardens. The force also has
codes of conduct embedded in the act as a method of controlling the deleterious effects of personnel
misconduct, unethical, or dysfunctional work behaviour in the organization. This act implies
maintenance of codes of ethics and police norms by every police personnel. Unethical work behaviour
is any behaviour that brings harm to, and that is either illegal or morally unacceptable to the larger
community (Jones, 1991). This may include lying, cheating, stealing, or interpersonal aggression
(Aquinas & Reed, 2002). Police personnel engages in unethical behaviour by taking bribery,
falsification or wiping out of proofs, favouritism, nepotism, abuse of duty, use of violence, or torture
(Newborn, 1999).
With reference to Regulation 370 of the Nigeria Police Act (CAP 359), unethical work
behaviour include absence from duty, late for duty without leave or reasonable excuse, breach of
confidence, corrupt practice, damage to clothing or other articles supplied to the personnel,
2

discreditable conduct, disobedience to orders. Others include drunkenness, drinking, soliciting for
drink, and selling, storing or distributing liquor while on duty or keeping a house for sale of liquor or
directly or indirectly interested in such house. Falsehood, insubordinate or oppressive conduct,
malingering; neglect of duty, improper conduct; shabbily dressing, and unlawful or unnecessary
exercise of authority also constitute unethical work behaviour. In summary, Regulation 370 is a
pledge made by each police personnel during enlistment and training to discharge fundamental law
enforcement duties to the best of individuals ability, conduct personal affairs in order to bring credit to
police organization, and enforce the law impartially.
Disciplinary actions that accompany unethical behaviour of police personnel are in proportion
to the offence committed and vary based on the rank of police personnel. They range from the
discipline prescribed by chapter 4 of General Orders for Officers holding offices in the civil service of
the federation (Nigeria), dismissal, reduction in rank, withholding or deferment of increment,
reprimand, fine, confinement to barracks, fatigues or other duties or punishment drill (Police Act, Part
XVI). More severe disciplinary action is likely when personnel misconduct produces more costly
effects or battered image for the force (Police Act, Part XVI). The aim of this disciplinary strategy is to
create awareness among members of the police that violation of the rules and regulations governing
their conduct brings negative consequences upon the perpetrators; the costs of which outweigh the
benefits.
Despite these heavy ethical demands placed on the work of police personnel and expressed in
Police Act, the official Holy Book of members of Nigeria police; attitude towards unethical
behaviour of some police personnel in Nigeria is a departure from these norms. For example, Adebayo
(2005) noted that the quality of services rendered at present by the Nigeria police does not measure up
to expectation. He also stressed that, unethical work behaviour of police personnel manifests in high
level of insecurity occasioned by rampant cases of armed robbery, gruesome murder, assassinations,
and poor response rate to distress calls from victims of violent crimes in Nigeria. In other words, a
significant numbers of police personnel continue to undermine the integrity of the Nigeria police,
despite the fact that they sworn to an oath that they would be of good behaviour when being enlisted.
This specifically manifests when they meet members of the public. This police-citizens contacts often
result in alleged police brutalities, improper arrests, high level corruption, unjustifiable use of firearms,
improper pulling over of vehicles, and extortion of money from motorists in major cities and on
highways.

Complying and abiding with professional ethical norms may depend on individuals attitudes
toward these ethical norms. Attitude is a cluster of beliefs, feelings, and behavioural intentions toward
an object (Eagly & Chicken, 1993). Thus, whether police personnel conduct themselves in an ethical
way or casting doubt/aspersion upon these ethical norms or even reject them entirely may depend on
their attitudes toward these ethical norms. If this is then the case, the questions now arise: Why would
police personnel have favourably disposition towards unethical work behaviour despite the negative
consequences of doing so?
According to the literature, reasons why some individuals have positive or negative attitude
towards unethical work behaviour may relate to a variety of factors, including emotional intelligence
and self-regulation (Ojedokun, 2008), age, gender, and educational qualification (Adebayo, 2005).
However, this study focuses on police personnels perception of effort-reward imbalance (ERI).
In Nigeria, the nature of police duties and work environment provide justification for studying
influence of effort-reward imbalance on the attitude towards unethical behaviour among police
personnel. Interaction of the researcher with some police personnel revealed that a growing number of
them, having work with the police institution for some time get the feeling that they are not being
adequately remunerated, considering efforts put into their daily work. In psychological literature, this
phenomenon is called effort-reward imbalance. This feeling may trigger negative reactions toward the
citizens they police; the police institution, and what it stands for (e.g., police ethical law, guide, or
codes of conduct). Police personnels perception of effort-reward imbalance could also emanate from
understaffing, budgetary restrictions, higher workloads, and working with obsolete equipment.
According to Siegrist (1986), the ERI model highlights the idea of a reciprocal exchange
between efforts (psychological and physical demands at work) and rewards (salary, esteem, and job
security). Siegrist (2002) posited that when psychological contracts are ambiguously defined, labour
market is tight, future gains are expected, and employees are over committed to job demands, then
high effort-low reward-conditions are maintained. Theoretically, the relationship between an employee
and the organisation suggests a social exchange, characterised by mutual cooperative investments
where employees efforts are recompense by the organisation with appropriate rewards. Strong
negative emotions and sustained dysfunctional organisation attitudes and behaviours could be
associated with violations of the principle of reciprocity. In other words, it is a possibility that
perception of imbalance between high efforts spent and low rewards received from police institution is
likely to elicit recurrent negative emotions and sustained favourable disposition towards unethical

work behaviour. Conversely, positive emotions evoked by appropriate social rewards may promote
well-being, health and positive work attitudes and behaviours.
The model of effort-reward imbalance developed by Siegrist (1986, 1996), Siegrist, Peter, Junge,
Cremer, and Seidel (1990), posits that individual perception of an imbalance between high efforts and

low rewards (in terms of salary, promotion prospects, appreciation and respect, and job security)
increases negative reactions. Apply to the work organisation, this suggests that there should be a
balance between an employees input (effort) and the outcome (reward) he or she receives to decrease
negative reaction. Adams (1965) equity theory summarizes individuals reactions or responses to
perception of effort-reward imbalance in work organizations. The theory hinges on the inputs (efforts)
that organisation members contribute into social exchange relationship and the outcomes (rewards)
derivable from such relationship. Inputs (efforts) represent investments in the exchange relationship
for which a worker expects some reciprocal return (rewards). Therefore, if an individual perceives an
imbalance between efforts and the rewards accrue to the efforts, cognitively, this would create tension
or dissonance within the individual (Festinger, 1957), the tension that arose from perception of effortreward imbalance would motivate the individual to reduce it. This is because a state of imbalance in
the individuals cognition is not comfortable.
Adams (1965) provided three alternatives to restore balance, which are reduction of the
individuals effort, increasing the individuals reward, and if these alternatives are not achievable,
quitting the job to escape the situation of imbalance. However, due to unemployment and economic
situations in Nigeria, reducing the individuals input and quitting the job are not feasible alternatives,
therefore, the individual may stay on with the job and devise personal method of increasing job
rewards, this could be through being unethical.
It plausible to posit that attitude towards unethical work behaviour among police personnel is
related to perception of effort-reward imbalance (that is, how well effort meet or exceed
outcome/expectations). For instance, if a police officer perceives that he/she is putting more effort
(performing harder) at policing tasks or beats but receiving fewer rewards or rewards receives are not
commensurate with the effort directed at performance. This perception may trigger negative reactions,
such as, intent to leave the organization, low organizational commitment, neglect of organizational
responsibilities, sabotaging of organizational image, and favourable disposition towards unethical
work behaviour. However, if the individual perceives a balance between effort directed at police job

performance and the rewards receives, the individual is likely to have negative attitude towards
unethical work behaviour.
In addition, individual traits such as emotional intelligence may correlate with attitude towards
unethical work behaviour. Trait emotional intelligence describes a generalized tendency to utilize skills
in empathy, cooperation, consensus buildings, understanding self and others feelings, controlling
impulse and delaying gratification, regulating mood, empathizing and hoping, and maintaining a
positive attitude in the face of setbacks (Goleman, 1998). This definition suggests that a police officer
with high emotional intelligence may feel angry and frustrated by conduct of a complainant or an
offender, but would calm him/her self down, by not saying nasty words. The importance of emotional
intelligence in mitigating against negative work behaviour and attitude was elucidated by Gibson and
Barsade (1999) who posited that, people who are not tolerant and who cannot read other peoples cues
well, no matter how talented or intelligent they might be, are not good candidates for workplace
success.
Furthermore, emotional intelligence can moderate the direct impact of perception of effortreward imbalance on attitude towards unethical work behaviour. This is because emotional intelligence
consists of a broad range of enhanced social skills and abilities that can motivate positive outcomes
and behaviours. It can also assist individuals to manage negative experiences and reactions at work.
Therefore, it is tenable to posit that individuals with high emotional intelligence rather than individuals
with low emotional intelligence are better fortified to deal with effort-reward imbalance in order to
mitigate its affective and behavioral implications (such as, unethical work behaviour).
This assumption stemmed from Schneider (1987), person-organisation fit model that proposed
congruence between patterns of organisational values and patterns of individual values. Such
congruence in values or lack of it has important implication for employees attitude and behaviour
within an organisational context. PE fit theory originated from Lewins Field theory (1951). The P
and E variables comprise the psychological environment in which an individual appraises the
situation at any point in time. The person (e.g. emotional intelligence) and the environment (effortreward imbalance) interact to have an effect on each other, the relationship is dynamic, and it is
generally held that good fit will have positive consequences and vice versa for both the individual
and the organisation.
For instance, effective policing is more than physical appearance and training, it also entails
interactions with members of the community, expressing appropriate emotions as the situation dictates,

managing self and others emotions, making crucial decisions during emergencies about self and
others without making recourse to police authority always, and handling firearms with competency
and maturity. Therefore, even, if a police personnel characteristically perceives that effort directed at
policing exceeds rewards receive, the need to display appropriate emotion as part of police duties and
managing community members emotions could translate into more effective policing, such as being
more ethical. The fact that some police personnel are academically intelligent may not prevent them
from been unethical. Thus, training of emotional intelligence is important, if Nigeria police personnel
are to be more ethical.
Although, emotional intelligence has been implicated on work perception, work attitudes, and
attitude towards unethical work behaviour (e.g., Ojedokun, 2008; McShane & VonGlinow, 2000), its
moderating effect on the relationship between effort-reward imbalance and attitude towards unethical
work behaviour has received little empirical attention in Nigeria. Yet trait emotional intelligence could
have important effect on their association. Essentially, considering these powerful submissions, the
question of how much does effort-reward imbalance contributes to the prediction of attitude towards
unethical work behaviour and the moderating role of emotional intelligence on the relationship
between effort-reward imbalance and attitude towards unethical work behaviour among police
personnel in Nigeria becomes important.
Essentially, the foregoing generates these research questions: Why do some police personnel
have favourably attitude towards unethical work behaviour and others do not. Would emotional
intelligence moderate the direct effect of effort-reward imbalance on attitude towards unethical work
behaviour? Implication of the outcome of this study for training and assessment of police recruits level
of trait emotional intelligence during and after recruitment exercises is a major contribution of this
study.
Perception of injustice (effort-reward imbalance) is associated with deviant behaviours such as
employee retaliation behaviour, theft, dysfunctional organization behaviours, counterproductive work
behaviour and vandalism (Aquino, Lewis, & Bradfield, 1999; Skarlicki & Folger, 1997). According to
Sommers, Schell, and Vodanovich (2002), perceptions of employees that those in power in an
organisation have been treating them unfairly may resort to indirect and covert forms of retaliation.
Similarly, Hollinger and Clark (1983) reported that when employees felt exploited by the organisation,
they were more likely to engage in acts against the organisation, such as theft, as a mechanism to
correct perceptions of injustice. Similarly, Greenberg and Scott (1996) reported that employee theft

was a reaction to underpayment inequity. These findings are consistent with the Adams (1965) theory
of inequity regarding dysfunctional work attitude and behaviours as outcomes of imbalance social
exchange relationship. That is, a relationship participant who perceives inequity, whether or not it
exists objectively, would be motivated to ameliorate it.
Literature review also suggests relationship between personality factors and attitude towards
unethical work behaviour. For instance, Kreitner, Kinicki, and Beulens (2002) posited that a
combination of personality characteristics, values, and moral principles influence ethical work
behaviour. Moreover, anger, negativity affectivity (Douglas & Martinko, 2001; Domagalski &
Steelman, 2004; Hepworth & Towler, 2004), self control (Douglas & Martinko, 2001; Marcus &
Schuler, 2004), emotional stability (Colbert, Mount, Harter, Witt, & Barrick, 2004; Salgado, 2002),
narcissism (Penney & Spector, 2002), agreeableness (Skarlicki, Folger, & Tesluk, 1999), self esteem
(Harvey & Keashley, 2003), and trait anxiety (Fox & Spector, 1999) have all been linked to unethical
work behaviour. Emotional intelligence is considered an important antecedent for organisational
factors such as perception of occupational stress (Oginska-Bulik, 2005).
Based on the literature review, this study proposes that: attitude towards unethical work
behaviour is significantly related to effort-reward imbalance and emotional intelligence; and emotional
intelligence would significantly moderate the relationship between effort-reward imbalance and
attitudes toward unethical work behaviour.
METHOD
Research Design: The study adopted ex post facto survey research design. The researcher considered
this research design as appropriate because of the limitation in actively manipulating variables under
consideration in the study. The independent variable is effort-reward imbalance; the moderator
variable is emotional intelligence, while the dependent variable is attitude towards unethical
behaviour.
Participants: The study was conducted using a total of two hundred and twenty five (n=225)
members of the Nigeria Police personnel randomly selected among police personnel at the Command
Headquarters of Nigerian Police at a State in the South-Western region of Nigeria. They comprised of
males 161(72%) and 64 females (28 %). Their ages ranged from 20 to 56 years with a mean of 34.34
years and SD of 7.92. Also, 84 (37%) of the participants were single, 141(63%) were married. Their
number of years of formal education ranged from 16 to 23 years with a mean of 14.54 years and SD of
8

4.57. Regarding their religious affiliation, 104(49.5%) were Christians, 109(49.5%) were Muslims and
the remaining 12(1%) were Traditionalists. Their working experience ranged from 1 to 28 years with a
mean of 9.98 years and S.D of 9.34.
Instrument: The researcher adopted questionnaire method to collect data on effort-reward imbalance,
emotional intelligence and attitude towards unethical work behaviour.
Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI): Effort-reward imbalance, a model used by Siegrist (1996) was
assessed using the 17 item shortened version of the 23-item effort-reward questionnaire developed by
Siegrist, Starke, Chandola, Godin, Marmot, Niedhammer and Peter (2004). The response format is on
a 5-point Likert format of 1=does not apply, 2=does apply, but no distress, 3=does apply and
somewhat distressed, 4=does apply and distressed, and 5=does apply and very distressed. Effort is
measured using six items related to psychologically and physically demanding aspects of the work
environment. High scores indicate high efforts at work. Reward is assessed using eleven items that
cover rewards received at work and offered to the worker as part of a social exchange process in the
form of monetary remuneration, social approval and esteem, job security, and career opportunities.
High scores indicate high reward and low scores means low reward. The effort-reward ratio
(measuring the actual imbalance) was calculated using effort/reward x correction factor formula
(factor correcting for the different number of items of the two scales). The ratio of effort and reward
scores determines effort-reward imbalance, where a higher ratio represents higher experience
imbalance between effort and reward. Siegrist et al (2004) reported Cronbach coefficient alpha of 0.72,
0.85 for effort and reward respectively. An alpha coefficient of 0.76 and 0.81 were obtained in this
study.
Emotional Intelligence: This is measured using a 33-item emotional intelligence scale (EIS)
developed by Schutte et al, (1998). The scale is responded to on a five-point Likert scale ranging from
1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Schutte et al (1998) reported that EIS has demonstrated
high internal consistency with Cronbachs ranging from .87 to .90 and a two-week test-retest
reliability coefficient of .78. In this present sample an overall co-efficient alpha of .64 with split half
reliability co-efficient of .62 were established.
Unethical Work Behaviour: This is measured using a 21 items scale designed to tap attitudes toward
corrupt behaviour, use of unnecessary force or violence, accepting bribes as well as other ethical
violations developed by Hyams (1990). It has response pattern in Likert type from 1 (Strongly

Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). Items 3, 15, and 20 have reversed scores. The total score obtainable
on attitudes towards unethical work behaviour scale is derivable from addition of the scores for each
item. Possible scores ranged from 21 to 105, high scores on scale reflect less ethical attitudes. Krejei,
Kvapil, and Smrad (1996) reported alpha coefficient of .72 for the scale. However, Adebayo (2005)
has reported a coefficient alpha of .89 for the scale. In this study, the researcher subjected items on the
scale to item total correlation analysis and the result ranged from .27 to .55. Items 3, 4, 15, 20 and 21
were not use for the final analysis because of low scores (below r = .31) on the set norm. In other
words, these items did not contribute significantly to the total score on the scale. The final value for
the remaining items was .76.
Procedure: Data collection was through the administration of three hundred questionnaires.
Permission had been sought and giving by the relevant police authority. Data collection was during the
monthly police commissioner parade. Police personnel were randomly selected using odd and even
number sampling method. This involves giving numbers to police personnel on the parade ground and
after listed them, those with odd numbers return to their various beats while those with even numbers
participated in the study. The researcher explained the purpose of the study to the remaining police
personnel with even numbers, and with the assistance of some unit heads, the researcher administered
instrument for data collection to the participants. The questionnaires were administered under the
condition of anonymity. While some of the questionnaires were collected immediately after
completion, the researcher retrieved others after two weeks. However, out of the three hundred
questionnaires administered only two hundred and twenty-five (225) were adequately completed and
returned and these were consider adequate for data analysis. The completed questionnaires were then
scored, processed and analysed using Statistical Product Services Solution (SPSS) Computer
programme.
RESULTS
Table 1 presents means, standard deviations and zero-order correlations for the variables in this study.
Table 1: Correlation Matrix showing the Relationships among Variables of the Study (n=225 )
Variables
Mean
SD
ERI
EI
1. Effort-reward Imbalance (ERI)
20.69
4.07
_
2. Emotional Intelligence (EI)
28.84
6.60
-.10*
_
3. Unethical Work Beh. (UWB)
41.65
9.71
.28**
-.22**
*p<0.05, **p<0.01

10

UWB

Lastly, effort-reward imbalance is positively related to attitude towards unethical work

behaviour (r =.28; P< .01), implying that police personnel who perceive high effort-reward imbalance
are more favourably disposed towards unethical work behaviour. Similarly, emotional intelligence is
inversely related to attitude towards unethical work behaviour (r =-.22; p< .01), showing that police
personnel with low emotional intelligence are more favourably disposed towards unethical work
behaviour.
The hierarchical regression procedure Cohen and Cohen (1983) was used to test the
moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the effort-reward imbalance-attitude towards unethical
work behaviour relationships. The hierarchical regression constituted two successive steps/models.
The first model entered the effort-reward imbalance and emotional intelligence to test for their
independent and joint influences on the outcome variable. The second model entered the cross-product
term of the two predictors in order to test the significance of interaction term. The result is presented
Table 2.
Table 2: Moderated Hierarchical Regression Analysis Showing the Effect of Emotional Intelligence on the
Relationship between Effort-Reward Imbalance and Attitude towards Unethical Work Behaviour
R2
.35

Model 1: Predictors

R2
.35

0.22
-0.29

2.21**
-2.10**

Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI)

Emotional Intelligence (EI)
.

F=18.44***
Model 2: Interaction term
ERI x EI

.46

.11***
-0.36

-4.6***

F=12.24***
**p<0.01, ***p<0.001

Regressing attitude towards unethical work behaviour on effort-reward imbalance and

emotional intelligence yielded a significant joint prediction (F=18.42; P<.001, R 2=.35), indicating that
the change in attitude towards unethical work behaviour is explained by 35% resulting from changes
in the variables. This confirms the significant joint prediction of attitude towards unethical work
behaviour by effort-reward imbalance and emotional intelligence. The partial regression indicated that
effort-reward imbalance ( =.22; t= 2.21; p< .01) contributed significantly to variance in attitude
towards unethical work behaviour. This means that police personnel who perceive high effort-reward
imbalance reported being less ethical. In addition, partial regression revealed that emotional
intelligence ( =-.29; t= -2.10; p< .01) contributed significantly to variance in attitude towards

11

unethical work behaviour. This suggests that when level of police personnel emotional intelligence
increases, attitude towards unethical work behaviour is likely to be less favourable.
The significant results obtained in model one suggested and interaction between effort-reward
imbalance and emotional intelligence. The cross product of effort-reward imbalance and emotional
intelligence on attitude towards unethical work behaviour was entered in model two and it yielded a
significant equation (F=12.24; p<.001, R2=.46; R2change=.11). That is, emotional intelligence and effortreward imbalance interacted to influence attitude towards unethical work behaviour.
Discussion
Findings revealed that effort-reward imbalance contributed significantly to variance in attitude
towards unethical work behaviour. According to Adams (1965) theory of inequity, participant who
perceives effort-reward imbalance (inequity), whether or not it exists objectively, would be motivated
to ameliorate it using several alternatives, which may include dysfunctional work attitude and
behaviours. This means that the finding of this study has further validated Adams equity theory. This
finding is closely related to those of Aquino, Lewis, and Bradfield (1999), Skarlicki and Folger (1997),
which reported that perception of injustice (effort-reward imbalance) is associated with deviant
behaviours such as employee retaliation behaviour, theft, dysfunctional organization behaviours,
counterproductive work behaviour and vandalism. This finding is also consistent with those of
Sommers, Schell, and Vodanovich (2002), who report that when employees perceive that
organizational management treat them unfairly, the perception may motivate and resort to indirect and
covert forms of retaliation. Similarly, Hollinger and Clark (1983) reported that when employees felt
exploited by the organization, they were more likely to engage in acts against the organization, such as
theft, as a mechanism to correct perceptions of injustice. Similarly, Greenberg and Scott (1996)
reported that employee theft was a reaction to underpayment inequity.
Findings also revealed that emotional intelligence contributed significantly to variance in
attitude towards unethical work behaviour. This finding means that emotional intelligence is a
significant variable in explaining attitude towards unethical work behaviour. This finding is in
conformity with the literature findings (Kreitner et al., 2002; Domagalski & Steelman, 2004; Douglas
& Martinko, 2001; Hepworth & Towler, 2004; Marcus & Schuler, 2004) who found linkages between
personality traits, values, moral principles and work behaviour.
Lastly, findings revealed significantly, emotional intelligence moderated the impact of effortreward imbalance on attitude towards unethical work behaviour, so that high emotional intelligence
12

and not low emotional intelligence mitigates the negative influence of high effort-reward imbalance on
attitude towards unethical work behaviour. This finding is in line with Schneider (1987) personorganizational fit model, which propose that the person (e.g. emotional intelligence) and the

environment (e.g. effort-reward imbalance) interact to have an effect on employees attitude and
behaviour within an organisational context.
Recommendations and Implication of Findings
Effort-reward imbalance is positively related with attitude towards unethical work behaviour.
This finding has produced additional evidence that individuals who perceive imbalance between
efforts directed at work and organisational rewards may be more prone to unethical work behaviour
due to negative emotional reaction to a state of inequity. This finding also contributes to the inequity
theory literature by its applicability in a Nigerian public organization.
Emotional intelligence moderated the effect of effort-reward imbalance on attitude towards
unethical work behaviour. This finding implies that emotional intelligence is a trait that is trainable and
can be learned (Goleman, 1998), thus, a deeper understanding of emotional intelligence can aid its
training similar to other physical skills among police personnel in order to discourage unethical work
attitude.
Findings of this study have practical implications for reviewing and updating of Nigeria Police
Act and training manuals, specifically in relations to recruitment, placement, and training of police
personnel. It is therefore, suggested that Nigeria police authority need to include measure of emotional
intelligence as part of assessment tools during recruitment. Emotional intelligence training should also
form an important area of concentration during training and development exercises of police
personnel.
Similar to other research, this study has certain limitations. The first limitation is that measure
of attitude towards unethical work behaviour among police personnel was assessed and not real or
others rating of unethical work behaviour. Thus, it is difficult to establish whether this attitude led to
actual unethical work behaviour or not. This concern needs exploration in real life situations using a
larger sample size with expanded coverage. In addition, findings of this study are not generalizable to
other police commands or security agencies in Nigeria because data collection was in one location.
Examining attitude towards unethical work behaviour among police personnel and its psychological
antecedents in other police commands or security agencies in Nigeria fields in order to validate the

13

finding of this present study, and make comparisons among different police commands should be
given further research attention.
Conclusion
With respect to predictors of attitude towards unethical work behaviour, findings indicated that
independently and jointly, effort-reward imbalance and emotional intelligence are important predictors
of attitude towards unethical work behaviour. Moreso, emotional intelligence significantly moderated
the effect of effort-reward imbalance on attitude towards unethical work behaviour. Conclusively,
effort-reward imbalance and emotional intelligence played significant roles in an understanding of
attitude towards unethical work behaviour among police personnel. The key finding from this portion
of the study is that the influence of effort-reward imbalance on attitude towards unethical work
behaviour depended on whether a police officer score high or low on emotional intelligence.

14

REFERENCES
Adams, J. S. (1965). Injustice in social exchange, In Berkowitz, L (ed.) Advance in experimental
social psychology Academic Press. Abridged in Steers, R. M. and Porter L. W. Motivation and
Work Behaviour, (2nd ed.), N. Y: McGraw Hill, pp 107-124.
Adebayo, D.O. (2005). Gender and attitudes toward professional ethics: A Nigeria police perspective.
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